MODULE

7
CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING,
INNOVATION AND MEANINGFUL R&D

National Institute of Technical Teachers

Training & Research, Chandigarh
September, 2019
 CONTENTS

Sr. Contributor
No.
UNIT I
1. CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
2. INNOVATION: CONCEPT, TYPES AND PROCESS Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
3. R&D THROUGH TEAM WORK Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
UNIT II
1. RESEARCH IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION: AN Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
INTRODUCTION
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
3. SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
PROBLEM
4. SELECTING RESEARCH DESIGN AND
DESCRIBING PROCEDURE
4.1 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
 SURVEY RESEARCH
 CASE STUDY
 CONTENT ANALYSIS RESEARCH

4.2 CORRELATION RESEARCH Er. Amandeep Kaur

4.3 EX-POST-FACTO RESEARCH Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
4.4 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt

5. UNDERTAKING ACTION RESEARCH Er. Amandeep Kaur

6. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES Er. Amandeep Kaur

7. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi

8. COLLECTION OF DATA Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi

9. ANALYSIS OF DATA: DESCRIPTIVE AND Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
10 FORMULATING RESEARCH PROPOSAL Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt

11.1 WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt

11.2 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH REPORT Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi


UNIT I

1: Creative Problem Solving

 CONTENTS

S. No. Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1-2
2. Creative Problem Solving 2-6
Practice Task 7
Feedback 8
3. Blocks to Creativity 9-10
4. Qualities of Creative Person 10-11
5. Process of Creative Problem Solving 11-15
5.1 Lowe’s process of creative problem solving 11
5.2 Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger process of creative problem solving 12
6. Techniques for Generating and Focusing Ideas/Options 15-20
6.1 Idea generating techniques 15
6.2 Idea focusing techniques 18
7. Benefits of Creative Problem Solving 20
Practice Task 21
Feedback 22
References 23-24
 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

Learning Outcomes
After reading the learning material, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of creativity
• Enlist the characteristics of creative person
• List the dimensions of creative climate
• Explain the blocks to creativity
• Explain the concept of creative problem solving
• Describe the process of creative problem solving
• Describe the techniques of creative problem solving
• Apply the techniques of creative problem solving

1. Introduction
There has been increasing emphasis on developing creative problem solving skills among
the learners of 21st century on account of the internationalization of higher education,
increasing competition, rapid technological developments and the global challenges faced
by the mankind. The National Academy of Engineering has identified fourteen grand
challenges that need to be met. These include: Advance Personalized Learning, Make
Solar Energy Economical, Enhance Virtual Reality, Reverse-Engineer the Brain, Engineer
Better Medicines, Advance Health Informatics, Restore and Improve Urban Infrastructure,
Secure Cyberspace, Provide Access to Clean Water, Provide Energy from Fusion, Prevent
Nuclear Terror, Manage the Nitrogen Cycle, Develop Carbon Sequestration Methods and
Engineer the Tools of Scientific Discovery. In addition, United Nations has set seventeen
sustainable development goals as shown in Fig..1.

Fig.1: Sustainable development goals

1

 The achievement of these sustainable development goals and an attempt to meet grand
challenges would require a strong base of research, innovation and creative problem
solving.

The existing system of education has been under criticism that it does not develop the
higher-level abilities namely, ability to analyze, evaluate and create or in other words ability
to solve problems among learners. The instructional strategies and the evaluation
techniques used fail to create an environment conducive for development of these higher
level abilities. Even, the practical work and the project work undertaken do not provide
environment of free exploration and experimentation and solving real life problems. The
acceptability of graduates in the world of work is low. There is an urgent need to bring in
changes in the system so as to enable the learners to indulge in out of the box thinking and
solve real life problems. Thus, teachers need to understand the concept and process of
creative problem solving.

2. Creative Problem Solving

Creative problem solving consists of three important words, namely creative, problem and
solving. Let us first clarify these three words.

Creative: It refers to new or novel. The underlying theme is creativity. There are many
definitions of creativity, each emphasizing a different face of creativity. Creativity can be
defined as a product, process and states of being.

As a product, creativity has been defined as the discovery of something novel, but also
useful, relevant, economical, elegant or valuable (Barron, 1969). According to Mackinnon
(1970), in addition to being novel, the product must:
• be adaptive to reality
• solve a problem
• fit the needs of the situation
• accomplish some recognizable goals
• be aesthetically pleasing
• significantly change one’s view of the world.

Creativity has been defined as the process of generating new products by transformation
of existing ones. These products must be unique to the creator and must meet the criteria
of purpose and value established by the creator (Welsch, 1980).

2

 In terms of process, Torrance (1962) defined “the process of sensing gaps or disturbing,
missing elements; forming ideas or hypotheses concerning them; testing these
hypotheses and communicating the results, possibly modifying and retesting the
hypotheses”.

Another definition that has pervaded the literature identifies creativity as a process
variable by distinguishing divergent thinking behaviour from convergent thinking (Guilford,
1955, Guilford et al., 1951; 1960). When an individual is reported to be using convergent
processing, he is using logic and seeking a known solution to a problem. In divergent
thinking, an individual moves away from facts and known solutions in processing the
novel, imaginative unknown products. Within the category of thinking divergently, Guilford
found the factors of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration to be highly operative.

• Fluency: It refers to ideational fluency, associational fluency and expressional

fluency.
Ideational fluency denotes skills in generating quantities of ideas in a language
context (writing titles for untitled literature, imaging consequences of a change).
Associational fluency is the ability to produce many relationships or meaningful
associations with a given idea (quantity of synonyms to a familiar word).
Expressional fluency refers to juxtaposing words to meet sentence structure
requirements.
• Flexibility: The skill of being able to discontinue an existing pattern of thought and
shift to new patterns of thought is called flexibility. It has two sub skills namely –
spontaneous flexibility and adaptive flexibility.
Spontaneous flexibility deals with changes in direction of thinking when a person is
not instructed to do so (listing uses of bricks, person states uses relating not only to
weight but to colour, size, texture etc.)
Adaptive flexibility deals with changes in direction of thinking to solve problems.
• Originality: The process resembles that of ideational fluency except that the focus
is on ideas and products that are off beat, unexpected, and sometimes amusing.
• Elaboration: The process of elaboration is relevant to skills in planning and
organization (a person demonstrates the ability to fill in all of the various details
necessary to make a brief outlined project).
Still others define creativity with certain states of being. Attempts have been made
to identify traits and abilities that distinguish creative from non-creative person.

3

 An omnibus definition of creativity is: the product has novelty for the thinker or the culture;
the thinking is unconventional, highly motivated and persistent; or of great intensity; the
task involves a clear formulation of an initially vague and undefined problem (Newell et al,
1962).
Creativity can be described as the production of useful solutions to problems, or novel
and interesting ideas across domains, which create products and/or artifacts and impact
thinking (Amabile, 1988, 1996; Oldham & Cummings, 1996; Zhou & George, 2003)

Gryskiewicz (1987) defined creativity as novel association that is useful. Ruth Noller
developed a symbolic equation for creativity that Creativity is a function of knowledge,
imagination and evaluation, reflecting an attitude towards the beneficial and positive use
of creativity (Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger, 2011).

Problem
Problems exist in all aspects of life and are of varied nature-economic, political, social, or
technological. The problems can exist at the level of individual, group, organization or
society as a whole. Problems faced can be structured, semi-structured or ill structured. Or
problems faced can be simple or complex.

Problems, as many of us would think, need to be eliminated. But problems can also be
viewed as a need, challenge or opportunity. When viewed as need, it means the gap that
exist between “what should” and “What is”. For example, if you think that at least 20% of
your students should get placement through campus interviews but only 5% of the
students actually get placed, there exist a gap of 15% in the desired and actual state. The
gap between the two needs to be bridged by finding a suitable solution.

WHAT SHOULD BE (20%)

GAP/ NEED(15%)

WHAT IS (05%)

It can be viewed as a challenge also. For example, the Gross Enrolment in Higher
Education is only 26%, the challenge is how to achieve the three cardinal principles of
access, equity and quality. The challenge may be to increase the reach of teacher training

4

 programmes without increasing the cost of training. An individual needs to have keen
observation to identify opportunities or challenges.

Solving
It simply refers to finding a solution to the problem or bridging the gap that exist between
the desired and the actual state.
Creative Problem Solving, in simple words, refers to finding creative solutions to the
problems. There are numerous definitions. A few are stated below:

‘’Creative problem solving is the mental process of creating a solution to a problem. It is a

special form of problem solving in which the solution is independently created rather than
learned with assistance. Creative problem solving requires more than just knowledge
and thinking. In other words, creative problem solving involves creativity’’ (Wikipedia).
www.creative-problem-solving.org/creative-problem-solving-defined/

“Creative Problem Solving is a process, a method, a system for approaching a problem in

an imaginative way resulting in effective action” (Noller, 1979).

CPS is a proven method for approaching a problem or a challenge in an imaginative and

innovative way. ( http://www.creativeeducationfoundation.org/creative-problem-solving/)

Creative problem solving (CPS) is a way of solving problems or identifying opportunities

when conventional thinking has failed. It encourages you to find fresh perspectives and
come up with innovative solutions, so that you can formulate a plan to overcome
obstacles and reach your goals.

In simple words, Creative Problem Solving may be defined as a problem solving

technique that addresses a challenge or problem in a creative manner (Cleverism).
https://www.cleverism.com/what-is-creative-problem-solving/

From the above definitions, it can be concluded that creative problem solving
• Is a process
• Involves a problem, which is ill structured and complex
• Uses tools of creativity or creative thinking
• Involves both divergent and convergent thinking
• The outcome or product is novel or new

5

 The more the ill structured and complex problem, the more out of the box thinking or
creative thinking would be required to solve it. Normally, when an individual or an
organization is faced with a problem, it tries to answer the following questions:
• Is there a standard procedure to solve the problem?
• Have I solved a similar problem earlier?
• Has anybody else solved a similar problem?
• Is there an expert who can solve the problem?

When the answer to the above questions is “No”, an individual tries to explore various
options or alternatives and tries to indulge in creative thinking. Or when the solution
thought of is not feasible, an individual tries to indulge in creative thinking process.

6

Practice Task

1. Write in one minute as many uses of brush as you can.

2. Count the number of uses you could write.

3. Identify the variety of uses you could write.

4. identify any unique idea you could write.

5. Elaborate how you will use your original idea.

6. Join the following nine dots with four straight lines without lifting the pen or pencil.

7. Define creative problem solving.

7

Feedback
1. Write in one minute as many uses of brush as you can.
You may have written uses and some of these may be:
• Cleaning teeth
• Cleaning jewellery
• Cleaning bottles
• Threading
• Painting
• Support
• As an arm
• Colouring hairs
• Spray painting
• Cleaning AC
• Use for threading salwars/pyjamas

2. Count the number of uses you could write.

Say, you have written 8 uses. It represents your fluency.

3. Identify the variety of uses you could write.

The variety of uses include:

cleaning, painting/ colouring hair, arm, support, for threading salwars or pyjamas.
Say 5. This represents your Flexibility.

4. Identify any unique idea you could write.

Originality refers to uniqueness of idea.

5. Elaborate how you will use your original idea.

If you can elaborate on your unique idea and explain how it will be implemented, it
refers to elaboration.

6.










Many a times we fail to do a task because either we assume things on our own or impose our
own conditions. While joining these nine dots, many of us might have assumed that we have
to draw a square and complete the task.

7.It is a process of solving a problem creatively.

8

3. Blocks to Creativity
Khandwalla (1992) has identified the following blocks to creative thinking, which inhibit an
individual to indulge in creative thinking:

Fear of failure Allergy to ambiguity

Rigidity Touchiness
Blocks to
Creativity

Starved Sensibilities Resource Myopia

Conformity

Fig.2: Blocks to Creativity

• Fear of Failure: The fear of failure makes us avoid risks and indulge in new
activities, tasks or thinking.
• Allergy to ambiguity: Ambiguity or uncertainty can be discomforting to many.
Most of the people look for structure, orderliness and simplification. For
example, when planning for a tour, a person would normally make all
reservations before hand and would not like to take chances without reservation.
• Touchiness: Touchiness is a serious block in collaborating activities. An
individual who is touchy about criticism or rejection will not approach others for
help or guidance. They tend to look at others with suspicion when they approach
for help or guidance.
• Conformity: Conformity to social norms and fear of social disapproval is another
major block to creativity.
• Resource Myopia: The most common reply, in case of a new idea is, we do not
have the resources. Inability to recognize one’s strengths and identify resources
in the environment act as barriers to creativity.
• Starved Sensibilities: As we grow, use of fantasy, imagination, emotions etc.
gets reduced due to environmental pressures for being rational. Due to this,
many a times we are not able to indulge in creative thinking.

9

 • Rigidity: Rigidity can occur on account of stereotyping, dogmatism and
functional fixedness.

These blocks can be removed by training individuals in creative thinking. If the persons
involved in generating creative solution possess the following qualities, there will not be
blocks or chances are more that you will get creative solutions.

4. Qualities of Creative Person

The research studies conducted by Lowerfield and Guilford identified following eight key
characteristics of creative persons:
• Sensitivity: The creative individual is sensitive to problems, needs, attitudes and
feelings of others. He has an acute awareness of anything odd, unusual or
promising in the person, material, or situation with which he is dealing.
• Fluency: This refers to the ability to take continuous advantage of a developing
situation – to use each completed step as a new advantage point from which to
assess the problem and move on.
• Flexibility: People with high creative ability adjust quickly to new developments
and changed situations. Unforeseen obstacles in a problem solving situation are
often used to advantage by the creative person.
• Originality: This refers to uncommonness of individual’s responses to problematic
situation and number and diversity of solution given.
• Redefinition Skill: They have unusual ability to rearrange ideas, concepts, people
and things – to shift function of objects and use them in new ways.
• Ability to Abstract: It refers to the ability in analyse components of a problem i.e.
getting details from the whole.
• Ability to Synthesise: It means ability to combine several components to arrive at
a creative whole.
• Coherence of Organisation: The ability to organise a project, express an idea, or
create a design in such a way that nothing is superfluous.

Other research findings indicate that creative persons possess the following traits:
• High level of intelligence (defined in broad terms).
• Openness to experience.
• Freedom from inhibitions and stereotyped thinking.
• Aesthetic sensitivity.
• Flexibility in thought and nature

10

 • Independence in thought and action.
• Love of creation for creation sake.
• Endless quest for new challenges and solutions.

In addition, an organization needs to provide conducive environment to nurture creativity.

The dimensions of creative organizational climate identified based on Ekvall (!988)
include: Challenge, Freedom, Dynamism/liveliness, Trust/openness, Idea time,
Playfulness/humour, Conflicts, Idea Support, Debates and Risk Taking.

5. Process of Creative Problem Solving

Creative problem solving is based on the work of Alex O. Osborn (1953-Father of
brainstorming) and Parnes (1967). Osborn gave three stages in problem solving namely
fact finding, Idea finding, and solution finding. He also proposed the idea of deferred
judgement during idea finding. Parnes (1967) recognized the potential of technique
suggested by Osborn for creative problem solving and introduced two more stages in the
process. Problem finding stage was introduced before fact finding and acceptance finding
stage after the solution finding stage. There are variations in the steps identified in the
process of creative problem solving by different authors. The procedure specified by Lowe
(1996) and Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger (2011) are discussed below.

5.1 Lowe’s process of creative problem solving

Lowe (1996) proposed a very simplified process of creative problem solving consisting of
the following steps:
• Problem Identification and Definition
• Decision Making:
• Planning and organizing

Problem Identification and Definition

• Identify Apparent Problem: The very first step in creative problem solving is to
identify the apparent problem. For example, the apparent problem may be that the
organization intends to have 40% of the market share for given product but has
only 20% of the market share. There is a gap between “What should be” and “What
is”. The problem needs to be understood in its context.
• Seek and analyse the causes: The problem may be on account of number of
reasons. Diagnosis needs to be carried out to identify or arrive at the
reasons/causes for the problem. Critical thinking is needed to arrive at the causes

11

 of the problem. The techniques that can be used to identify the causes include fish
bone diagrams and force field analysis and affinity diagram.
• Define the real problem: On the basis of analysis of the causes, specific problem
statement is formulated. The problem may now be stated as how to tap the
unexplored market to increase the market share to 40%.

Decision making: creating and selecting options

• Creating alternative solutions: The second step involves generation of creative
ideas to bridge the gap. This stage requires use of creativity tools to generate new
ideas. The techniques that can be used include: Brainstorming, Random Word
Generating, Morphological Analysis. At the Idea generation stage, the principle of
deferred judgement is used. Ideas are generated without any evaluation.
• Selecting the best option: After generation of alternate solutions to the problem,
the best solution is to be selected. This involve evaluation and selection of a
potential solution which can be developed and implemented to achieve the
desirable state. Criteria for evaluation of various options/ideas need to be evolved.
In addition, risk/pay off (High/Low) and/or quality/acceptance (High/Low) matrix can
be used to evaluate the potential solutions.

Planning and organizing

• Plan a course of action: Once the best solution is chosen, an action plan is
prepared for implementation of the solution. The action plan must answer the
questions-
o What major activities need to be performed to implement the selected
solutions?
o Who needs to be involved?
o Whose approval needs to be taken?
o How long might be needed for implementation?
o What is the likely cost?
o Are there any implications for working practices, systems etc. in the
organization?
o What type of resources are required for implementation?

• Implement: Once the action plan is prepared the idea is ready for implementation

5.2 Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger process of creative problem solving

Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger (2011) has given three different stages in the process of
creative problem solving. These include:

12

 Understanding the Challenge
• Constructing Opportunities
• Exploring data
• Framing problem

Generating Ideas

Preparing for Action

• Developing Solutions
• Building Acceptance

Understanding the challenge

It involves constructing opportunities, exploring data and framing problem. Constructing
opportunities refer to identifying and understanding the gaps that may exist between the
current reality and your images for the desired future state. Envisioning exercise may help
in clarifying and stating the vision. Exploring data means clear understanding of the
current situation. This would require gathering data from various sources, making
observations, having discussions with stakeholders and understanding their perceptions
and reactions. After the collection of data and identification of the gap between the
desired and the current state, specific problem statement needs to formulated. To arrive
at the specific statement, broad statement is broken down into a number of sub
statements or a number of reasons/causes are identified and relevant causes/reasons are
sifted. This process would lead to formulating a specific problem which needs to be
addressed.

Generating ideas
Generating idea involves production of many options, varied possibilities and novel or
new ideas for solving a problem or effecting a change (Isaksen, Dorvel and Triffinger,
2011). Ideas need to be characterized by fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. A
number of techniques can be used to generate creative ideas for finding a solution to the
problem. These techniques include:

• Attribute listing
• Brainstorming
• Brain Writing
• Forced fitting
• Imagery trek

13

 • Morphological Matrix
• SCAMPER (Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify, Eliminate, re-arrange and
Reverse)
The principle of deferred judgment is used while generating ideas so as to encourage the
team members to generate variety of ideas. After the generation of the ideas, ideas are
evaluated to identify promising or potential ideas. Techniques such as short term versus
long term, fit in existing system versus new system, must versus want, simple versus
complex and useful versus novel are used at this stage. This stage is referred to as
focusing.

Preparing for action

This stage involves transforming your ideas into action. The two sub activities to be
undertaken are developing solution and building acceptances. Developing solution
involves analysing, evaluating and prioritizing and refining a promising solution. The
factors that need to be taken into account at this stage are quantity of options, level of
ownership, quality of options and task demands. Evaluation criteria needs to generated to
evaluate various options and selecting the best option. The criteria may be implicit or
explicit. Implicit criteria are based upon the perceptions, prejudices and preferences of the
people while explicit criteria are based on data. For developing solution to the problem,
different techniques can be used based upon the number of options generated. If there is
large number of options, techniques such as highlighting, must versus want and short
term versus medium term versus long term can be used. If there is moderate number of
options, techniques such as evaluation matrix, selecting hits and paired comparison
analysis can be used. If there is small number of options ALUo (Advantage, Limitations,
Unique qualities and Overcoming limitations) can be used. The use of these techniques
will help you in prioritizing solutions to the problem. The next steps is to build acceptance
of the solution. Building acceptance involves answering of question related to who, what,
when, where, why and identification of assisters and resisters. Assisters are the ones who
will support the solution and resisters are the ones who will oppose or resist the change.
The various action steps to be undertaken to implement the solution are generated and
limitations to be overcome are identified. The next step is to sequence the action steps
into short, medium and long term actions.

Planning for implementation: A detailed implementation plan indicating the tasks to be

performed, person responsible for the job, procedure for doing the job, timing of the job
etc. is prepared. In addition, how the success will be measured is indicated. In order to
ensure that plan implemented yields the desired results/outcomes, an implementation

14

 checklist can be prepared. Rogers (1995) identified five factors that are likely to increase
the adoption of a solution. These include:
• Relative advantage – being better than previous idea
• Compatibility – consistent with values, experiences, and needs
• Complexity – being difficult to understand and use
• Trialability – may be experimented with on a limited basis
• Observability- results are visible to others
Once implementation plan is ready, feedback can be obtained from various stakeholders
who will be involved in the implementation of the plan. This will insure smooth
implementation.

6. Techniques for Generating and Focusing Ideas/Options

Some of the techniques that can be used for generating and focusing ideas/ options in
creative problem solving process include the following:
Generating Techniques
• Attribute listing
• Brainstorming
• Brain writing
• Forced fitting
• Imagery trek
• Ladder of abstraction
• Morphological matrix
• Relational algorithm
• SCAMPER
• Synectics
• Visually identifying relationships
Focusing Techniques
• ALUo (Advantage, Limitations, Unique qualities and Overcoming limitations can
be used).
• Evaluation matrix
• Highlighting
• Must versus wants
• Paired comparison analysis
• Selecting hits
• Short versus medium versus long term

6.1 Ideas Generating Techniques:

• Attribute listing (Crawford, 1954): The basic premise of this method is that all
ideas originate from previous ideas that have been modified in some way. There
are four major steps involved in attribute listing (Van Gundy, 1981).
! State the problem and its objectives
! List all the parts of a product, object or idea relate to the problem
! List the essential, basic characteristics of the product, object or idea

15

 ! Withholding all evaluation, systematically modify the characteristics or
attributes to meet the objectives of the problem.

• Brainstorming (Osborn, 1963): It is an idea generation method with deferred

judgment. Criticism is ruled out, freewheeling is welcomed and quantity is
emphasized. The ideas generated by the group are evaluated separately by a
small committee. The rules of brainstorming (Lowe, 1996) are enlisted below:
• Limit the length of the session
• Don’t interrupt
• Don’t evaluate
• Elect chairperson and scribe
• Have a structure
• Use tools

• Brain writing technique (Gueschka et al, 1975): It consists of:

• Silent recording and elaborating: Each member is provided a sheet of
paper containing several cues. The members read it and add their ideas
until ideas are exhausted. The members can exchange their current list
with one placed in the centre to get cues for generating more ideas.
• Round – robin recording: as is done in nominal technique
• Discussion: Group Technique
• Prioritization

• Forced fitting: Forced fitting is a technique by which a challenge or a problem is

related to randomly selected objects. The technique involves creating a new idea
out of two partially connected or totally unconnected ones.

• Imagery trek: The technique involves moving away from the problem i.e. taking a
mental or physical journey, and returning back to the problem to relate images or
impression of your journey to problem and generate new options. The technique
involves generating a list of 10 to 20 words, selecting words that suggest positive
images, taking one word at a time and indulging in mental journey and generating
a novel connection between the image and the problem. The images are then
refined and developed.

• Ladder of abstraction: This technique provides a framework to solve problems

and to solve them correctly at varying levels of focus. It gives a path to
understanding, (Autodesk.com, medium.com). The ladder of abstraction is a
technique that helps in clarifying the problem. It considers the problem at various
levels of abstractions or concreteness. If you move down the ladder you are trying
to specify a concrete statement of the problem. While moving down the ladder one
needs to provide real world tangible examples for theories and ideas, use sensory
language, be specific, tell stories and anecdotes, site data statistics and case

16

 study and answer how questions. Moving up the ladder means increasing the level
of abstraction. While moving up the ladder, answer the question why is this
important, provide the big picture, reveal patterns and relationships, draw
diagrams, draw inferences, summarize into principle and guidelines.

• Morphological analysis: The steps involved in morphological analysis include the

following:
• List three to four parameters related to the problem
• Generate four to five qualities that identified parameters can have
• Prepare a matrix preparing parameters on the top and qualities on Y
axis
• Complete the matrix by brainstorming the possibilities in relation to
various combination of parameters and qualities
• Generate as many possibilities as you can

• Relational algorithm: Crontz (1978) and Van Gundy (1981) suggest several
relational words that enable an individual to consider systematically ideas that are
often over looked and facilitate comparison of several things at the same time.
Some of the relational words are: about, across, among, above, before, between,
below, down, during, except, for, from, near, out, over, still, since, throughout,
them, upon, up, when, where and without. The technique involves:
• Conducting a problem/objective review
• Inserting a relational word between each problem/objective element
pair
• Examining for ideas

• SCAMPER: Eberle (1971,1997) coined mnemonics SCAMPER to stimulate new

possibilities with respect to a product. The full form of SCAMPER is:
• S: Substitute
• C: Combine
• A: Adapt
• M: Modify/Magnify/Minify
• P: Put to other use
• E: Eliminate
• R: Re-arrange
• R: Reverse
Questions related to the above are posed and answered and list of ideas

generated.

• Synectics (Gordan, 1961): The facilitator uses the technique to get a group of
experts to visualize a new perspective and purge preconceived notions. Analogies

17

 and metaphors are studied to generate new ideas. It consists of the following
steps:
• Problem as given (Description of problem and objectives)
• Analysis (Purpose is to make the strange familiar. Analogies and
metaphors are used).
• Purge (Verbalization of suggestions lead to elimination of rigid and
superficial solutions and promote innovative ideas).
• Problem as understood (Each member is asked to describe the
problem as he sees it and offer wishful solution, which are
recorded).
• Excursion (Conscious thinking on problem is stopped and facilitator
question each member evoking analogical answer. Unfamiliar is
made familiar. Some analogies are selected for further
examination).
• Forced Fit (The last analogy used in Excursion is connected to the
problem).
• View point (Synectic process ends up with a new view point that
could lead to a solution).

• Visually identifying relationships: This technique involves use of images, a

minimum of four. The group members are asked to identify and share new
options for dealing with a problem. Other variant of this technique is to ask the
group members to create their own visual images.

6.2 Ideas Focussing Techniques

• ALUo (Advantage, Limitations, Unique Qualities and Overcoming
Limitations): ALUo is used to analyse, develop and refine options. The steps
involved include:
• Identifying the strength of each option
• Identifying limitations or areas for improvement
• Identifying unique qualities (answer the question what is the
uniqueness about the option)
• Identifying the limitation which need to be overcome
A series of questions are posed related to the above and various possibilities are
identified.

• Evaluation matrix: Evaluation matrix helps in evaluating the various options

with respect to an evaluation criterion. The very first step is to identify the
options, then to evolve a criterion for evaluating the options. Each option is
evaluated against the criterion and rated on a 3-point or 5-point scale. Once the
options are rated against the criterion, identify which option is strong on which
criteria and week on which criteria. Answering questions why and how can
strengthen the options.

18

 • Paired comparison analysis: Paired comparison analysis technique helps in
prioritizing the options. It involves comparison of each option with all other
options. At a time, two options are compared with each other and given a score
on either 3-point scale or 5-point scale. At the end, total score for each option is
calculated and the option with highest score is selected. There are six steps in
this technique:

Step 1: List the options to be compared as rows and column and a table
Step 2: A sign a letter to each option.
Step 3: Block out cells in the table which involve comparing an option with
itself.
Step 4: Compare each option with other option.
Step 5: A sign a score based on its importance in comparison to the other
option slightly more important (1) moderately more important (2) much more
important (3)
Step 6: Add up the total score for each option.
Option A B C D E

A A2 C1 A1 A2

B C2 D1 C1

C C2 C1

D D1

Total Score
Option A: 5
Option B: 0
Option C: 7
Option D: 2
Option E: 0
Option C gets selected.

• Selecting hits: Selecting hits is used to screen a large number of options and
identifying essential data. Internal requirements, personal experiences or
judgement and gut reaction may be used (Isaksen, 2011).

19

 • Highlighting: After selecting hits and identifying hot spot is re stated as problem
statement or opportunities or reframe them as single group of data or idea,
promising solution or possible direction to proceed (Isaksen, 2011 and Treffinger
et.al 2006).

• Must versus wants: Must and want technique is used for quick sorting of options.

• Short versus medium versus long term: Action steps are grouped into short
term, medium term and long term. It takes in to account the starting and ending of
an action step.

These techniques facilitate generating solutions that are creative, that is, solutions
characterized by freshness, appropriateness, imagination, new relationships, and
significant transformation of initial definition of problem (Khandwalla, 1992).

7. Benefits of Creative Problem Solving

The following figure shows the benefits of creative problem solving to an organization (Van
Gundy, 1987).

Uncover the unexplored

areas

Generate and improve Achieve competitive

interaction among edge
employees
Benefits of
Support R & D, new CPS Reduce stress and
product development uncertainty
etc.

Identify and recognize

Explore new possibilities
employees ‘strengths

Fig.3: Benefits of Creative Problem solving

20

Practice Task

1. Enlist the various stages in the process of creative problem solving.

2. Explain any three techniques for generating ideas and selection of ideas.

21

Feedback
1. Enlist the various stages in the process of creative problem solving.

• Identifying and selecting a problem

• Decision making: generating ideas/options and selecting the best idea to solve the
problem

• Preparing for action: Preparing an action plan and implementation

2. Techniques for generating and selecting ideas/options

Compare your answers with techniques explained on page

22

References
• Amabile, T.M. (1988) A Model of Creativity and Innovation in Organizations. Research
in Organizational Behavior, 10, 123-167.
• Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process. Oxford, England: Holt,
Rinehart, & Winston.
Cliffs, NJ.
• Grykiewicz, S. S. (1987). Predictable creativity. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.), Frontiers of
creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 305-313). Buffalo, NY: Bearly.
• Guilford, J.P., Christensen, P.R., Merrifield, P.R., and Wilson, R.C., 1960. Alternative
Uses Manual. Sheridan Supply Co.
• Isaksen, Scott G.; Dorval, K. Brain; and Treffinger, Donald J. (2011). Creative
Approaches to Problem Solving; A Framework for Innovation and Change. New Delhi,
Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
• Khandwalla, Pradip N. (1992). Fourth Eye; Excellence Through Creativity. Allahabad
A.H Wheeler and company limited.
• Lowe, Phil (1996). Creativity and Problem Solving. Published in Association with
Harbridge Consulting Group Limited.
• MacKinnon, D. (1970). Creativity: A multi-faceted phenomenon. In J. D. Roslansky
(Ed.), Creativity: A discussion at the Nobel conference (pp. 17–32). Amsterdam:
North-Holland.
• NAE. Grand Challenges. https://www.nae.edu/
• Newell, A.; Shaw, J.C.; and Simon, H.A. (1962). The processes of creative thinking. In
H.E. Gruber, G. Terell and M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Contemporary approaches to
creative thinking: A symposium held at the University of Colorado (pp.63-119). New
York: Atherton.
• Noller, R.B. (1979). Scratching the surface of creative problem solving: A bird’s eye
view of CPS. Buffalo, NY: DOK.
• Oldham, G.R. and Cummings, A. (1996) Employee Creativity: Personal and
Contextual Factors at Work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634.
Parnes, S.J. (1967) Creative Behavior Guidebook. Scribners, New York.
• Torrance, E. P. (1962), Guiding creative talent, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
• UNESCO (2015). Sustainable Development Goals. https://en.unesco.org/sdgs
• Van Gundy Arthur B. (1981). Techniques of Structured Problem Solving. NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company.
• Welsch, P.K. (1980). The nurturance of creative behavior in educational
environments: A comprehensive curriculum approach. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Michigan.
• Zhou, J. and George, J. M. (2003). Awakening Employee Creativity: The Role of
Leader Emotional Intelligence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 545-568.

Web resources for further reading

• Creative Education Foundation. Creative Problem Solving Tools & Techniques
Resource Guide.
https://www.creativeeducationfoundation.org/.../ToolsTechniques-Guide-FINAL-web-...
• Creative Problem Solving. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/creative-problem-
solving.htm
• Halsey, Michelle (2016). Creative Problem Solving (90-Minute Guide Book 11) Kindle
Edition, Silver City Publication.
• Prabhu, T.L. ( 2019 ). Creative Problem Solving: How to Use Creativity to Develop New
Ideas and Solutions to Your Problems. (Skills Development Book 1) Kindle Edition.

23

 UNIT I

2: Innovation: Concept, Types & Process

 CONTENTS

S. No. Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Creativity, Invention and Innovation 1
Practice Task 2
Feedback 4
3. Innovation: Concept & Types 5-7
3.1 Concept 5
3.2 Types of Innovation 6
Practice Task 8
Feedback 10
4. Process of Innovation 11-13
5. Design Thinking 13-14
6. Benefits of Innovations 14
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
References 17-18
 INNOVATION CONCEPT, TYPES AND PROCESS

Learning Outcomes
After reading the learning material, you will be able to;
• Differentiate among creativity, invention & innovation
• Explain the concept of innovation
• Differentiate between incremental and radical innovation
• Describe the process of innovation

1. Introduction
Economic growth of any country depends on the knowledge, innovations and
entrepreneurship. There has been increasing emphasis on creativity and innovation in
organizations due to technological development and intense global competition.
Innovations are required in processes, products, services and business models.
Innovations help the organization to remain relevant, successful and create a niche for
itself. Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Computing, Robotics, Additive Manufacturing, Online
Courses, E-commerce etc. are some of the examples of innovations that have changed
our lives and also the way the business is done. Innovations are the result of creative
thinking and inventions. Creativity is considered fuel for innovation and invention when
commercialized becomes innovation. Let us distinguish among the three terms that is
creativity, invention and innovation

2. Creativity, Invention and Innovation

Table1 summarizes the difference between the three terms creativity, invention and
innovation/

Table1: Creativity, Invention & Innovation

Creativity Invention Innovation
• Thinking of novel ideas • Creation of novel services • Involves Implementation of
(Trott, 2008; Levitt, 2002; products or production innovative ideas generated
Davila, Epstein and techniques (Maital and through creative thinking.
Sherton, 2006) Seshadri, 2007) • Put ideas into action or turn
• Idea is novel and useful • Strongly supported by R & ideas into market offering
and has value for the D • Process that involves creation
individual or the society and diffusion
• May not lead to innovation • Involves commercialization of
invention (Maitall and Seshadri,
2007)
• All innovations involve creativity

1

Practice Task

1. The list given in column A includes creative ideas, inventions and innovations. Please
indicate which one of these is creative ideas, inventions and innovations by putting ‘C’,
‘In’ and ‘Inn’ against each one of them in column B.

Sr. List Creative

No idea/Invention/Innovation
1. Mechanized car parking
2. Robotics
3. Driverless cars
4. Polio Vaccine
5. Telephone
6. Printing Press
7. Artificial intelligence
8. Electricity
9. Roof Gardens
10. Telephone
11. iPhones
12. Anti-biotics
13. PCs
14. Sofa –cum-bed
15. Mobile Phones

2

 Feedback next page

3

Feedback

1.

Sr. No List Creative

idea/Invention/Innovation
1. Mechanized car parking C
2. Robotics Inn
3. Driverless cars Inn
4. Polio Vaccine In
5. Telephone In
6. Printing Press In
7. Artificial intelligence Inn
8. Electricity In
9. Roof Gardens C
10. Telephone In
11. iPhones Inn
12. Anti-biotics In
13. PCs Inn
14. Sofa –cum-bed C
15. Mobile Phones Inn

4

3. Innovation: Concept & Types
3.1 Concept

The word innovation has been derived from Latin word ‘nova’ meaning new. According to
Oxford Dictionary of Business and Management (2008), innovation is a new approach to
designing, producing and marketing goods that give the innovation or its company an
advantage over the competitors. Innovation means introduction of new thing or a
method.

Schumpeter (1935) defined innovation as “new combinations” of new or existing

knowledge, resources, equipment, and other factors.

Peter Drucker defined “innovation” in his 1985 book “Innovation and Entrepreneurship”
as: “Innovation is the specific tool of entrepreneurs, the means by which they exploit
change as an opportunity for a different business or a different service. It is clear from
this definition that (1) innovation is about creating new business opportunities through
new technologies, products, services, processes, business models, etc.; (2) is a
structured or systematic process and (3) one needs to be proactive and search for the
sources of innovation and exploit them (http://scitechconnect.elsevier.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/02/Chapter-1.pdf).

Tim et al. (1998) described innovation as “any change in inputs, methods, or outputs
which improves the commercial position of a firm and that is new to the firm’s operating
market”.

Harvard Business Review (2003) defined innovation “as the embodiment combination or
synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant and valued new products, processes or
services”.

Mulgan and Albery (2003) described innovation “as “new ideas that work” that is the
creation and application of new processes, products, services which as a result brings
noteworthy improvements inefficiency, effectiveness or quality as an outcome”.

Carter (2007) defines “innovation” as any kind of change in the production process that
contributes to significant improvements within the firm. Innovation, according to her,
which is new to a particular firm may or may not be new to the world.

According to Maital and Seshadri (2007) “innovation is the application of invention into a
product or a process to drive value for the organization and customers”.

5

 Rabe (2008) defined innovation “as the application of an idea that results in a valuable
improvement”.

Innovation is a process for creating and introducing something new, novel, or advanced
with the intention of creating value or benefit (Hisrich and Kearney, 2014).

Innovations may result in new technology, products, services, re-organization of a firm,

combining core competences of firms or expand/generate new markets (Page and Toft,
2009) or social technology innovation (Nelson, 2003).

3.2 Types of Innovation

Innovations can be broadly classified into incremental innovations and radical
innovations.

The incremental innovation refers to improving existing products, services and process
(Leonard and Rayport, 1997). Incremental innovation is the one that improves upon
something that already exists or re-configures an existing firm or technology to serve
some other purpose (Harvard Business Review, 2003). Incremental innovation refers to
small changes or improvement in existing products or firm or process. Whereas radical
innovation is the one that has potential to upset an organization or an industry’s existing
business model (Harvard Business Review, 2003). Some of the examples of radical
innovations include: Personal Computers, iPads, Smart Phones, Digital Engine,
Mapping of Genomes. Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, Cloud Computing, Additive
Manufacturing, 3D Printing and Video Conferencing. In education sector the emergence
of Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs) is one of the disruptive technologies of 21st
century.

Radical innovations are represented by the fundamental re-conceptualization of a

business (Markide, 1998). This type of innovation can be approached on three levels:
Product, Process and the combination of two (Tushman and Nadler, 1986).

Thompson (2004) classified innovations into creative innovation and adoptive

innovation. According to him, creative innovation refers to the ability of the organization
to implement and carry out technological innovation through its own system, usually
materializing in new products and services. Adoptive innovation refers to the ability to
use new ideas from outside the organization, adapting those ideas to implement change
in the management system of the organization or the relationships among the
components of the system.

6

 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2016) classified
innovations into: a) product innovation is the application of an idea or service that has
undergone substantial development, the feasibility of which may be related to its
functionality or other techniques that make new uses for that idea or service possible; b)
process innovation, refers to the development of new methods to achieve a given
production; c) organizational innovation, or new types of organization or means of
administering organizations; and d) marketing innovation whereby new methods are
used to obtain the development of products and their associated packaging, forms of
cost and promotional publicity. Fig.1 shows the various types of innovations.
Types of Innovation

Incremental Innovations Radical innovations

Product Process Organizational Market Product Process Organizational Market

Fig.1: Classification of Innovations
Table1 shows the comparison among models of innovations used in various generations.

Table 1 : Models of Innovations Used

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth
Generation Generation Generation Generation model Generation Generation
model model model model Model
Technology Market pull Coupling Interactive model Network Open
push (phase- model innovation
review- Model similar Uses stage gate Consists of parallel developed in model
processes) to first approach activities across 1990
generation Idea originates the organizational Both internal
Developed by except that the from creativity, functions Creating and external
NASA in 1960 innovation idea customer knowledge from ideas are taken
is drawn from feedback or Stages in the industrial or
Process was the market basic research process: public research External and
broken down to Initiations stage internal paths
systematize the Evaluation of Development Product to market are
work and ideas is based stage development considered
controlling upon ‘Should Implementation process
contractors and meet’ and ‘Must stage
suppliers meet’ criteria Product
Assumption success in the
technological Develop the market
advances from product
scientific prototype and Both internal
discovery and R evaluate and external
& D come before prototype environment is
pushed taken in to
technological Validation of account
innovation product
through Plan for
engineering etc. marketing
launch and
production
Source: Martin, 2017. https://www.cleverism.com/innovation-process-definition-models-tips/

7

Practice Task

1. Explain the concept of innovation.

2. Differentiate between radical and incremental innovation.

8

 Feedback next page

9

Feedback

1. Innovation: Innovation involves implementation of creative idea or invention for

creating value or commercialization of a creative idea to meet customer needs
and expectations. The process of innovation usually involves identifying market
needs, trends, developing competencies, and finding financial support.

2. Difference between Radical and Incremental Innovation.

Radical Innovation Incremental Innovation

A radical innovation, which is also Refers to small improvements or
known as a disruptive innovation is upgrades that often occur as a series
one that produces a significant impact made to an organization’s current
on the market or the economic activities products, services, processes or even
of the market. Radical innovation can methods. Improvements brought about
even produce new markets, make by incremental innovation are usually
existing markets obsolete or change the centered on improving the efficiency,
structure of an existing market. The productivity and differentiation of
impact is much more evident rather products.
than the novelty.

10

4. Process of Innovation
The process of innovation passes through the following five stages (Desouza et al.,
2007):
• Idea Generation and Mobilization
• Advocacy and Screening
• Experimentation
• Commercialization
• Diffusion & Implementation

Idea Generation and Mobilization

The very first stage in the process of innovation is to generate new ideas. An innovation
potential is newly discovered opportunity for innovation. An individual need to have
keen observation of the surroundings to identify opportunities for innovation. It may
include: an unfulfilled customer requirement, problem with the customer, possible new
market or a new technical solution. Various creativity techniques can be used to
generate new ideas. These include:

• Brainstorming
• Brain Writing
• SCAMPER (Substitute, Combine, Add, Modify, Eliminate, re-arrange and
Reverse)
• Forced fitting
• Imagery trek
• Attribute listing
• Morphological Matrix

Advocacy and Screening

Idea is evaluated against criteria to determine its novelty, usefulness, relevance and
practicability in the light of organizational policy, structure, processes and resources.
This will help in selection of potential innovative idea. Techniques such as short term
versus Long term, fit in existing system versus new system, must versus want, simple
versus complex and useful versus novel can be used at this stage. The goal and
expectations are clarified.

Experimentation

At this stage, the potential idea is tested. Prototype if required, is developed and tested
in the field. Experimentation does not test an idea’s objective merits but the suitability for
a particular organization at a particular time. Experimentation may lead to new ideas or
refinement of already generated idea. In other words, refinement and re-evaluation
occur at this stage.

11

 Commercialization

This stage aims at creating market value for an idea by focusing on its impact. It is
verified whether the innovation actually meet the customers’ needs or solves the
problems. Cost-benefit analysis is carried out. Invention when commercialized become
an innovation.

Diffusion & Implementation

Diffusion is the process of gaining final, company or organization wide, acceptance of

innovation and implementation is the process of setting up structures, maintenance and
resources needed to produce it. Diffusion happens at all levels in the organization and
use or application of innovation needs to be demonstrated. Implementation of an
innovation calls forth for an open culture in addition to market plan, resources,
structures, technology etc.

Manuylenko, Mishchenko, Bigday, Putrenok and Savtsova (2015) have given an

elaborated process of innovation as shown in Fig. 2 and detailed various actions to be
taken at various stages in the process of innovation.

Fig.2: Process of Innovation

12

 Rapid Innovation Cycle

Rapid innovation cycle was developed in 2011 to assess the market potential of a new
product in Spain and to improve the economic conditions of the country (McCoy,
Chagper and Tacit, 2014). It consists of four phases: opportunity recognition, solution
selection, market experimentation and experimental results. Opportunity recognition
involves identifying the problems or pain points of customers and generating a list of
those problems. Solution selection involves selecting the solution that can meet the
need of the customers and is within the constraints of the organization. At the third
stage, the solution prototype is tested in the market to obtain customers’ reactions. On
the basis of the feedback, decision is taken as to whether commercialization will be
done or not. The authors have used this model successfully in developing two products
namely: www.BuddyGripper.com and www.you3Dit.com. For detailed study, please see
additional web resources.

5. Design Thinking: An approach to new product development and innovation

Luchs (2016) defines design thinking as a creative problem solving approach or more
completely as systematic and collaborative approach for identifying and creatively
solving problem. In case of new product development, problem can be replaced by the
word opportunity. The process includes two major phases identifying problems and
solving problems. The steps involved in identifying problems include discover and define
while solving problems include create and evaluate. Each of these four steps are
detailed below:

• Discover
• Define
• Create
• Evaluate
Discover: Discover means gaining insight into customers’ thinking, feeling, experience
and. It involves gathering and synthesizing qualitative data gathered in form of pictures,
audio recordings, transcript etc. Techniques such as coding transcripts, drafting
personas, constructing empathy maps and journey maps are used. The process
continues till the team has collected all the important customer insights.

Define: Define means arriving at a specific statement of the problem based on

customers’ insights. The problem statement is the unaddressed need of customers that
need immediate attention. The team converges on the subset of problem statement
using the technique of motivating.

13

 Create: Creating involves generating ideas and developing a rough prototype to obtain
customers’ feedback and improve the porotype. The method of Visualizing, Empathizing
and Ideating is used to arrive at user inspired product design. Visualization means
having a deeper understanding of users based on ethnographic research. Empathizing
refers to identifying the pain points of the users. On the basis of visualization and
empathizing, solutions are generated which are user specific. The team can use a broad
criteria to identify the potential solution(s). The criteria may include: desirability,
feasibility, and viability.

Evaluate: Once the prototype is created, customer feedback is obtained. Prototype

simulates the experience for the customer. After obtaining the feedback, it is
synthesized and decision is taken to go ahead with full development of the prototype.

The whole process is iterative. Design thinking is based on three principles namely: it is
people centric, cross-disciplinary and holistic and integrative. IBM uses design Thinking
workshops to transform the existing business models or products or services.

6. Benefits of Innovations

Figure 1 shows the benefits that will accrue to the organization on account of
innovations.

Competing with other

organizations
Solving problems Involving work place
dynamic

Benefits of
Adapting to change Innovations
Meeting customers’
needs

Increases efficiency and Maximizing on

effectiveness globalization

Fig.1: Benefits of Innovations

14

Practice Task

1. The process of innovation involves the following stages:

• Idea Generation and Mobilization

• Experimentation
• Commercialization
• Advocacy and Screening
• Diffusion & Implementation

Write the steps in the process of innovation in a correct sequence.

2. Enlist the four phases of rapid innovation cycle.

3. Describe the stages in design thinking approach to new product

development.

4. Read any two cases enlisted in web resources. Try to classify them in

various types of innovations and identify the factors that contributed to

innovation.

15

Feedback

1. Process of Innovation
• Idea Generation and Mobilization
• Advocacy and Screening
• Experimentation
• Commercialization
• Diffusion & Implementation

2. Stages in the process of rapid innovation

• opportunity recognition,
• solution selection,
• market experimentation
• experimental results

3. Stages in the design thinking approach to new product development.

Compare your answer with the stages explained on page.

4. Upload your answers on Discussion Forum for feedback from others.

16

References

• Carter, Anne P. (2007). Measurement of the Clustering and Dispersion of Innovation.

Edited by Karen R. Polenske. The Economic Geography of Innovation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Davila, Tony; Epstein, Marc J., and Shelton, Robert D. (2006). Making Innovation
Work How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It. NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Hisrich, R.D. and Kearney, C. (2014). Managing Innovation and Entrepreneurship.
SAGE Publications.
• Jauhari, Vinnie and Bhushan, Sudhanshu, (2014). Innovation Management. New
Delhi, Oxford University Press.
• Luchs G. Michael; Swan Scott.K and Griffin, Abbie (2015). Design Thinking: New
Product Development Essentials. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Landry, Lauren (2017). The Innovation Process: A Step-By-Step Guide. Northeastern
University. https://www.northeastern.edu/graduate/blog/innovation-process/
• Leonard, Dorathy A. and Raypor, Jeffery F. Spark (1997). Innovation Through
Empathic Design. Harvard Business review 75(6):102-13
• Levitt, T. (2002) Creativity Is Not Enough - Harvard Business Review.
https://hbr.org/2002/08/creativity-is-not-enough
• Manuylenko, Viktoriya Valeryevna; Mishchenko, Andrey Aleksandrovich; Bigday,
Olga Borisovna; Putrenok, Yekaterina Leonidovna and Savtsova, Anna Valeryevna
A Comprehensive Definition of the Concept of Innovation in Russian and
International Science. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues,
2015, 5(4), 1029-1037.
• Martin (2017). The Innovation Process: definition, Models and Tips.
https://www.cleverism.com/innovation-process-definition-models-tips/
• McCoy, Chris D; Chagper, Zubin and Tasic, Igor (2014)
The Rapid Innovation Cycle—An innovation and market testing process for new
products and services development.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234066207_The_Rapid_Innovation_Cycle-
An_innovation_and_market_testing_process_for_new_products_and_services_develo
pment
• Maital, S. and D.V.R Seshadri (2007). Innovation Management: Strategies, Concepts
and Tools for Growth Response, New Delhi.
• Markides, C. (1998). Strategic Innovation in established companies. Sloan
Management Review, 39:3, pp. 31-42
• Mulgan G.and Albury, D. ( 2003). Innovation in the Public Sector, London: Strategy
Unit, Cabinet O_ce,
• OECD (2016). Defining Innovations.
www.oecd.org/site/innovationstrategy/defininginnovation.htm
• Padmore, Tim; Schuetze, Hans and Gibson, Hervey (1998). Modeling Systems of
Innovation: An
Enterprise-Centered View. Research Policy (Journal) 26, 605–624
• Popa, Ioan Lala; Preda, Gheorghe and Boldea, Monica (2010). A Theoretical
Approach of The Concept of Innovation. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-
detail?id=248353
• Rabe, Barton Cynthia (2008). New Delhi; Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. The
Innovation Killer.
• Schumpeter, Joseph A. 1935. “The Analysis of Economic Change,”
in Clemence, Richard V., ed., Essays on Entrepreneurs, Innovations, Business
Cycles, and the Evolution of Capitalism, Transaction Publishers, New
Jersey, 1991, 134–49
• Thompson, N.J., (2004), Innovativeness and performance: evidence from
manufacturing sectors, Journal of Strategic Marketing, No.12

17

 • Tushman, M. and Nadler, D. (1986), “Organizing for innovation”. California
Management Review, 28:2, pp. 74-92

Web resources for further reading

• Design Case Studies. https://www.insight.com/en_US/solve/digital-innovation/case-

studies.html
• http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/view/57441/44818 Innocase1
• https://www.hypeinnovation.com/hubfs/content/case-studies/nokia-case-study-en.pdf
INNOCase2
• https://i.hypeinnovation.com/hubfs/Content/Case_Studies/airbus-case-study-en.pdf
Innocase3
• Innovation case studies library. https://www.business.qld.gov.au/running-
business/growing-business/becoming-innovative/innovation-library
• Innovation Case Studies. https://www.london.edu/lbsr/innovation-icons
• Innovation video3M. https://youtu.be/I6eIV42vTcw
• https://www.london.edu/lbsr/innovation-icons
• Mostert, Nel M. (2015) Belbin – the way forward for innovation teams Journal of
Creativity and Business Innovation, Vol. 1, www.journalcbi.com
• Nokia Case Study. https://www.hypeinnovation.com/hubfs/content/case-
studies/nokia-case-study-en.pdf INNOCase2
• OECD (2016) G20 INNOVATION REPORT 2016. https://www.oecd.org/china/G20-
innovation-report-2016.pdf
• OECD (2019) Innovation statistics and indicators-2017.
http://www.oecd.org/innovation/inno/inno-stats.htm
• Service Innovation. https://youtu.be/6hrqsPGNPZM
• Tree House Foods: 2018 R&D Teams of the Year.
https://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2018/rd-team-treehouse-foods/
• Tesla Innovation Car Product. https://youtu.be/y6A3gYwrK-4
• The Open University (2016). The Concept of innovation. Kindle edition. UK: The
Open University
• The Open University (2016) Creativity and innovation. Kindle edition. UK: The Open
University.
• UNESCO (2018) Skills and Innovations in G20 Countries. Information Paper No. 50
June 2018 UIS/2018/STI/IP/50.
http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip50-skills-innovation-g20-
countries-2018-en.pdf

18

 UNIT I

3: R&D Through Team Work

 CONTENTS

S. No. Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Team: Concept & Characteristics 1-2
2.1 Concept 1
2.2 Characteristics of a Team 2
3. Stages in the Development of a Team 2-3
4. Principles of Running a High Performance Team 3-7
Practice Task 8
References 9
 R&D Through Team Work
Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of a team

 Enlist the characteristics of team
 Apply the principles to build effective teams for R&D

1. Introduction
In the present context, teams play a very important role in organizations. Effective teams
are able to accomplish worthwhile things and generate satisfaction among the members
of the team and in turn helps the organizations to achieve their goals and objectives.
Teams are constituted within organization for various reasons. The reason may be to
solve a problem, develop certain new product or a service or chalk out a strategy for
initiating an action. The teams can be of people from single discipline or multi-discipline.
Teams can either be functional or cross-functional, organizational or inter-organizational
or sometimes teams can be national or international. Now-a-days, there exist virtual
teams also. Teams can be small or large depending upon the purpose and they can be
temporary or permanent.

With increasing cost of R&D, shorter life cycle period of products and increasing risks
and uncertainties, return on investment and productivity are being adversely affected.
Unprecedented shifts are set to disrupt the R&D ecosystem (KPMG, 2018). Teams are
constituted for undertaking R&D work in organizations. Team dynamics play an
important role in determining success of a team. A study on more than 2000 R&D
projects at more than 75 companies indicated that leaders underestimate how the
dynamics of team affect the output of R&D (Aboagye, Pyle and Silbey, 2015). It is
essential to understand the team dynamics and the factors that can affect the R&D
output.

2. Team: Concept & Characteristics

2.1 Concept

“Team work is the ability to work together towards a common vision. The ability to direct
individual accomplishments towards organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows
common people to attain uncommon results” (Andrew Carnegie).

1
 “A team can also be defined as two or more people working interdependently towards a
common goal. The products of a team are the results of collective effort and involves
synergy, where the whole is greater than the parts” (WHO, 2007).

“Team can be defined as a small number of people with complementary skills, who are
committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable” (Katzenbach and Smith, 1994).

2.2 Characteristics of a Team

A team is characterized by:

 A small group of people

 Common task or objective
 Synergy
 Collaboration and cooperation
 A shared understanding and purpose
 Mutually agreed upon operating principles
 Distinguishing task from processes

3. Stages in the Development of a Team

A team is a living and dynamic entity and passes through the following five
stages as shown in the Fig. 1 (Tuckman, 1975);

ADJOURNING

PERFORMING

NORMING

STORMING

FORMING

Fig. 1: Stages in the development of a team

Forming: At this stage, there is high dependence on leaders for guidance and direction,
little agreement on team aims and goals, lack of clarity of individual roles and

2
 responsibilities. Leader directs and members test tolerance of system and leaders. The
stage is complete when the members begin to see themselves as a part of the group.

Storming: Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in
relation to other team members and the leader. Clarity of purpose increases but plenty
of uncertainties exist. There may exist power struggles. Compromises may be needed
to enable progress. This is the start of intra-group conflicts.

Norming: Team members begin to use their past experiences to solve their problems
and put together as a cohesive group. This process results in the team establishing
procedures for handling conflicts, decisions, and methods to accomplish the project.
Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted. For example, team may identify the
helpful behaviour (be on time be honest, be courteous, listen, stay on track, complete
your work etc.) and harmful behaviour (being critical, manipulative, dominating, or
engaging in sub conversation or going off on a tangent etc.).

Performing: In this phase, the team has achieved harmony, defined its tasks, worked out
its relationships and has started producing its results. Members have learnt how to work
together, manage conflicts and contribute resources to meet the team’s purpose.

Adjourning: When the purpose is fulfilled and task is completed or goals are achieved,
team adjourns. Formal adjournment of team is essential to give a feeling to members to
work again in the same team. Contribution of members is acknowledged and goal
accomplishment is celebrated.

4. Principles of Running a High Performance Team

The quality of output or the performance of team depends upon a number of factors.
These factors include size of team, capabilities of team members, location of teams,
focus of team on type of project/innovation, clarity of purpose, mission and approach,
clarity of procedure, commitment of team members, mechanisms for decision making,
problem solving and conflict resolution, leadership, communication, coordination,
balance of members’ contributions, mutual sport, effort and cohesion (Hoegi, 2008).

3
Size and Location of Team

In a large scale study having design teams across 2000 R&D projects, it was found that
increasing the size of R&D teams and having R&D teams across multiple sites actually
diminish the productivity. Expanding from one site to three can lead up to a 20% drop in
productivity (Aboagye, Pyle and Silbey, 2015). The size of the team, if it is too large,
leads to problems in coordination and communication. Smaller the size of the team,
higher is quality of the team work.

Selection of Team

The task to be accomplished needs to be analysed to arrive at knowledge, skills and

attitude set required to accomplish the task. Accordingly, team members need to be
selected. The team members should complement each other rather than having a
similar knowledge and skill set. It should be seen that members possess favourable
attitude and are committed to task. While selecting team members, the following points
should be taken into consideration:

 Concerned about and committed to common purpose & goals

 Enthusiastic
 Optimistic
 Creative, flexible and open-minded
 Proactive
 Willing to interact, cooperate, share respect others point of view
 Credibility (in terms of competencies)
 Devote time (WHO, 2007)

In other words, it is essential that team members possess both hard skills and soft skills.
Soft skills such as communication, interpersonal skills, conflict resolution skills etc are
much more important to work in teams.

Clarity of purpose, mission and approach

All the team members need to have common and clear understanding of the purpose,
the mission statements and strategies to be adopted to achieve the same. The goals,
objectives and approach to be followed achieve the goals and objectives need to be
clearly spelt out.

Assign task to team members as per their capabilities

While assigning tasks to team members, their strengths and capabilities should be taken
into account so as to ensure successful completion of the assigned tasks and also to
build confidence among team members.

4
Well defined norms

Successful teams have well defined norms. There is shared leadership, respect for
others, playfulness and celebration of success.

Communication

The quality of communication can be described in terms of formalization, structure and

openness of the information exchange. Informal and spontaneous communication have
been found to be crucial to team work. In addition, it has been found that more open the
communication more effective is the team. All types of communication that is vertical
horizontal and diagonal communication and all channels of communication should be
available as every member requires clear and effective communication to accomplish
the tasks assigned to him/her.

Coordination

Leader is normally responsible for coordinating the task. The team has to develop and
agree upon common task related goal structure with clear sub- goals for each member,
free of gaps and overlap. Teams need to agree on common schedules, budget and
deliverables.

Balance of members’ contribution

Team requires contribution from each and every team member. Work load of each
member should be specified and the knowledge and expertise of each member need to
be utilized for the team task. There should not be domination by a few.

Mutual Support

There should be an environment of collaboration and cooperation rather than

competition. The inter dependence of task need to be built in to promote cooperation
and mutual support. Highly innovative projects would seek greater collaboration among
the team members to deal with uncertainties, frequent changes and issues and
problems.

Cohesion

Cohesion in teams depends upon sense of togetherness and belonging. Team

members need to respect and recognize each other’s expertise and effort. The more the
consensus among the members regarding the purpose, mission, approach, norms etc.,
the greater will be the cohesion among the team members.

5
Positive attitude

Attitude determines one’s altitude. If team members possess favourable attitude towards
the goal, task, other members of the team, they will be able to put in the desired effort,
adhere to team norms and complete their assigned tasks to accomplish the goal. The
team member should remain accessible 24x7 and should not consider team activity as a
part-time activity.

Walk the Talk

Leader should set an example before the team members through ‘walk the talk’. He
should preach what he practices and whatever commitments he makes he should fulfil
those.

Trust

Leader should have trust in the strengths and capabilities of the team members and
should give positive regard to them in order to ensure maximum participation and
contribution from the members. Likewise, team members should have trust on each
other.

Maintain Peak Performance

The performance of the team should be continuously monitored and corrective feedback
need to be provided in order to ensure peak performance from the team.

Visualize yourself accomplishing the task

Team should be encouraged to visualize the accomplishment of the task in order to

enable the team to foresee any kind of problems or hindrances in the completion of the
task and prepare themselves for eliminating problems or over coming hindrances.
Visualization helps in stimulating creative sub-coconscious, programme brain, draws
resources required for accomplishing the goal and arouses intrinsic motivation.

Capitalize on synergy

Synergy is the creation of a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts. A
collaborating team is likely to create synergy and produce stronger results than any
individual. Japanese are the best example of synergy. When they work in teams, their
output is much more then when they work as individuals. Synergy is achieved when
different team members with complementary skills work for the common goal or
objectives. A lack of synergy can show that the most talented individual will not deliver
results due to a culture of discord, turnover, poor results and increasing disharmony.

6
Reward and recognition

The effort put in by the team members must be acknowledged and appropriately
rewarded. External rewards can complement intrinsic motivation for creativity and
innovation. More innovation adept companies have incentive policy in place (Tucker,
2018). This will motivate the individuals to be part of teams and remain committed.

Provide Autonomy

The team should be given autonomy to specify objectives, assign responsibilities to

team members, prepare time schedule, decide about leadership, take decisions, solve
problems and resolve the conflicts as and when required for smooth and efficient
functioning of the team.

Support from Management

Organizational support required in terms of men, money and material and the policy
support should be forthcoming. Many successful companies (60%) invest at least $5
million annually on innovation and almost 25% invest $50 million (Tucker, 2018).

The above stated principles when taken into consideration will lead to achievement of
goals and objectives set for the team.

7
Practice Task

1. Please see the videos;

https://youtu.be/TRZnTfRingg
https://youtu.be/wivErkWTiNc
https://youtu.be/GMh2dSiCugQ
https://youtu.be/bL0nhtDKW8g
https://youtu.be/Fw94Yq07FOw
On the basis of videos you watched, enlist the characteristics of team

2. Please see the video:

https://youtu.be/mR0_SK1K8xY
Enlist the principles of effective team building.

3. Please see the video:

https://youtu.be/eY05UOg6dQA
Write the lessons learnt.

4. Read the article:

Tarricone, Pina and Luca, Joe Successful Teamwork: A case study
http://www.unice.fr/crookall-cours/teams/docs/team%20Successful%20teamwork.pdf
Identify the characteristics of successful team.

Complete the above tasks and upload your answers on the Discussion Forum.

8
References

 Aboagye, Aaron; Pyle, Dorian and Alexander Silbey (2014). By the numbers: R&D
productivity in the semiconductor industry. McKinsey on Semiconductors Number 4,
Autumn 2014
https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/industries/high%20tech/our%20insights/get
ting%20the%20most%20from%20r%20and%20d%20teams/mosc2014_by_the_numbers_rn
d_productivity_in_the_semiconductor_industry.ashx Paper6
 LaFasto, Frank and Larson, Carl (2002). When Teams Work Best. .New Delhi:
Response Books.
 Hoegl, M. (2008). Teamwork and innovation. Paper presented at PMI® Research
Conference: Defining the Future of Project Management, Warsaw, Poland. Newtown
Square, PA: Project Management Institute.
https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/teamwork-innovative-projects-7108
 WHO (2007). ‘Team Building’. Geneva: World Health Organization,

Web resources for further reading

 Ebrahim, Nader Ale (2015). Virtual R&D Teams: A New Model for Product
Development. International Journal of Innovation, 3:2, 2015, pp.1-27.
eprints.rclis.org/28254/2/43-150-1-PB.pdf Paper4

 Ebrahim, Nader Ale; Rashid, Salwa Hanim Abdul; Ahmed, Shamsuddin & Taha,
Zahari (2011). The Effectiveness of Virtual R&D Teams in SMEs: Experiences of
Malaysian SMEs. IEMS Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 109-114, June 2011.
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1207/1207.6832.pdf Paper5

9
 UNIT II

1: Research in Technical Education:

An Introduction
 CONTENTS

S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1-2
2. Need for Educational Research 2-4

Practice Task 5

Feedback 6

3. Sources of Knowledge 7-9

3.1 Experience 7

3.2 Expert Opinion 7

7
3.3 Reasoning
7
3.3.1 Deductive reasoning
8
3.3.2 Inductive reasoning
3.4 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation 8

4. Educational Research 9-10

4.1 Research: Concept 9

4.2 Educational Research: Concept 10

Practice Task 11

Feedback 12

4.3 Types of Research 13-15

4.3.1 Classification of research on the basis of Purpose 13

Practice Task 16
Feedback 18

4.3.2 Classification of research on the basis of method 19-21

Practice Task 22

Feedback 24

5. Steps in Conducting Research 25-26

Practice Task 27

Feedback 28

References 29-30
 RESEARCH IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION: AN INTRODUCTION

Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Explain the need for undertaking research in technical education
 Enlist questions which can be answered w.r.t various sub-components of technical
education system
 Explain the concept of educational research
 Describe the steps involved in the process of undertaking research in technical
education

1. Introduction
Technical education system is an integral part of higher education and teaching and research
are the two important functions of any institution of higher learning. Educational research is
essential for any individual who joins the profession of teaching which calls forth for knowledge
of the subject matter and knowledge of pedagogy and andragogy as well as understanding of
complex human interaction to optimize learning among the learners. Teaching has been
defined as a continuous stream of decision making to achieve the pre defined instructional
objectives. Decisions are normally based on one’s subjective judgement. Evidence based
decision making can bring lot of improvement in teaching and optimize learning among
learners.

Educational Research can provide laudable support to teachers in various aspects of teaching –
learning and other related activities undertaken by them. For example, research is essential to
understand individual differences among learners, select appropriate methods and media,
select appropriate experiences, select and sequence content, and select appropriate evaluation
techniques. In addition, curriculum design, industry institute interaction, instructional material
development etc. activities would also require research evidence to initiate action to achieve
desired results.

Each discipline or subject per-se requires educational research, as what works best in sciences
or engineering may or may not work at all in humanities and social sciences. The problems
faced by teachers during teaching require systematic problem solving. Instead of engineering
problems, one needs to find evidence based solutions to educational problems. Discipline
based educational research undertaken can thus serve important purposes and benefit the

1
learners. In addition, policy makers and administrators can benefit from research in technical
education to formulate context relvant policies and take decisions.

2. Need for Educational Research

At present, the system of higher education, including technical education, is under severe
criticism due to low acceptability of passouts from the system. The system in vogue has failed to
deliver as there has been criticism that there is
– mismatch between demand and supply
– Unnurtured talent
– inadequate access to education
– inadequate development of essential skills and generic skills
– duplication of efforts
– increasing digital divide
– lack of resources and facilities
– inefficient knowledge delivery mechanism etc.
(MHRD, 2005)

There is an urgent need to prepare graduates with new skills, a broad knowledge base and a
range of competencies to enter a more complex and interdependent world, to set internationally
recognized standards among and between nations due to globalization, for instituting
mechanisms for establishing international comparability, for outcome based higher education,
and comparability of educational qualifications (UNESCO,2009). All these factors demand that
quality of higher education needs to be improved.

Educational research can provide laudable support to policy makers, administrators, and
teachers, to make evidence based decisions and improve the quality of technical education.
Policy makers may need research evidence to decide whether autonomy needs to be granted to
technical institutions or not, accreditation of programmes is to be made compulsory or not, how
to ensure that competent and motivated people join teaching profession, what should be the
qualification and experience requirements for different job positions in teaching profession, what
mechanism needs to be followed for selecting students for various type of institutions, how
funding of an institution can be linked to its performance etc. Administrators require research
evidence to take decisions regarding management structure, processes and practices.

A number of questions can be answered through research to facilitate the process of decision
making. Some of these questions are enlisted in the Table 1.

2
Table1: Questions research can answer
S.No Sub-Component Questions that can be answered
1. Input • What differences exist among the learners w.r.t physical,
cognitive, social and emotional characteristics?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of learners?
• What is the readiness level of learners to pursue a
programme or a course of study?
• What are the expectations of learners from a programme
or a course or the institution?
2. Curriculum • How many engineers are required in coming ten years?
• What are the competencies required of a civil engineer?
Processes
• Which soft skills are important for different types of
engineers working at different job positions in the
industry?
• What technological changes are expected in ten years?
• How to design the curriculum so as to achieve the desired
course outcomes?
• Which modality is to be preferred to offer the programme-
contact based, online, blended learning approach?
• To what extent the curriculum has been implemented by
the institutions?
• To what extent the desired competencies have been
developed by the specified curriculum ?
3. Instructional • Which instructional strategies are appropriate for teaching
of concepts, principles or theories in a particular course?
Processes
• How to integrate technology in teaching learning to
maximize student learning or enhance access or
efficiency?
• What technology is being integrated in teaching learning
by teachers?
• How active and collaborative learning strategies are used
by teachers?
• What are the reactions of learners towards the
instructional strategies and technology used in teaching
learning of a course or programme?
• What is the teaching effectiveness in technical
institutions?
• What is the level of interaction among teachers and
learners in classrooms?
• How students are evaluated in theory and practical work?
• What techniques of assessment are preferred by teachers
to assess learners performance in theory and practical
work?

• What is the quality of resources used in teaching

learning?
• What is the quality of question papers used in evaluation?
• How do teachers motivate learners?

3
 S.No Sub-Component Questions thaty can be answered
4. Resources • How adequate and accessible are the resources(Physical,
information, human and financial) to implement the
curricula for various programmes offered by technical
institutions?
• How optimally the resources are being used by teachers
and students?
• How competent are the human resources to implement
the curricula of various programmes?

5. Management • What are the management processes and practices used

in government and private institutions?
• How decisions are made in the institution?
• How the faculty and staff are recruited in the institutions?
• How do the institutions plan for faculty development?
• How do the the institutions monitor the performance of
faculty and staff?
• What is the academic environment in the technical
institutions?
• What is the level of job satisfaction and stress among
faculty?
• How do the institutions promote collaborative research?
• What are the mechanisms instituted to collaborate with
industry?
• How do the institutions create culture for innovations?
6. Output  What is the extent of development of desired
competencies among passouts from various
programmes?
 What are the jobs offered by the industry to the passouts?
 How do the passouts perform in industyry?
 What are the career paths for graduate engineers?
 How do the passouts keep themselves updated in their
areas of specializations?
 What are the opinions of passouts regarding teaching
effectiveness or relevance of curricula or institution?
7. Linkages with  What mechanisms are effective in strengthening linkages
with world of work?
World of Work
 What are likely benefits of networking with other sister
and other institutions?
institutions  How to ensure maximum benefit from networking?

Different types of research can be undertaken to answer these questions.

4
Practice Task
1. Enlist any three major drawbacks in the technical education system.

2. In the given Table, write the purposes research in technical education would serve for policy
makers, administrators and teachers.

S.No Stakeholder Purposes of Research

1. Policy makers

2. Administrators

3. Teachers

5
Feedback

1. Three major drawbacks

 Mismatch between demand and supply
 Lack of Quality
 Lack of acceptability of passouts

2. Purposes of Educational Research

S.No Stakeholder Purposes of Research

1. Policy makers  To formulate context relevant policies

 To improve quality of technical education

2. Administrators  To decide about management structures , processes and

practices
 To improve efficiency and effectiveness of institutions or
technical education system
3. Teachers  To select appropriate instructional strategies and
technology
 To improve teaching effectiveness
 To facilitate attainment of desired competenicies by learners

6
3. Sources of Knowledge
You acquire knowledge throughout your life through various sources of knowledge. Sources of
knowledge can be broadly classified into (Gay, Mills and Ariasian, 2012):
 Experience
 Expert opinion
 Reasoning
 Scientific method of acquiring knowledge/scientific approach to generation of knowledge

3.1 Experience
One of the major sources of knowledge is experience which you acquire through interaction
with the environment (family, peers, school/college, society). You receive sensory
information and give meaning to that sensory information based upon your previous
experience.and over a period of time develop your personal knowledge. Your attitudes,
values, and beliefs are the result of your interaction with environment. When you make a
statement based on your observation such as I know the colour of flower is red, this
statement can be verified.

3.2 Expert Opinion

You often rely on expert opinion when you are unable to answer some of the questions you
face. As a teacher, you may like to analyze why a student is always commiting mistakes in
spellings. A psychologist or a counsellor may help you in identifying the real problem. In case
of designing instruction for online programme, an instructional designer may help you in
designing the same. What matters is the credibility of the source i.e the expert.

3.3 Reasoning
Deductive and inductive reasoning are the two major kinds of reasoning used by you in
understanding the world around you.

3.3.1 Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion that is necessarily

true if the premises are true. For example,
Major Premise: All human beings are mortal.
Minor Premise: Sanjeev is a human being
Conclusion: Therefore, Sanjeev is mortal.
Another simple example is:

7
 Major premise: Noble gases are stable.
Minor premise: Neon is a noble gas.
Conclusion: Therefore, neon is stable.
In deductive reasoning, you move from general statement to specific statement based on
logical reasoning.

3.3.2 Inductive reasoning is the form of reasoning in which one tries to arrive at
generalization on the basis of observation of specific instances. It is based on
probabilistic reasoning. For example:you
Management book by Stoner contains a chapter on Motivation
Management by Lazarus conatins a chapter on Motivation
All books on Management contain a chapter on Motivation

3.4 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation

“The goal of any scientific endeavour is to explain, predict, and control phenomena. The
basic assumption is that all behaviours and events are orderly and that they are effects which
have discoverable causes” (Johnson and Christensen, 2008).

Research involves application of scientific method to find solution to problems or answer

questions. Research makes use of both deductive and inductive reasoning. The process
starts with formulation of hypotheses based on certain observations(inductive reasoning),
reasoning out consequences or implications of hypotheses(deductive reasoning) followed by
collection of data or information to verify implications or rejection or acceptance of those
hypotheses.This leads to generation of new knowledge. Further, hypotheses are generated
and tested to add to existing structure of knowledge. The process of research is cyclic and
dynamic as shown in Fig. 1 (CPSC, 1984). It is most reliable way of acquiring or generating
knowledge.

8
 Casual Generation of
Observation Hypotheses

Implications
Existing of
Structure of Hypotheses
knowledge

Operationally
Specific
Testing
Situation

Fig. 1: Scientific Method of Acquiring Knowledge(CPSC, 1984)

4. Educational Research

4.1 Research: Concept

Let us see how this term research has been defined. There are numerous definitions. A few
are given below:

Nature of research can best be explained in the words of Mouly (1978) . “Research is best
conceived as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the
planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. It is a most important
tool for advancing knowledge, for promoting progress, and for enabling man to relate more
effectively to his environment to accomplish his purposes, and to resolve his conflicts”.

Kerlinger (1970) defines scientific research as “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relation among natural
phenomena”.

9
“Research is seeking through methodical processes to add to one’s body of knowledge and,
hopefully, to that of others, by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights” (Howard and
Sharpe, 1983).

“It is a systematic way of asking questions or a systematic method of inquiry. The purpose of
research is to obtain knowledge or information that pertains to some question” (Drew,
Hardman and Hosp, 2008).

In simple words, “It is systematic, empirical and critical investigation and involves application
of scientific method to finding solutions to the problems” (Gay, Mills and Ariasian, 2012).

4.2 Educational Research: Concept

From the definitions of research, one can come to the definition of educational research.
According to Best (1970) “Research is considered to be a formal, systematic, intensive
process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis”. With reference to education,
research is identified with a better understanding of the teaching-learning process, and the
conditions under which it is most successfully carried on.

“Educational Research involves application of principles of science of behaviour to the

problems of teaching and learning within the formal educational framework and to the
clarification of issues having direct or indirect bearing on these concepts” (Mouly, 1978).

One can conclude in the words of Gay, Mills and Ariasian (2012) that “educational research
is a formal, systematic application of scientific method to the study of educational problems”.

10
Practice Task

1.Which of the following is the most reliable source of acquiring knowledge?

a) Experience
b) Expert opinion
c) Reasoning
d) Scientifc method

2. Explain as to how inductive and deductive reasoning are used in research.

3. Write two important characteristics of research

4. Below are enlisted few examples of work undertaken by different individuals.Which of the
following are examples of research?

Yes/No
a) Mr. Singla reviewed literature on e-
learning and wrote a paper
b) Ms Sangeeta collected information
from teachers working in technical
institutions in Chandigarh regarding the
problems faced in teaching learning
and evaluation of students performance
and wrote a paper and sent it to
Director Technical Education with
suggestions for actions reuired.
c) Dr. Singh wrote a note to the principal
regarding his observations of student
behaviour.
d) Dr Gupta collected information from the
employers regarding the job
responsibilities of graduate engineers
in Automobile industry and prepared
competence profile for design of
curriculum.
e) Mr Sodhi wrote an article on MOOCs.

11
Feedback

1. Two characteristics of research are:

 Systematic
 Involves application of scientific method

2. Inductive reasoning is used to formulate hypotheses and deductive reasoning is used for
stating implications of the hypothesis.

Yes/No
f) Mr. Singla reviewed literature on No
e-learning and wrote a paper
g) Ms Sangeeta collected
information from teachers working Yes
in technical institutions in
Chandigarh regarding the
problems faced in teaching
learning and evaluation of
students performance and wrote
a paper and sent it to Director
Technical Education with
suggestions for actions reuired.
h) Dr. Singh wrote a note to the No
principal regarding his
observations of student
behaviour.
i) Dr Gupta collected information Yes
from the employers regarding the
job responsibilities of graduate
engineers in Automobile industry
and prepared competence profile
for design of curriculum.
j) Mr Sodhi wrote an article on No
MOOCs.

12
4.3 Types of Research

There are two ways of classifying research. One way is to classify research on the basis of
its purpose i.e. the degree to which the research findings are applicable to an educational
setting and the degree to which they are generalizable. The other way is to classify
research on the basis of the method employed in research.

4.3.1 Classification of research on the basis of purpose: Taking purpose as the

basis of classification, research is considered to be of four types, basic, applied, action
and evaluation research. This is illustrated in Fig. 2

Types of Research

Based on Purpose

Basic Applied Action Evaluation

Fig. 2: Classification of Research by Purpose

Basic research
The purpose of basic research is to add to the existing body of knowledge by
understanding a process or a phenomena in a controlled situation. It is concerned with
development of theory and refinement of theory. For example: how do people learn?
What is the effect of positive and negative reinforcement on learning? These questions
can be answered by studying the phenomenon in laboratory conditions with rigorous
control of extraneous variables.

Applied research
“The major purpose of applied research is to answer practical and useful questions
about policies, programmes, projects, procedures or organizations” (Mason and
Bramble, 1989). It is undertaken to test a theory or evaluate its usefulness in a given
educational setting. Applied research is thus, undertaken to solve an immediate
practical problem. It aims at finding what works best. The applied scientists try to test
the findings of basic research in applied setting.

13
Educational research and development
Education research & development is concerned with the development of effective
products for use in educational institutions. “Educational research and development is
a process used to develop and validate educational products” (Borg and Gall, 1979). It
takes the findings generated by basic and applied research and uses them to build
tested products and processes that are ready for operational use in the educational
setting. Educational R&D thus bridges the gap between educational research and
educational practice. Examples could be the development of curriculum design reports
(curriculum guides or programme of studies for a technician programme), learning
materials, management systems and teacher training materials. These products are
prepared, field-tested and revised so as to attain the pre-specified level of
effectiveness.

Action research
Halsey (1972) defines action research as “it is small-scale intervention in the
functioning of real world and a close examination of the effects of such intervention”.
Action research is concerned with the solution of a specific problem, in a local situation
and is conducted by a person (the teacher) who is to use the findings of the research. It
is thus,
 situational (problem pertaining to a particular situation)
 participatory (individuals participating in the research are also concerned with
implementing its findings)
 self-evaluative
 aims at solving a specific problems. The results of this kind of research are not
generalizable to other situations.

Action research is often undertaken by teachers to determine the effectiveness of a

specific teaching intervention in a particular setting.

Evaluation research
The purpose of evaluation research is “to collect systematic data to help educators to
make decisions regarding the merit, value or worth of an educational programme,
product or techniques” (Borg and Gall, 1979).

14
The evaluation can either be formative or summative. The function of formative
evaluation is to collect data about educational programmes while they are still being
developed. While the summative evaluation is conducted to determine how worthwhile
the final programme is, especially in comparison with other competing programmes.

The characteristics of types of research based on purpose are given in Table 3.

Table 1 – Characteristics of Basic, Applied, Action and Evaluation Research

Types of Characteristics
Research
Basic Research  Primary purpose is extension of knowledge and
development of theory
 Rigorous control of variables. Generally conducted
in laboratory settings
Applied  Primary purpose is testing of a theory or solving a
Research practical problem
 Development research, a kind of applied research
meant for development of effective products for use
in educational institution
Action Research  Primary purpose is to solve immediate classroom
problems
 Conducted for the purpose of solving specific
problem in specific situations
 Researchers also implements the findings of
research.
Evaluation  It is initiated by someone” s need for a decision.
Research  Evaluation is often done for a limited purpose and
thus, its results cannot be generalized.
 It yield data concerning the worth, merit or value of
educational phenomena.

15
Practice Task

1. Enlist the four different types of research based upon purpose.

2. Differentiate among the three types of research based upon purpose.

3. Write any two examples of Research & Dvelopment.

4. Write any two situations where evaluation research can be used.

16
Feedback next page

17
Feedback

1. Types of research based upon purpose

 Basic research
 Applied Research
 Action Research
 Evaluation research

2. Differences among different types of research

Basic Research Applied Research Action Research

Generate new knoledge Solve a practical problem Solve problem in a specific
situation
Coducted in a laboratory Carried out in field to test Conducted in real situation
setting with rigorous generalizability of findings of with no controls
controls basic research

Generalizability of findings Generalizability of findings is Generalizability of findings is

is low high low

3. Two examples of Research & Development

• Development of self learning material

• Development of CAI package for students

4. Two situations where evaluation research can be used

• Evaluation of online programme in MBA

• Evaluation of faculty development policy

18
4.3.2 Classification of research on the basis of method : On the basis of method,
research can be classified into historical, descriptive correlation, ex-post facto and
experimental and evaluation.

Types of Research

Based on Method

Historical Descriptive Correlation Ex-post Facto Experimental

Case Study Survey Content Analysis

Fig. 3: Classification of Research by Method

(Adopted from Colombo Plan Staff College “Developing Skills in Technician Education
Research” , Module1, 1984)

Historical Research
Borg (1963) defines Historical research as the “systematic and objective location,
evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions
about past events”.
The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes
or effects of past occurrences. This may help in explaining present events and
anticipating future events.

Descriptive Research
“Descriptive research is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, practices
that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are
developing” (Best, 1970).

Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or
answering questions concerning the current status of the subject of study. It deals with
the question `WHAT IS” of a situation.

19
Correlation Research
Correlation research aims at determining the degree of relationship between two or
more quantifiable variables. Secondly, the relationship thus determined could be used
for making predictions.

Ex-post Facto Research/ Causal Comparative Research

There is some research where both the effect and alleged cause have already
occurred and are studied by the researcher in retrospect. Such research is referred to
as EX-POST-FACTO (“ After the fact” ). Kerlinger (1973) defined Ex-post-Factor
research as: “Systematic, empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct
control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or
because they are inherently not manipulable”.

Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal comparative research the researcher has no
control on the variables or he cannot manipulate the variables (independent variables)
which cause a certain effect (dependent variables) being measured. It attempts to
determine reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomena under study.
The procedures involved in this study are quite different than those in descriptive
research.

Experimental Research
The primary characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of at least one
variable and control over the other relevant variables so as to measure its effect on
one or more dependent variables. The variable which is manipulated is also called an
independent variable, a treatment, an experimental variable or the cause. Some of the
examples of an independent variable could be: method of instruction, use of
reinforcement, corrective feedback, type of learning material and size of class.

Experimental research will always have two or more groups for comparison on the
dependent variables. It is the only type of research which can establish true cause and
effect relationship.

Let us now quickly summarize the major features of types of research based on
methods.

20
Table 2: Characteristics of Research Based on Method

Types of Characteristics
Research
A. Historical  A description of past events or facts
 Data not collected through questionnaires, but gathered
from relevant records and meeting eye-witnesses
B. Descriptive  Testing hypotheses or answering questions related to
current status of the phenomena
 Data typically collected through questionnaires, interviews
or observations.
C. Co-relation  Determining the degree of relationship between two or
more quantifiable variables.

D. Ex-post Facto  Establishing tentative cause and effect relationships

 Independent variable or cause is not manipulated,
because cause and effect have already occurred.
E. Experimental  At least one variable manipulated to study effect on
dependent variable(s).
 Groups randomly formed to study comparisons
 Control on variables exercised
 Used for establishing true cause and effect relationship.

21
Practice Task

1. Classify the research studies

S.No Research Study Type of Reserch

1. Analysis of Normal training in pre partition era
2. Teachers” attitude towards integration of
technology in classroom
3. Reactions of final year students of Post
graduation in Engineering towards existing
system of examination
4. Effect of blended learning on the achievement
in the subject of Structural Analysis
5. Comparaive effectiveness of Lecture and Jig
Saw method of instruction for students of
Electrical Engineering
6. Intelligence, Aptitude and Learning Style of
First Year Students of Mechanical Engineering
in the State of Haryana
7. Effect of pre-service training on teaching
effectiveness of teachers working in
Elementary schools in Uttra Khand
8. Correlates of academic achievement at
graduation level

2. Differentiate between ex-post facto and experimental research.

22
Feedback next page

23
Feedback

1. Classify the research studies

S.No Research Study Type of Reserch

1. Analysis of Normal training in pre partition era Historical research
2. Teachers” attitude towards integration of Descriptive research
technology in classroom
3. Reactions of final year students of Post Descriptive research
graduation in Engineering towards existing
system of examination
4. Effect of blended learning on the achievement Experimental research
in the subject of Structural Analysis
5. Comparaive effectiveness of Lecture and Jig Experimental research
Saw method of instruction for students of
Electrical Engineering
6. Intelligence, Aptitude and Learning Style of Descriptive research
First Year Students of Mechanical Engineering
in the State of Haryana
7. Effect of pre-service training on teaching Ex-post facto research
effectiveness of teachers working in
Elementary schools in Uttra Khand
8. Correlates of academic achievement at Correlation research
graduation level

2. Differences between ex-post facto and experimental research

In ex-post facto research, both independent and dependent variable have already occurred
and plausible cause and effect relationship is studied. While in experimental research,
independent variable is manipulated by researcher to establish true cause and effect
relationships.

24
5. Steps in Conducting Research
There are four major steps in conducting research in technical education. These include (CPSC,
1984):
 Selecting and defining the research problem
 Describing the methodology of research
 Collecting the data
 Analyzing and interpreting the result

(i) Selecting and Defining the Research Problem

Selecting and defining the research problem is the most difficult and important step in research.
This involves:
 Identifying and stating the problem in specific terms
 Identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them adequately
 Generating tentative guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables or in
other words the solution of the problem
 Evaluating the problem for its researchability.

(ii) Describing Methodology of Research

Describing methodology of research requires a researcher to select an appropriate research
design most suited to the nature and purpose of the research study, select the subjects on
whom the study has to be conducted, and select or develop instruments for measuring the
variables in the study. Thus, it involves:
 Identifying the method of research
 Specify the subjects of study (e.g. technician teachers or technician students, etc.)
 Selecting an adequate representative sample of subjects
 Selecting/constructing valid and reliable instruments for measuring the variables in
the problems
 Describing the procedure to be employed for conducting the research study
 Select statistical techniques for analysis of data

(iii) Collecting Data

This step involves conducting the study as per the designed procedure (manipulating the
experimental variables in the case of an experimental method), administering instruments for

25
measuring variables and/or gathering information through observation. It also involves
tabulating the data, thus collected for the purpose of analysis.

(iv) Analysis and Interpreting Results

The data are summarized, in other words analyzed to provide information for testing the
hypotheses. Appropriate statistical methods of analysis- descriptive or inferential , are used to
test the hypotheses. You can perform the analysis manually, by using a hand calculator or a
computer as per the demands of the problem, and the available facilities. After completing the
analysis, results are summarized. The results are interpreted in the light of the hypotheses
and/or the research problem. The results are discussed in relation to: the existing body of
knowledge, consistencies and inconsistencies with the results of other research studies, and
conclusions are drawn. This is followed by writing the research report.

26
Practice Task
1. Enlist the steps involved in undertaking educational research

27
Feedback
1. Steps involved in undertaking educational research
I. Selecting and defining the research problem
II. Describing the methodology of research
III. Collecting the data
IV. Analyzing and interpreting the result

28
References
 Best, J W.(1970). Research in Education. New Jerssey: Prentice Hall.
 Halsey,AH. (1973). Educational Priority, Vol.I:EPA Problems and Policies. London:
HMSO.
 Borg, WR. Educational Research: An Introduction. (1963). London: Longman.
 Borg, WR. And Gall, Meredith, D. (!983). Educational Research: An Introduction.
London: Longman.
 CPSC (1984) Developing Skills in Technician Education: Research Module 1, Colombo
Plan Staff College for Technician Edcation, Singapore.
 Drew, CJ; Hardman, ML and Hosp, JL.(2008). Designing & Conducting Research in
Education.Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
 Emanuel J. Mason and William J. Bramble (1989). Understanding and Conducting
Research: Applications in Education and the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company.
https://www.google.co.in/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22William+J.+Bramble%
22
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational research: Competencies for
Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
 Johnson, R.B. and Christensen, L.B. (2008) Educational Research: Quantitative,
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. 3rd Edition, Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.,
 Kerlinger, FN (1970). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston
 Kerlinger, FN (1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
 MHRD (2005) National Mission on Education through Information & Communication
Technology: Mission Document. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development.
 UNESCO (2009) Trends in Global higher Education: Tracking an Academic
Revolution.Paris: UNESCO.

Web resources for further reading

 Educational research.
http://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/ma%20edu/Research%20Methodology%20-
%20III.pdf
 Morrison, Marlene What do we mean by educational research?
www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/9629_017546Ch1.pdf
 Opie, Clive. What is educational research.
https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/9464_011245Ch1.pdf

Videos

 Introduction to Education Research. https://youtu.be/PXhdEWfWepk

 Live discussion on "Educational Research: Concept, Definition, Characteristics and
Types" https://youtu.be/RI-KJS_Q0U4
 What is education research. https://youtu.be/eWNpvaIqjKo
 MIS Research Methodologies. http://misresearchmethodologies.blogspot.com
 What is educational research. https://youtu.be/5ucLcy_3jZo
 Research Methodology: Introduction. https://youtu.be/IZLn9_PA_4s

29
 Action Research In Education Part 1 https://youtu.be/JFONu9J_HJ8
 https://youtu.be/0_KOcaLKV5s Part 2
 https://youtu.be/c_FSv8hcpaY Part 3
 Action Research in Education. https://youtu.be/TOrQ-sVTuE0

30
 UNIT II

2: Review of Related Literature

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Review of Related Literature: Concept 1

3. Purposes of Review of Related Literature 1-2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

4. Sources of Information 5-9

4.1 Primary Sources 5

4.2 Secondary Sources 5

4.3 Preliminary Sources 5

Practice Task 10

Feedback 12

5. Steps in Conducting Review of Related Literature 13-14

Practice Task 15

Feedback 16

References 17
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Learning Outcomes

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of review of related literature
 Explain the purposes of review of literature
 Identify the sources of information
 Describe the steps in conducting review of related literature

1. Introduction

Review of related literature is an important step in the process of research. It aims at providing
the necessary theoretical background and the status of research in an area to the researcher so
as to enable him/her to undertake research in the latest area and add to the existing body of
knowledge. Systematic review of the research already undertaken in the area can provide
insight into the topic of research, appropriate methodology for research and interpretation of the
results of research and thus helps in undertaking research, which is worthwhile and feasible.

2. Review of Related Literature: Concept

“It is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and synthesizing
the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and
practitioners” (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012).

3. Purposes of Review of Related Literature

As a researcher, you may have a number of questions to which you would like to find an answer
to before undertaking research or while analyzing the data or interpreting the results. These
questions may include the following:
 Has the problem been researched earlier or not?
 Is there a need for further research in the area?
 What variables have been studied (independent, dependent and control)?
 What research questions have been answered?
 What design(s) has/have been used in various studies?
 In what contexts and on what samples the studies have been conducted?
 What measuring tools have been used for various variables?
 What were the findings of various studies?
 Were the findings conclusive or contradictory?

1
  How do I justify the findings of my study?
 Do findings of previous studies contradict or support the findings of the study?

Review of related literature helps you to find answers to the above questions. In nutshell, review
of literature helps in:

Selecting and defining research problem

Review helps in narrowing down the area of research and finalizing the variables to be included
in the study as well as in the formulation of research questions for the study to be undertaken. It
helps in building rationale for the study or justifying undertaking research in a particular area.

Selecting appropriate research methods and procedure

Review of research can help you in selection of appropriate research design, sample,
measuring tools, and statistical techniques to be used for analyzing the data for the study.

Interpreting the results of study

The findings of previous studies can help you in interpretation of the results of your study.
Justification can be built for the obtained results.

Avoid duplication or repetition

Review of related literature helps in avoiding repetition of research and thus avoids wastage of
resources and effort of researcher

2
Practice Task
1. Enlist the major functions served by review of related literature

2. Write the purposes review of related literature will serve in each situation listed below:
Situation Purpose served by review of related
literature
There is a consensus among findings of
various studies that collaborative learning
leads to greater motivation for learning
among learners.
You are not sure whether impact or effect of
a variable is to studied
As a teacher, you are planning to try new
methods of instruction to develop higher
level abilities among students but are not
sure whether project work can help you in
solving the problem or not

You are bewildered by the number of tests

available for measuring intelligence
You studied organizational climate and job
satisfaction of teachers and results indicate
that more open the climate lesser is the job
satisfaction of teachers

3
Feedback

1. Enlist the major functions served by review of related literature

 Select and define the research problem
 Select appropriate research design, sample and statistical techniques
 Interpret the findings
 Avoid duplication of research

2. Write the purpose served by review of related literature in each situation enlisted in
column A.
Situation Purpose served by review of related
literature
There is a consensus among findings of Avoid duplication of research
various studies that collaborative learning
leads to greater motivation for learning
among learners.
You are not sure whether impact or effect of Defining the problem
a variable is to studied
As a teacher, you are planning to try new Selecting the variable for the study
methods of instruction to develop higher
level abilities among students but are not
sure whether project work can help you in
solving the problem or not
You are bewildered by the number of tests Selection of Measuring tool
available for measuring intelligence
You studied organizational climate and job Interpreting and justifying the findings
satisfaction of teachers and results indicate
that more open the climate lesser is the job
satisfaction of teachers

4
4. Sources of Information
Sources of information for relevant literature can be classified into primary and secondary
sources of information. But in addition, there are preliminary sources of information.

4.1 Primary Source involves direct description of the occurrence by the person who has
conducted the research (for example, research reports, journal articles, conference papers,
dissertations, thesis etc.)

4.2 Secondary Source is one where the author is not directly involved in research (for
example, handbooks, encyclopedia, research reviews, journal articles etc.)

4.3 Preliminary Sources direct the researcher to the location of publication of research
(catalogues, indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, annotated bibliographies, search engines,
databases, clearinghouses etc.)

Table1 gives the various sources of information and their advantages and disadvantages.

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of various sources of information

Type of Example Advantages Disadvantages
Source
Primary Journal articles First hand information Dependency on one
Research report Complete details about source
Dissertation variable
Thesis Compare study with
other studies to draw
conclusions
No chance of
misinterpretation

Secondary Books Get consolidated Chances of

Review information misinterpretation
Articles/Conceptual Guide you to primary Biases of the author
papers source of information Details of research
Encyclopedia missing
Handbooks

5
 Type of Example Advantages Disadvantages
Source
Preliminary Annotated Clarify terminology Provide limited
Bibliographies Find out synonyms information
Bibliographies Direct the researcher to
References primary and secondary
Indexes sources of information
Catalogues Allow you to determine
Search engines the relevance of
Databases information
Dictionaries
Thesaurus

Purposes served by various sources of information

Table 2 provides at a glance a few examples of the sources of information and the
purposes served by them.

Table 2: Sources of information and purposes served

S. No Source of Example Purposes served
Information
1. Dictionary  A Dictionary of Education, 2014 Clarify meaning of
 The Greenwood Dictionary of
Education, 2003 terminology
 Dictionary of Education, 1973
 International Dictionary of
Education. 1977
2. Thesaurus  Thesaurus by Merriam-Webster. Look for synonyms
 English thesaurus, Oxford and antonyms
 Collins Thesaurus

3. Index  Current Index to Journals in Provides information

regarding journal
Education
 ERIC Index of Journals
 Current Index to Statistics
 Directory of Open Access
Journals

6
S. No Source of Example Purposes served
Information
4. Encyclopedia  Encyclopedia of Education, Provides detailed
2002
information
 International Encyclopedia of
Education. 2013. Regarding the various
 Oxford Research Encyclopedia aspects of education
on Education.
 Encyclopedia of Evaluation, including brief historical
2005 development, status and
need for further research
5. Handbooks  Handbook of Research on Provides summary of
Teaching, 2016 research in a particular
 The Sage Handbook of Research
on Teacher Education, 2017 area and suggestions for
 Handbook of Research in further research
Learning and Instruction. 2017
6. Journals  The Journal of Technical Provides information
Education
regarding current
 Journal of Engineering and
Technology Education research and issues
 Journal of Engineering
Education Transformation
 International Journal of Higher
Education
 International Journal of
Educational Research
 American Journal of
Engineering Education

7. Abstract  Indian Psychological Abstract &

Review. 2012
 Psychological Abstracts

8. Bibliography Example Provides information

 Richards, L., & Richards, T. about the work referred
(1994). From filing cabinet to
computer. In A. Bryman & R.G. or cited in a particular
Burgess (Eds.), Analysing piece of work
qualitative data (pp. 146-172).
London: Routledge.
 Richards, T. J., & Richards, L.
(1998). Using computers in
qualitative research. In N. K.
Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.),
Collecting and interpreting
qualitative materials (pp. 445-
7
S. No Source of Example Purposes served
Information
462). London: Sage.
 Russell, C., Gregory, D., Ploeg,
J., DiCenso, A., & Guyatt, G.
(2005). Qualitative research. In
A. DiCenso, G. Guyatt, & D.
Ciliska (Eds.), Evidence-based
nursing: A guide to clinical
practice (pp. 120-135). St.
Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
 Sandelowski, M. (1986). The
problem of rigor in qualitative
research. Advances in Nursing
Science, 8(3), 27-37.
 Sandelowski, M. (1993). Rigor
or rigor mortis: The problem of
rigor in qualitative research
revisited. Advances in Nursing
Science, 16(1), 1-8.
9. Annotated Example Publication details and
Resources on How to Conduct
Bibliography Provide brief information
Content Analysis
 Beard, J., & Yaprak, A. (1989). about the contents of
Language implications for
publication
advertising in international
markets: A model for message
content and message
execution. A paper presented
at the 8th International
Conference on Language
Communication for World
Business and the Professions.
Ann Arbor, MI.
This report discusses the
development and testing of a
content analysis model for
assessing advertising themes
and messages aimed primarily
at U.S. markets which seeks to
overcome barriers in the
cultural environment of
international markets. Texts
were categorized under 3
headings: rational, emotional,
and moral. The goal here was
to teach students to appreciate
differences in language and

8
S. No Source of Example Purposes served
Information
culture.
 Berelson, B. (1971). Content
analysis in communication
research. New York: Hafner
Publishing Company.
While this book provides an
extensive outline of the uses of
content analysis, it is far more
concerned with conveying a
critical approach to current
literature on the subject. In
this respect, it assumes a bit of
prior knowledge, but is still
accessible through the use of
concrete examples.
 Budd, R. W., Thorp, R.K., &
Donohew, L. (1967). Content
analysis of communications.
New York: Macmillan Company.
Although published in 1967, the
decision of the authors to focus
on recent trends in content
analysis keeps their insights
relevant even to modern
audiences. The book focuses on
specific uses and methods of
content analysis with an
emphasis on its potential for
researching human behavior. It
is also geared toward the
beginning researcher and
breaks down the process of
designing a content analysis
study into 6 steps that are
outlined in successive chapters.
A useful annotated bibliography
is included.

9
Practice Task
1. Classify the following sources of information into primary, secondary and preliminary
source of information
S. No Source of Information Type of Source
2. Dictionary
3. Encyclopedia
4. Journal
5. Handbook
6. Conference paper
7. Dissertation
8. Conceptual paper
9. Index
10. Annotated bibliography

10
Feedback next page

11
Feedback

S. No Source of Information Type of Source

1. Dictionary Preliminary
2. Encyclopedia Secondary
3. Journal Primary
4. Handbook Secondary
5. Conference paper Primary
6. Dissertation Primary
7. Conceptual paper Secondary
8. Book Secondary
9. Annotated bibliography Preliminary

12
5. Steps in Conducting Review of Related Literature
The process of review of related literature involves the following four major stages and a
number of tasks need to be performed by the researcher (CPSC, 1984: Gay, Mills and Ariasian,
2012; Johnson and Christensen, 2008).
– Identifying key words to guide the search
– Identifying sources of information
– Abstracting the information
– Analyzing, organizing and reporting the literature

 Identifying key words to guide the search: Refer to the research questions framed for
the study and you can identify the search terms to be used in accessing databases for
relevant literature. For example, for the research question - What is the relationship
between intelligence and achievement at senior secondary level, the search term will
include intelligence, achievement and correlates of achievement/ or intelligence. To
finalize the search term, one can also refer to thesaurus to look for the similar terms
which can be used and consult experts from the field. Once the keywords have been
identified, you can use three Boolean operators to either narrow down the search or
broaden the search. These include
 AND narrows a search
 OR broadens a search
 NOT narrows a search

 Identifying sources of information: In order to save time, first refer to preliminary

sources of information such as Catalogues, Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies and
Annotated Bibliographies to locate the relevant studies, journal articles etc. Scanning
technique can be used to locate the relevant information. Relevance of the information
can be determined against set criteria. Does relevance means: a study conducted in
Indian context, with in last fifteen years or at a secondary school level or only
correlational studies etc. In addition, some of the parameters such as adequacy of
sample, appropriateness of tools used and statistical techniques used can also form a
part of criteria.

Once relevant literature is found in preliminary sources of information; one can go to the
secondary or primary source of information containing the relevant literature.

13
 Abstracting the information: You can now use different reading techniques to prepare
an abstract of the relevant literature. You can use skimming, pre reading and key
reading technique to review the relevant literature. Before preparing the notes, make
sure that you decide which information is to be taken out from each research study. For
example, one may like to include: objectives or research questions, hypotheses, design,
sample, tools used, statistical techniques used, major findings and suggestions for
further research. This will ensure availability of similar information across studies and will
help you in synthesizing your review of relevant literature. While reviewing the relevant
literature, one must prepare complete reference of the article or report or thesis referred
to. In case of students of social sciences, American Psychological Association (APA)
guidelines need to be followed.

 Analyzing, organizing and reporting the literature: The results of review need to be
analyzed and synthesized. One should avoid giving review of relevant literature in
chronological order as it does not involve any analysis on the part of researcher and
encourages reproduction of the available material. Preferably, research studies can be
classified on the basis of variables, results or the context. For example, one may be
interested in findings correlates of job satisfaction. The correlates can be classified into
individual variables- age, qualifications, experience; Organizational Variable such as
Leadership style, organizational climate, opportunities for growth and development and
Job related variables such as task variety, skill variety, autonomy, challenge etc. One
can thus classify studies on the basis of variables. Within a variable, one can classify
studies on the basis of findings such as studies with significant positive correlation
followed by studies with negative correlation and then studies with no correlation. While
synthesizing the review of relevant literature, care must be taken to follow the guidelines
provided by APA. Synthesis of review of related literature will lead you to draw
conclusions, identify gaps in research and formulate the hypotheses for the study,
decide the design, select measuring instruments and also finalize the statistical analysis.
In addition, review helps the researcher in interpreting the findings of study and help in
providing suitable explanation for the results.

14
Practice Task

1. The following tasks are to be undertaken for systematic review of related literature:

(i) Choosing search terms

(ii) Reviewing the Relevant Literature
(iii) Synthesizing Review of literature
(iv) Writing References or Bibliography
(v) Referring to Preliminary Sources of Information
(vi) Referring to Secondary/Primary Sources of Information

Write the correct sequence of the steps to be undertaken in review of related literature.

15
Feedback
The correct sequence of steps to be undertaken in review of related literature is:

(i) Choosing search terms

(ii) Referring to Preliminary Sources of Information
(iii) Referring to Secondary/Primary Sources of Information:
(iv) Reviewing the Relevant Literature
(v) Writing References or Bibliography
(vi) Synthesizing Review of literature

16
References
 CPSC. (1984). Developing Skills in Technician Education: Research Module 2, Colombo
Plan Staff College for Technician Education, Singapore.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for
Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
 Johnson, R.B. and Christensen, L.B. (2008) Educational Research: Quantitative,
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. 3rd Edition, Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.,

Web resources for further reading

 Reviewing the Literature: A Short Guide for Research Students

https://www.uq.edu.au/student-services/pdf/learning/lit-reviews-for-rx-students-v7.pdf
 Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 5. The Literature Review.
http://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=235034&p=1559822
 Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper. http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide
 Literature Review Tutorial. https://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/litreview
 Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It.
http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/types-of-writing/literature-review/
 Literature Review Template
https://www.tru.ca/__shared/assets/Literature_Review_Template30564.pdf
 Literature Review: An Overview. http://web.cortland.edu/shis/651/LitRevOverview.pdf
 The nature and purpose of a literature review.
https://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/9780335243686.pdf

17
 UNIT II

3: Selecting and Defining a

Research Problem
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Selecting a Research Problem 1-8

2.1 Sources of Problems 2

2.2 Criteria for Selecting a Problem 4

2.3 Problem Areas to Avoid 5

2.4 Analysing a Research Problem 5

2.6 Variables- Identification 7

Practice Task 9

Feedback 10

3. Stating the Research Problem 11-12

4. Evaluating the Research Problem 12-14

5. Writing Research Questions 15-16

6. Functions of a Hypotheses 17-26

6.1 Definition of a Hypotheses 19
6.2 Writing Hypotheses 20
6.3 Different Types of Hypotheses 22
6.4 Evaluating a Hypotheses 24
7. Summary 27

Practice Task 28

Feedback 30

References 31
 SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Learning Outcomes

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Define a research problem.

 Explain the process of converting a General Problem situation into a Research Problem.
 Describe various sources of research problems.
 Describe the criteria for selecting a Research Problem.
 Evaluate the selected research problem in terms of its feasibility and worthwhileness.
 Describe the steps in Defining Research Problem and writing Research Questions
 Define a hypothesis.
 Differentiate between a null and research hypothesis.

1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that research is the way by which we solve problems that bother us
in the workplace or in the environment in our attempt to push back the frontiers of knowledge
and replace them with new ones. The core of research is the problem. It is a sensed gap
between the existing state and a desired state, or a departure from a norm. It is a question
raised for inquiry, consideration, or solution. Now the question arises, how to select and Define
a Research Problem and write research questions of formulate research hypotheses.

The present learning module will enable learners understand the process of selecting and
defining a Research Problem.

2. Selecting a Research Problem

It is the ‘problem’ which is the core of any piece of research. On selecting and defining the problem
adequately, the systematic and scientific process of collection of data can be more rapidly carried out.
Some significant results would be expected in anticipation of finding a solution to the problem from an
analysis of the data so collected. It means that a researcher could say that a solution to the problem lies
in knowing exactly what the problem is. Because, you can solve a problem only if you know what the
problem is.

Thus, it is pertinent to pre-plan a research study if it is to provide significant solution. It means, you need
not only to identify a problem, but it has to be analysed and its exact dimensions need to be specified
before the research can begin to take shape. This is not an easy task (but not impossible), especially for
novel/inexperienced researcher.

1
Now the first question one would ask is: How to select a problem for research?

All of us know that ideas for research problems/topics do not normally emerge instantaneously. Ideas
can, however, arise from puzzling/curious experiences. Once the researcher senses that something is
wrong or feeling unsure about a particular situation, he/she would put on efforts in solving the problem.

Suppose you were appointed to an educational institute and one of the courses you were teaching is ‘Arc
welding’. You observe that some of your students can easily perform the practical tasks to a high level of
competency while others are simply not even performing the tasks to a minimum level of acceptance.
Because of the students - some doing so well, and others so badly - you have a feeling that something is
wrong. You are puzzled.

You ask yourself many questions in an attempt to focus on the cause of the problem. Do I spend more
time with some students that with others? Is there a difference in the equipment being used by the
students? Are some students not given enough time to complete the task?

As a result of your observations (and your professional expertise) you have identified a problematic
situation. Recognising that you are dissatisfied with the skill acquisition of your students is starting point
but, as yet, you don't have a specific problem.

2.1 Sources of Problems

Problem situations like the one above can emerge from the day to day experiences of technician
teacher but problem situations can be generated from a number of sources.

 Personal Practical Experiences

In the course of carrying out various tasks (for example, while teaching in a
classroom/laboratories by a teacher or manufacturing a product by an engineer), a
teacher, administrator, engineer or manager is likely to detect various problems. Some of
these problems often are well within his own specific area of expertise (i.e., known to
him/her so well). Alternatively, he/she may be curious or concerned about a problematic
situation.

In an educational institution, teachers and administrators have to make decisions on the

basis of insufficient facts/evidence. It is because that they do not have sufficient time
available with them for conducting research that would provide the adequate information
for the immediate or even future need. Such problem situations arising would be specially

2
 situation for carrying out action research and/or applied research.

Now, can you think about a situation from your own personal/practical experience that
requires further investigation?

 Critical Study of the Literature

A researcher can identify knowledge gaps in the literature while reading in his/her own
subject area or in any area related to either the teaching-learning process or
science/humanities/engineering/technical education. And the researcher has studied the
conflicting points of view presented in the literature and thus feels a need for further
investigation to support one or the other. Research reports, often found in educational
journals, sometimes recommend areas for further study. From reading in your subject area
of about educational theory can you think of a question that you would like answered?

 Interaction with Others

Conferences, seminars, in-service programmes and workshops are normally organized for
specific objectives, but, during the interactions, references are often made to broad
educational issues - standards, unequal educational opportunity, issues of promoting,
employment problems, etc. In addition, these informal interactions with other colleagues
and delegates can provide problem areas to the keen researcher for research. If the
researcher is eager to learn more about the educational process, by adopting a critical
outlook and by taking every opportunity to be part of a research environment, he/she is
more likely to select a problem for research.

Have you been to a conference or workshop lately or have you been talking to people
interested in education? What issues, if any, were discussed? Is there one that stands
out as requiring investigation?

However, in spite of the unlimited range of problems that await the eager researcher,
selecting a problem that is suitable for research is not an easy task. It could, however, be
made easier if you are aware of some of the areas that could give rise to problem
situations. Then, by using the sources available to you, it is more likely that you will arrive
at a problem situation suitable for being developed into a research problem.

3
2.2 Criteria for Selecting a Problem

 Interest
If a researcher, before undertaking a piece of research, is sufficiently interested in the
topic, he/she is researching, only then, he/she is more likely to read widely on the
topic. He/she will then acquire a more thorough knowledge of the situation. Hence, In-
depth reading is necessary for any person, who is willing to undertake a piece of
research. No doubt, your willingness, dedication and commitment rise by being
interested in a topic, but it is not a necessary criterion for identifying a research
problem.

 Size
Very often, problems seem to be too large in size. These are sometimes too macro for
obtaining significant results. Let us take an example, a researcher wishing to
investigate the changing role of engineering education in the world would be faced with
an enormous task. However, a problem situation can be further analyzed to break a
large problem situation into a smaller and manageable research problem. Avoid
problems/subjects whose scope is too narrow or vague.

 Economy
Researchers are usually confronted with practical constraints of time, money, material,
equipment, facilities, availability of subjects (data) etc. Thus, it is wise to tap sources of
receiving some support both financial and non-financial, either from within your
institution or from outside sources at the initial planning stages.

 Researcher's Capabilities and Limitations

A researcher must recognize his own strengths/capabilities and limitations. At the
outset, the researcher must get some guidance/training, if he/she is inexperienced in
undertaking research. In addition, a research should have someone (expert/advisor
interested in research or in your area of study and willing to support you throughout the
research) to monitor your progress, especially in the planning stages, then you are less
likely to get difficulties during the conduct of research.

 Uniqueness
A good researcher would not want to duplicate a study by spending a lot of time, effort
and other resources researching a problem if the answer to the problem already

4
 existed. However, you may modify/change the design/method, or use a different
sample, or use different statistical analyses if you want to pursue a study similar to one
already in existence. Hence, the research study would then be considered unique as it
is now not exactly like any other piece of research. In addition, a researcher has to
seek answers to problems/questions that he/she has anticipated while selecting a
problem situation, before progressing any further.

2.3 Problem Areas to Avoid

As you know that there are a vast range of problem situations available to the researcher,
and that there are certain criteria you need to consider while thinking about a problem
situation to investigate. There are, however, some problem areas to avoid. Many interesting
questions considered important by many people cannot be subjected to the scientific and
systematic research process. Questions relating to three areas in particular should be
avoided:

a) Moral, Ethical Questions (such as ‘Should technician students exercise their rights’?
‘Are remedial classes bad for technician students’?). The answers to these questions all
contain value judgements. The actual words used, e.g. "bad", "best way", "exercise their
rights" are value-laden and imply that the questions are value questions requiring
answers that include value judgements. Such questions cannot be investigated
scientifically. Hence, it is difficult to draw conclusions and arrive at solutions using a
scientific and systematic process.

b) Philosophical Questions (What is meant by democracy?), and

c) Theological Questions (such questions should be left for those interested in theology to answer.
For example, a census survey or community survey might ask people to indicate to what religious
group they belong. This could be very relevant information and might be used for
classifying/breakdown of the data).

2.4 Analysing a Research Problem

Research begins with sensing a problem situation and the researcher himself/herself has
only a general idea about what the problem is. The task for the researcher is to remove
some of the vagueness and indeterminacy that exists and turn the "problem situation" into a

5
research problem. Only then will the researcher have a clear picture about the problem of
what he/she is going to investigate and how he/she is likely to conduct the research.

It is necessary for the problem to be stated in precise terms. In many cases, a general problem
situation can, after careful analysis, be stated as a specific problem. Let us take an example:

General Situation: The role of the principal in technician education

Specific Problem: How do the supervisory practices of principals differ in five urban Indian
Polytechnics?

How can a general problem situation be developed into a researchable problem? Let us again take
the puzzling situation you had been appointed to an institute and you had observed extreme
differences in the performance of your students and were anxious to find a solution to the problem.
The solution, however, cannot be found until you have identified exact nature of the problem. The
first task is to collect as much information as possible that may assist you in locating the factors that
might be related to the problem. The information could be a list of facts or possible explanation for
the problem. To do this it will be necessary to peruse the literature and talk to others (especially)
those teaching the same subject and who may have observed a similar phenomenon). Some of the
inclusions in the list would spring from the questions you have already asked yourself (e.g.
Teacher's time with students; Quality of equipment; Time devoted to the task; Poor classroom
arrangement; Level of difficulty of the task; Noise; Communication problems; Size of class; Previous
practical training; Home background etc.

Now you have made a list of as many facts and explanations as possible. Since not all of these will
relate to the problem, it may be possible to eliminate some that do not appear to be relevant. For
example, the class size is smaller than you had previously, so that factor should not be affecting the
students' performance. From questions that you have asked, it appears as if extraneous noise is not
a problem and your voice and instructions are reported to be quite clear. You feel that you spend an
equal amount of time with the students, so that explanation can also be wiped from the list.

This process of questioning goes on until you are left with a list of possible relevant facts and
explanations. Can you relate any of the factors that are left to one another? Maybe the reason for
this present situation has something to do with timetabling the time of day and the amount of time
available. (For justifiable reasons, you eliminate this as a possible explanation.)

6
 General Problem situation into a Research Problem?

Research Situation

Preliminary list of possible contributing factors & explanations

(Brainstorming/review of literature)

Elimination of irrelevant facts

(From this list you were able to eliminate certain facts)

List of probable relevant facts & explanations

(Identify variables)

Basic Assumption
(theory)

Research Problem

On the other hand, it may have something to do with the home background, previous training and
age of the students. You consider this as a viable proposition and you attempt to find out more
about the combination of these factors.

This process of going from specific details, e.g. the collection of possible contributing facts and
explanations to a general theory (basic assumption) is called the process of induction. Whereas, the
reverse process is the process of deduction. A deductive process can also be used to refine
a problem that seems to be too large for study. By identifying the component parts of
problems and selecting those parts that could be the basis of a research study (i.e., much
smaller in scope), you are separating the key elements from a broader problem. As such,
the researcher is deducing a more feasible research problem and converting a very general
problem/ situation into something more specific and researchable.

2.5 Variables - Identification

A variable is something that is likely to vary. The researcher may have to take out some of
the variables, or restrict the sample involved or restrict the size of the geographical area (by
keeping the purpose of research in mind), if the research problem is too large. A variable
describes a particular characteristic which all members of a set have, e.g. gender, age,

7
achievement, etc. These are human characteristics possessed by all but members of a set
are expected to vary on the possession of the particular characteristic:

Gender – male, female, transgender;

Age – infant, young, old;
Intelligence – high, average, low
There are different types of variables.
For example,
 Height is a continuous variable as it allows continuous measures from short to tall.
 Gender, being a three-category variable, permits only three characteristics: male, female or
transgender.
 Religion is a multiple-category variable and allows for classification into various
categories – Hindu, Sikhs, Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, etc.

Discrete variables enable you to distinguish between categories but are not possible to distinguish
between degrees of difference, not they be placed in any order.

It is important for a researcher to limit the size of the problem by limiting the number of
variables involved particularly in educational research.

When selecting a problem for study you need to look specifically at the relationship
between variables.

In the previous situation where the classroom problem was analysed using an inductive
approach, the eventual problem concerned the relationship between three variables:

The eventual problem was: ‘How does father's occupation and student's position in the
family affect the skill acquisition of students in manual trades' courses at a new technician
institute?’

8
Practice Task

1. Is the interest in the area only a sufficient Criteria for Selecting a Problem?

2. What are three main sources of problem situations in educational research?

3. Briefly explain why uniqueness in identification of a research problem is an important

criterion?

4. Briefly explain why researcher’s capability & limitations in identification of a research problem
is an important criterion?

5. Which one of the following variables is dichotomous?

a. Age
b. Gender
c. Intelligence
d. Rank in class

6. Which Problem Areas a researcher should to Avoid while selecting a research problem?
a. Moral and Ethical
b. Philosophical
c. Theological
d. All of these

7. Identify the variables in the following research problem: ‘Effect of Computer Assisted
instruction on the achievement of students in Mathematics’.

9
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

1. No
2. Personal Practical Experiences; Critical Study of Literature; and Interaction with others during seminars,
conferences, in-service programmes.
3. Little is gained by duplicating an existing study as research findings need to expand knowledge.
4. A researcher’s experience will determine the scope of the study as overly ambitious research problem
rarely get completed.
5. b (Gender)
6. d (all of these)
7. there are two variables: Computer Assisted Instruction and Achievement in Mathematics

10
3 Stating the Research Problem
There are two ways of stating the research problem: Question Form OR Statement Form

 Writing the Problem in Question Form

The problem is generally written in question form. For example, what effect has the introduction
of MOOC on Graphics & Animation had on the skill acquisition of graduate students in preparing
Power-point presentations?

 Writing the Problem in Statement Form

Some writers on research methodology suggest that the problem could be written as a
statement. For example, this study is designed to measure the effect of the introduction of
MOOC on Graphics & Animation has had on the skill acquisition of graduate students in
preparing Power-point presentations.

However, one reason why you should favour the question form is because often when problems
are written as statements, they become confused with the purpose. You can see the similarity.
For example, the purpose of this study is to investigate the impact the introduction of an
individualised programme has had on a technician course.

A statement of purpose is a far more generalised statement than a problem statement, but there
is a tendency to let one take the place of the other. For this reason, you are advised to use the
question form for the writing of the research problem as this will enable you to differentiate it from
a statement of purpose. A question also makes it easier to focus on the issue under
investigation.

 Rules to Follow
Problem cab written in a number of ways of - in question form - a single question, several
questions or even one main question with a set of sub-questions or statement form. However,
regardless of which way you write the problem question, there are certain rules to follow.

 Clarity

The problem should be written as explicitly as possible, avoiding unnecessary and ambiguous
words, but at the same time including all those words that are required to make the problem
clear. On analysing your problem clearly, you would know quite specifically what the relevant
variables are and the relationship you would like to investigate.

11
  Avoid Value Statements

It was suggested in the previous unit that you avoid questions relating to moral and
ethical issues. You were also introduced to some value-laden words - "best way",
"bad". Other words in this category include: ‘should’, ‘ought’, ‘better than’, ‘best’, ‘poor’,
etc. Words like these indicate cultural or personal bias, either in the framing of the
question or implied in the answer, and should be avoided at all times.

For example, the question, ‘Should Automotive Engineering students be involved in an

industrial attachment scheme’? is not a well-stated research problem. It could,
however, be re-written as a research problem in a variety of ways, one being: ‘What
effect does an industrial attachment scheme have on the performance of students in an
Automotive Engineering course’? This question implies a particular type of research
that would be designed to measure the "effect" of the scheme on the students’
performance.

On the other hand, the question might become: ‘How do technician teachers perceive
the introduction of an industrial attachment scheme in an Automotive Engineering
course’? To find the results, a completely different type of research would need to be
carried out. In this particular case, technician teachers would be surveyed in a~ attempt
to discover their attitude towards the introduction of an industrial attachment scheme.

 Avoid Dichotomous Questions

Dichotomous questions are those that can be answered in two ways, e.g. Yes or No,
right or wrong, agree or disagree, etc. Problems should not be written as questions
requiring a "yes" or "no" answer. For example, ‘Do automotive engineering students
need an industrial attachment period included in their training course’? Depending on
your point of view, this question could be answered with a simple "yes" or "no". The
question is therefore, not suitable as a research question.

4 Evaluating the Research Problem

After having formulated a well-constructed research question, it is important to consider:

whether the research problem is FEASIBLE, and WORTHWHILE.

It would be most unwise to commence a piece of research without evaluating the problem in

12
these terms. As a result of the evaluation you might find that the problem requires further
refinement to make it amenable to research, or it may have to be discarded completely. It is not
unreasonable to expect to have to rewrite your problem question several times before you are
completely satisfied with it as a problem.

 Is the Problem Feasible?

It is the researcher himself/herself, who is the primary source for evaluating he research problem.
He/she should ask himself/herself a number of questions relating to the feasibility of the
investigating the problem, i.e., whether it is possible for the problem to be solved. The researcher
can seek answers to the questions like:

 Has the problem been specified?

If the problem involves a clear statement of the relationship between two or more variables, then it
should be made possible to measure the relationship in some way - in terms of the degree to which
the variables are related. Has the problem been stated correctly, or does it still contain some of the
vagueness and indeterminacy of a problem situation, or the generality of a purpose statement? If
the problem has not been adequately stated, then it is highly likely that any further research work
would be difficult.

 Is the problem amenable to research?

The question is asking whether the problem is capable of being subjected to scientific
measurement.

 Is the problem too large?

Is the problem manageable? It may be necessary to further refine the problem by
breaking it into smaller units or by reducing the number of variables. Other suggestions
have already been put forward - limiting the size of the sample (the number of people
involved in the study), decreasing the geographical district, etc.

 How available are the data?

This question is related to the one above. One of the criteria for deciding whether a
problem is too large or not, is on the basis of the availability of data. How accessible are
the data? Does the collection of data require you to travel long distances? Do you expect
people to be willing to co-operate? Are there enough people available? No matter how
enthusiastic you are as an educational researcher, the realities of the task of data

13
 collection may force you to modify the problem.

 Am I capable of solving the problem?

Not only does a researcher need certain skills, but he also needs the courage and
determination to carry the study through to completion. You should ask yourself,
 Am I prepared to undertake the research study and complete it?
 Do I possess the necessary skills and abilities required? Or can they be
acquired?
 Can I obtain support and guidance from other more experienced people?
 Do I have sufficient background knowledge in the area?
 Do I have enough time and money?

Consultation with Others

After having considered the above stated questions, it would be wise to consult others
(experienced researchers/interested colleagues or experts in the field) for their informative
feedback. Their feedback might focus on aspects that you have overlooked. They might
suggest alternative approaches or present a different viewpoint or simply help you clarify
your thinking. Their valuable suggestions, at this stage in the research process, would be
most beneficial.

Is the Problem Worthwhile?

The relative worth of a research problem/study may vary from person to person. Teachers,
administrators, curriculum developers and the general public would probably find value in
different research problems. In order to judge whether your research problem is worthwhile,
the researcher may ask himself/herself the question, Will the results be worthwhile, i.e.,
significant?
In answering this question, the researcher is concerned with social factors rather than
focussing on personal factors when looking at the problem feasibility issue.

A researcher would need to ask a few questions when evaluating the worthwhileness of
his/her research problem such as:

 Will the results advance knowledge?

It is necessary to consider the contribution (whether small or large) that the research will
make. If the problem has already been thoroughly investigated, then there is no point in

14
 continuing - the problem should be abandoned. Duplication of problems has been
considered previously in this module.

 Will the research have some value?

Even if the results do not have practical value, the conclusions should be of value to
education. In some instances, the research results may not have practical implications.
This would be the case if the problem was centred around an investigation into, or a
clarification of, educational theory. Results from a study of this nature may have little
direct value for the technician teacher in his day-to-day work and would more likely have
indirect benefits for technician education in general.

 Will the results be of interest to others?

Although the problem will be of particular interest to the researcher, it is also important
that it be of interest to others. Nevertheless, if it is of no interest to anyone but yourself,
what is the value of the study?

5 Writing Research Questions

Quite often after a research problem has been adequately formulated and evaluated, it is
broken down or segmented. This segmentation may take the form of more specific questions.
These questions, referred to as research questions, help the researcher further define what he
is searching for or exploring.

A parallel activity to research question writing is the writing of specific objectives from a general
objective when a teacher is developing a curriculum. The researcher begins with a problem
statement and the teacher starts with a general objective or goal. Next the researcher develops
research questions and the teacher develops specific objectives. Therefore, the research
questions provide explanation and added focus to the study. The suggestions for writing
research questions are given below:

 Review the Problem Statement for its Parts

By reviewing and analysing the problem statement the researcher may be able to dissect it.
That is, it may be possible to identify what comprises the statement. Usually, in the process of
formulating the problem statement, the researcher has thought about, discussed and otherwise
considered may components or parts. Usually in the delineation process, the researcher
delimits the parts into a problem statement. In this step of research question formulation, it is
necessary to open up the statement and identify its parts.

15
Let us consider the following examples:

Problem Statement
Are the fitting and machining skills of mechanical engineers up to the skill level required by local
industry?

By considering and analysing this problem statement it is possible to see three points:

1. The skills of mechanical technicians.

2. The skills required by industry. The real problem leads to a third part which is:
3. The similarities between points one and two. This analysis can lead to the following
three research questions.

Research Questions
1. What level of fitting and machining skills are being taught in institution A?
2. What level of fitting and machining skills are required by local industry in community
A?
3. Is there a between what is taught and what is needed by industry in terms of fitting
and machining skills?

 Review Variables
Another approach to identifying pertinent research questions is to review the list of
variables that you may have considered in writing the problem statement. These
variables account for the major emphases.

Problem Statement
What are the impacts of linkages existing between a technical school and the industry for the
implementation of institutional programmes?

Variables
Impacts
 Employment; Curriculum Content; Skill Performance; Facilities
Linkages
 On-the-job Training; Funding; Communication
From a review of the above variables, it is possible to phrase them into research questions. The
following are two such examples:

16
Research Questions
1. What funding linkages exist between school A and industry?
2. What communication linkages exist between school A and industry?

 Think of Hunches or Guesses of Results

With many studies, the researcher has ideas or hunches about solutions to his problem. These
hunches may later be transformed into hypotheses (considered in the next unit) but may provide
valuable input to the writing of research questions as well. The following example presents a
problem with several hunches. The hunches are then refined as research questions.

Problem Statement
What is the effect of using media on the performance of technician students in teaching
geometrical drawing?

Hunches
Students may be more motivated by media.
Media may better explain some drawing concepts.

Research Questions
1.Will media significantly motivate technician students?
2.Will media provide a more effective means of instruction than non-use?

6 Functions of a Hypothesis

Once a problem situation has been identified and a problem stated in a researchable form, the
researcher's task to find an answer to the problem becomes easier. However, it is necessary for
the researcher to develop a hypothesis, if the answer to the question cannot be found from
within the body of knowledge already in existence.

A hypothesis is actually a tentative solution or an educated guess. It attempts to describe the

nature of the relationship between the variables identified in the problem. A hypothesis is an
attempt to suggest a possible answer to the problem based on available facts or information that
the researcher already knows.

All of us construct hypotheses in our everyday life. For example, when items are lost, or when
something does not act in the normal way, people construct hypotheses that direct them to
finding the solution to a question. We ask ourselves questions like, Where did I leave my house

17
key? What is that throbbing sound?; Why didn't the parcel by mail arrive?

Perhaps, in order to solve the problem, we attempt to link what is known and what is not known
and suggest a possible reason or solution and hence, in this way we are hypothesising.

For example, consider the problem of the lost scooter key. In an attempt to locate it, you would
probably look in the place where it is normally kept and also in places where the key might have
been lost. If you fail to locate the key, you might retrace your movements and ask others
whether they have seen it. You would be building up a store of information (known facts about
where the key is not located).

You would probably try to think of as many places as possible where it could be. Maybe it has
accidentally been placed inside some of your papers? Or maybe someone is playing a joke. By
eliminating some alternatives that you feel couldn't possibly be locations for the key, you come
up with a tentative solution - a hypothesis, if you like....

You have dropped the key and someone has probably picked it up and handed it in to the
general office! When you have a moment to spare you will walk over to the general office and
enquire. But your problem is still not solved - it won't be solved until you put your suggestion to
the test by walking over to the general office to find out whether the key is there or not.

Problem-solving in educational research also requires hypotheses that direct the researchers in
how to go about solving the problem. Having suggested a possible solution, a researcher can
put his hypothesis to the test. He can collect and analyse his data and, as a result, either
support or reject his hypothesis.

In educational research, problems indicate a relationship between variables. Hypotheses

suggest what that relationship is.

Problem: How does father's occupation and student's position in the family affect the skill
acquisition of students in digital electronics course at an institute?

Hypothesis: The combination of two factors: relative position in the family and father's occupation have
a positive relationship with student performance on a test of practical skills.

In the hypothesis, the relationship between the variables has been suggested – a positive relationship -
and there is an indication of how to test the hypothesis. You would need to find out how students

18
perform on a test of practical skills and see whether this correlates with father's occupation and position
in the family.
If you put this hypothesis to the test and find that there is a positive relationship, then your hypothesis is
supported. On the other hand, if you find no relationship then your hypothesis would be rejected.

6.1 Definition of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is the tentative guess suggested as solution to a problem or an explanation of some
observed state of affairs. It is the sentence or statement of the problem that describes researcher's
expectations about relationship between variables within a problem.

A hypothesis, the most powerful tool at disposal of the researcher, can be used to solve simple or
complex problems. A hypothesis indicates exactly which variables to examine and what relationship
to look for and as such provides the research a direction which the problem definition fails to
establish. A research problem must be tested through the hypothesis that it generates.

What do Hypotheses Do?

1. A hypothesis gives a statement of a relationship that is empirically testable and can be
found to be either true or false.
2. A hypothesis gives direction to a study. It would be uneconomical and worthless to collect
an enormous amount of data without some idea of the possible outcomes.
3. A hypothesis is evidence that a researcher has a sufficient background of knowledge in an
area to be able to suggest relationships and explanations that can extend the body of
knowledge already in existence.
4. A hypothesis gives continuity to a study by providing a basis for drawing conclusions from
the study. Adapted from Charles D Hopkins (1976).

It makes no difference to the outcome of the study whether the hypothesis is supported or not. No
professional reputation is at stake! The more important concern of the educational researcher is in
making sure that the research process is undertaken in a systematic and scientific way. There is no
place in educational research for studies that support hypotheses yet are lacking in the necessary
research procedures.

A piece of research is not a failure if it fails to support the hypothesis. Positive results merely
support the hypothesis, whereas negative results indicate that the results failed to support the
hypothesis.

19
If a well-conducted research study has been undertaken to test the assumptions of the hypothesis,
then the results are important not whether or not the hypothesis has been supported.

6.2 Writing Hypotheses

Hypotheses should be written after a review of the literature has been carried out and a problem
has been selected for study. Unless an educational researcher is aware of what knowledge already
exists and that the problem is that he wishes to research, then he Hill be unable to write a
hypothesis.

Hypothesis-writing is made easier if the researcher has a clearly defined problem question from
which to formulate his hypothesis. If a problem question does not meet the criteria that were
established, then it may be quite difficult to answer with an appropriate hypothesis.

The precondition, then, for writing a hypothesis is to have a well- written problem question. There
are some rules to follow for writing hypotheses:

 Write the Hypothesis as a Statement

In the previous unit you were given some guidelines about writing research problems and
you were advised to write the problem in question form. The hypothesis, however, should be
written as a statement. Can you see the reason why? The research problem relates to the
question that needs answering and the hypothesis serves to provide an answer to the
question.

If you consider the functions of a hypothesis, i.e. to direct the investigation and to indicate a
relationship existing between variables, then it is natural that it should be written in the form
of a statement.

 Define the Terms Precisely

Hypotheses should give a very clear statement of what the tentative relationship between
variables is. In order for the variables to be measured, they should be clearly written and
defined in operational terms if need be. If a large number of terms need further definition
they should appear immediately after the statement of the hypothesis. For example, consider
the research hypothesis, ‘Girls in polytechnics are superior in intelligence to boys in
polytechnics’. In order to test this hypothesis, it would be necessary to measure the
intelligence of girls in polytechnics and the intelligence of boys in polytechnics and then
investigate whether there is any difference in the results. But what is meant by 'intelligence'?

20
 How would it be measured?

It would be necessary to further define the concept to stipulate what is meant by the term so
that the variable can be measured. The hypothesis could then become, ‘Girls in polytechnics
are superior in intelligence as measured using the Stanford - Binet test of Intelligence to
boys in polytechnics’.
A better way to write the hypothesis is: ‘Girls in polytechnics are superior in intelligence to
boys in polytechnics. Intelligence is measured using the Stanford - Binet test of Intelligence’.

 Use as Many Hypotheses as Required

A researcher will usually have more than one hypothesis to test. Some research studies
could have quite a large number of hypotheses. A single hypothesis can only refer to one
relationship between the variables. Perhaps it is important to test a number of relationships.
In educational research this is most likely going to be the case. Since education is such an
interactive and complex process it will probably present quite complex problems that require
a number of possible explanations.

Consider the question, ‘What is the relationship, if any, of teacher talk to student
performance in principles of drafting’? There are a number of hypotheses that could be
generated from this problem question. Both teacher talk and student performance could be
measured in a number of ways.

Teacher Talk: Amount of time devoted to talk; Whether direct or non-direct, loud or soft,
friendly or unfriendly, clear or unclear; Possessing certain communication skills, etc.

Student Performance: Achievement as measured by a particular test; Concentration on the

task at hand; Cooperation or non-cooperation, etc.

Examples of possible hypotheses:

a. The amount of time a teacher talks as measured by a percentage of total time
available has a negative relationship with student scores on a test of principles of
drafting.
b. The amount of time devoted to indirect teacher talk as a percentage of the amount
of time a teacher talks has a positive relationship with student scores on a test of
principles of drafting. Indirect teacher talk will be measured using the Riley Verbal
Interaction Scale.

21
  Write the Hypothesis Clearly
Hypotheses should be unambiguous. At the same time, they should be as simple as
possible while still taking into account all the necessary facts. A hypothesis does not serve
as a literary masterpiece but as a scientific tool of value to the educational researcher.

A hypothesis must:
1. Be written prior to the collection of data.
2. Be written as a statement.
3. Indicate the relationship between variables.
4. Include terms that are precisely defined.
5. Be clearly written.
6. Satisfy the requirements of the problem. It may be necessary to have more than one
hypothesis.

6.3 Different Types of Hypotheses

 Research Hypothesis
A researcher may use either of two types of hypotheses. The type chosen will depend on the
nature of the problem. You have been introduced to one of these - the research hypothesis
which states an expected outcome between variables. It is also called the alternative hypothesis.

 Null Hypothesis
A second type of hypothesis - the null hypothesis is most useful to educational researchers. In
contrast to the research hypothesis it denies that any significant relationship exists between the
variables.

For example, a teacher of a subject might decide to use one particular teaching method (lecture)
with one group of students, another teaching method (directed questioning) with another group,
and then test the two groups on their knowledge of the content of the lessons in an attempt to
measure the effects of different teaching methods on student performance.

The null hypothesis would be: ‘There is no difference in the test scores of students exposed to
two different teaching methods, the lecture technique and the directed questioning technique’.

The researcher attempts to find evidence to reject the null hypothesis. For the scores for each
group on the test, the means can be calculated X a and Xb). If one mean is greater than the other,

22
then the teacher (researcher) might assume that the particular teaching method used with the
group scoring the highest mean was the most effective method.

If the two groups were not equally matched then he would have a sampling error, and if
he exposed the two groups to the same treatment or to no treatment at all, he still may
get a difference in the performance of the two groups simply because of the differences
samples. The difference in mean scores may not be the result of the differential
treatment. In order to interpret the results, the researcher needs to ask:

 How great is the difference between the two means?

 Could the difference in the two means have occurred as a result of a sampling
 error?
 Or was the difference so great that it would have only rarely happened by
chance?

Statistical tests can be carried out to help answer questions of this kind. Small
differences could have been the result of a sampling error whereas large differences
could be credited to the effects of the different teaching methods. To determine whether
the difference between the means is a large difference or an unusual difference the
researcher needs to know just how likely it would be to achieve the same result from a
number of groups of students.

Fortunately, statisticians have prepared numerous tables for all sorts of problems that
set out the probability or the likelihood of this result occurring. Traditionally in the social
sciences, researchers have favoured a 5 per cent and a 1 per cent probability level.

What Does this Mean?

A researcher will allow some sampling to affect the results. In the case of a 5 per cent
level of probability', he would make allowance for the result to be obtained 5 times out of
every hundred (100) by chance. At the 1 per cent level, he would allow only one
occasion in every hundred for the result to have been obtained' by chance.

If a researcher decides to allow a 1 per cent level of probability (p < .01) then he would
have a 99 per cent level of confidence in his results. That is, on 99 occasions out of
every 100, the result should occur from the effect of the different treatments rather than

23
 by chance. So, if the difference in the means is so great that they occur at the 1 per cent
level of probability, then this researcher could consider his results to be significant.

If this occurs, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no relationship, would be
rejected. In rejecting the null hypothesis, the researcher would feel confident that the
difference in results that could have occurred by chance, would be remote.

It is to remember that the null hypothesis is a statistical proposition that states there is no
relation between the variables identified in the problem.

Like research hypotheses, null hypotheses (a) need to be written as a statement, and (b)
should be precisely written with terms defined, and there could be more than one for
each research problem.
If you feel you have understood what is meant by a null hypothesis move on to the
practice tasks.

6.4 Evaluating a Hypothesis

Like problems, hypotheses need to be evaluated. Is the hypothesis satisfactory? On the

basis of certain criteria, a researcher can judge whether his hypothesis is suitable. He
may need to ask the following questions.

 Is the Hypothesis Plausible?

The researcher should consider whether the relationship between the variables he has
suggested is plausible, i.e. logical.

 Has the Hypothesis Been Developed Prior to Collecting the Data?

It is important for hypotheses to be written prior to the data being collected. The
information sought in the data collection stage of the research process should be in
support of, or against the suggested relationship stated in the hypothesis. If it does not
serve this purpose, there really is not much point in collecting the data.

Hypotheses are developed directly from research problems and are then tested to see
whether the relationships actually exist. They should not be formulated on the basis of
the data collected.

 Is the Hypothesis Testable?

24
 One of the functions of a research hypothesis is to direct the researcher in the design of
his study and in the selection of measuring instruments. To do this the hypothesis must
clearly define the variables and clearly indicate how the variables are to be related and
measured.

Again, the hypothesis writer must avoid terms that express value judgements. A
hypothesis that includes such vague terms raises questions of value rather than
statements of relationships.

 Is the Hypothesis based on Known Facts?

Once a researcher has observed a situation, extracted relevant explanations for the
phenomenon and generated a hypothesis, he must return to a study of the literature in
order to refine his thinking. This could result in the abandonment of a hypothesis, in the
modification of his original hypothesis, or in the addition of several hypotheses.
Conversations with experts, as well as an extensive review of the literature, will help the
researcher clarify or even reject his original hypothesis.

The most useful hypotheses explain more than just a few isolated facts. They attempt to
explain all the relevant facts in a situation in an attempt to build a theory - cognitive
theory, a learning theory, etc.

This is, however, a difficult task for the novice researcher but the more consequences
hypotheses can yield, the more useful they are. The value of a hypothesis is increased if
it establishes generalizations that are applicable to many educational areas.

If, on the other hand, hypotheses are built on existing theories or on situations readily
observed, then the results will add to the existing body of knowledge.

 Is the Hypothesis Simply Written in Statement Form?

The more parsimonious a hypothesis is, the better. A hypothesis should be stated with
the least amount of complexity. This does not mean it should have fewer words, but it
should be written as simply as possible yet still taking into account all the known facts.

Some researchers have such an intense desire to confirm their hypothesis that they find
it difficult to consider alter- native viewpoints. A researcher, who put forward the
hypothesis that, ‘all educational researchers are frustrated scientists’, might busily engage

25
himself in the task of finding out what proportions of educational researchers are either
ex- scientists or who have sympathetic leanings towards science as a discipline. His
commitment to his hypothesis might cause him to overlook other, perhaps relevant,
information Maybe they are people who consider research to be important perhaps they
are seeking promotion or a higher degree perhaps they possess certain personality
characteristics; maybe they desire recognition.
A researcher needs to look at a problem objectively and to generate a hypothesis that
will meet certain criteria:
1. It should be plausible
2. It should be developed prior to the collection of data.
3. It has to be testable.
4. It needs to be based on known facts.
5. It should be simply in statement form.

Let us take an example of the topic, ‘Effect of Video Assisted Instruction and
Computer Based Concept mapping on Achievement in Mathematics in relation
to Emotional intelligence & Attitude towards Technology’, write its objectives:

 To study the effect of different instructional strategies on achievement of

students in Mathematics
 To study the differences in achievement of students in Mathematics with
different levels of EI
 To study the differences in achievement of students in Mathematics with
different levels of attitude towards technology
 To study the interactional effect of instructional strategies and EI on
achievement in mathematics
 To study the interactional effect of instructional strategies and attitude
towards technology on achievement in mathematics
 To study the interactional effect of EI and attitude towards technology on
achievement in mathematics
 To
study the interactional effect of instructional strategies, EI and attitude
towards technology on achievement in mathematics

26
7. Summary
In this module, we have presented that part of the research process that deals with locating a problem
situation, selecting and delimiting a problem and generating hypotheses. Various sources were considered
as avenues of problem location and particular areas of interest to researchers in technician education were
highlighted.

Criteria for selecting a problem and for evaluating it were presented and some guidelines were established
for writing both problems and hypotheses. Both the research hypothesis and the null hypothesis were
discussed in relation to their functions and some questions to consider for evaluating hypotheses were put
forward.

Experienced researchers realise the importance of the role of problems, research questions and
hypotheses in any type of educational research. Without a clearly defined problem and well-established
hypotheses or research questions the task of carrying the research through to completion is made more
difficult.

Selecting and developing instruments and collecting and analysing data are viewed by many as the
exciting and stimulating parts of the research process and, in their haste to reach this stage, researchers
often telescope the time spent on reviewing the literature and defining the problem. Neglect in the planning
stages can create unnecessary problems and difficulties in the latter part of the research activity. You
should be aware that research instruments are a means to an end, not an end in themselves. As you
become more experienced in the area of educational research and put some of the principles into practice
you will become more appreciative of the role that problem definition, research questions and hypotheses
play in the research process.

27
Practice Task

8. What are the two ways of stating the research problem?

9. Briefly explain why the following statement (A bad lifestyle is the main cause of
inattentiveness in class) should NOT be the basis for a research study?

10. Write the research questions for the study on ‘Effect of Problem Based Learning on the
performance of first year electronics engineering students in digital electronics in relation to
their learning style’.

11. Explain the need of formulating hypothesis (es) in a research study?

12. Write three objectives for a study on, ‘Effect of Problem Based Learning on the
performance of first year electronics engineering students in digital electronics’

28
Feedback next page

29
 Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

8. Question Form and Statement Form

9. Contains value judgements (bad life style and main cause).
10. The research questions are:
a. Will PBL significantly motivate first year electronics engineering students in digital
electronics?
b. Will PBL provide a more effective means of instruction than non-use?

11. A hypothesis gives direction to a study. It would be uneconomical and worthless to collect an enormous
amount of data without some idea of the possible outcomes.
12. Following are the objectives of the study:
a. To study the effect of Problem Based Learning on the performance of first year electronics
engineering students in digital electronics.
b. To study the differences in achievement of first year electronics engineering students in
digital electronics with differential learning style.
c. To study the interactional effect of instructional strategies and learning style on
achievement of first year electronics engineering students in digital electronics

30
References
[

 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York: Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of Materials
and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 3 (Selecting
and Defining a Research Problem), Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician
Education.
 Garrett, HE and Woodsworth, RS (2003). Statistics in Psychology and Education, Bombay:
Vakils Fetter and Simons.
 Gay, LR (2000). Educational Research, Ohio: Charles E Merril Publishing.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with SPSS
Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kumar, R (2016). Research Methodology – A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. New
Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., Third Printing, 399pp.
 Shoket, M (2014). Research Problem: Identification and Formulation. International Journal
of Research, Vol. 1, Issue 4, May, 2014; ISSN 2348-6848.
 Tatke, J (2009). Research Methodology. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning.

Support learning resources:

 Video film on ‘Selecting a Research Problem’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)

Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Defining a Research Problem and Writing Research Questions’
developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Farooq, U (2013). Selection of Research Problem.
http://www.studylecturenotes.com/social-research-methodology/selection-of-research-
problem.
 Patel, B (2014). Selection of Research Problem.
https://www.slideshare.net/biniyapatel/selection-of-research-problem.
 https://www.umflint.edu/library/how-select-research-topic.
 Selecting a Research Problem & Topics in Research Methodology (2017).
https://professortoday.com/selecting-a-research-problem/

31
 UNIT II

4.1a: Descriptive Research:

Survey Research
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1-2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

2. Types of Descriptive Research 5

3. Survey Research 5-6

3.1 Types of Survey Research
5
3.1.1 Population survey
5
3.1.2 Sample survey
Practice Task 7

Feedback 8

3.2 Steps in the Process of Planning and Conducting Survey 9-14

Research
9
3.2.1 Select a problem
11
3.2.2 Review of related literature
3.2.3 Decide the techniques and procedure for data 13
collection
14
3.2.4 Collect data
14
3.2.5 Analysis of data
3.2.6 Report writing 14

Practice Task 15

Feedback 16

References 17
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: SURVEY RESEARCH

Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Define descriptive research
 Explain the three different types of descriptive research
 Define survey research
 Differentiate among the various types of survey
 Describe the procedure for conducting survey research

1. Introduction

Descriptive research as the name indicates involves description of existing processes,

phenomena, conditions etc. “Descriptive research is concerned with conditions or
relationships that exist, practices that are held, processes that are going on, effects that
are being felt, or trends that developing” (Best, 1970). The purpose of descriptive
research is to describe the current status of a variable of interest to the researcher.
There are a number of questions, which can be answered through descriptive research.
Some of these questions may include the following:

 What differences exist among the learners with respect to the physical, cognitive,
social and emotional characteristics?

 What are the learners’ expectations from the course?

 Which are the instructional strategies used by teachers to facilitate attainment of

learning outcomes in various domains?

 Which are the instructional media integrated in teaching learning?

 What are the reactions of learners towards teaching learning strategies adopted
to achieve learning outcomes?

 Which assessment techniques are preferred by teachers to assess learners’

performance in theory and practical work?’

 What is the degree of utilization of various resources (physical, information,

human and financial) in degree level institutions in the State of Himachal Pradesh

 What are the qualifications and experience of teachers working in technical

institutions in Punjab?

1
  What is the level of job satisfaction of teachers working in technical institutions in
Haryana?

 How many Government, Government Aided and Self- Financed Institutions are
offering scholarships to students under various government schemes?

 What is the average pass percentage from various programmes offered by

various diploma level institutions in Chandigarh?

 Why do institutions in the NCR region collaborate with each other?

 How IIT, Bombay is able to undertake collaborative research?

 How YMCA, Faridabad is able to ensure placement of students?

 How Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology is able to resolve inter
faculty conflicts with in the institution?

 What are the major drawbacks in the question papers of Rajasthan Technical
University?

 What is the quality of Power Point slides used by teachers of technical institutions
in the state of Delhi?

The answers to these questions require the researcher to undertake descriptive

research.

2
Practice Task
1. Explain the purpose of descriptive research.

2. Which of the following questions can be answered through descriptive research?

Put a tick mark.
i. What are the employer’s reactions towards pass-outs from private engineering
colleges?
ii. Which is the dominant leadership style used by Directors of University Institutes
of Engineering & Technology in HP?
iii. What is the effect of collaborative learning on achievement of Applied Physics of
first year students?
iv. What is the relationship between teachers’ experience and teaching
effectiveness?
v. What is the opinion of learners towards semester system?

3
Feedback
1. Purpose of descriptive research

 To describe the existing conditions, processes and opinions

2. Questions that can be answered by descriptive research
I
Ii
V

4
2. Types of Descriptive Research
Descriptive research can be of three types as shown in Figure 1.

Descriptive Research

Survey Research Case Study Content analysis

Research

Fig.1: Types of Descriptive Research

3. Survey Research
Survey research is “an attempt to collect data from members of population in order to
determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables”
(Gay, 1990). According to Cohen & Manion (2000),” surveys gathers data at a particular
point in time with an intention to (a) describing the nature of existing conditions,
(b) identifying standards against which the existing conditions can be compared and
(c) determining the relationships that exist between specific events”.
Survey research, thus, answer questions related to ‘WHAT IS’.

3.1 Types of Survey Research

Surveys can be classified as

 Population Survey
 Sample Survey
3.1.1 Population survey: An attempt is made to acquire data from each and
every member of the population. Census in the country is the best example of
population survey. A population survey in education research is usually
conducted when a population is relatively small and easily accessible.

3.1.2 Sample survey: In a sample survey, an attempt is made to infer about the
population of interest based upon the response of a selected sample drawn from

5
the population. The Sample drawn is either simple random sample or stratified
random sample.

When the information is collected at some point of time from a sample, which
hopefully represents relevant sub-groups in the population, it is referred to as
cross-sectional survey.

When the data are collected over a period of time and each year data is
compared with other years, this is referred to as longitudinal surveys.
Longitudinal designs can be (Cohen and Manion, 1980):

Trend design: Surveying a particular group, say students of polytechnics, over a

period of say three years.

Cohort design: Study a particular group over time, but the people in the group
may vary. Specific population is followed over a period of time say, teachers who
acquired masters in Engineering Education in 1994, but the samples would vary.

Panel design: Collecting data from the same sample from a population over a
period of time.

Follow-up studies: Collecting data or information from the pass-outs from a

system over a period of time e.g. Tracer studies

6
Practice Task

1. Explain the purpose of survey research.

2. Differentiate between population and sample survey.

3. Enlist the various longitudinal designs for survey studies.

7
Feedback

1. Purposes of survey research

 Explain the current status

 Identify standards
 Determine relationships between events
2. In population survey data is collected from each and every unit of population,
while in sample survey, data is collected from the selected units of population.

3. Longitudinal designs include:

 Trend study
 Cohort study
 Panel study
 Follow-up studies

8
3.2 Steps in the Process of Planning and Conducting Survey Research

The major steps involved in the process of conducting survey research are as
following (CPSC, 1984; Gay, Mills and Ariasian, 2012):

 Select and define the problem

 Review related literature
 Decide the techniques and procedures for data collection
 Select a sample
 Select/design tools/measuring instruments for collection of
data/information
 Data collection procedure
 Decide the statistical techniques
 Collect data
 Analyze data
 Prepare report of survey research

3.2.1 Select a problem: There are a variety of sources for selecting a research
problem: personal experience, inference from theory, review of related literature
and technological and social changes. The first step in selecting a problem is to
identify a general problem area that is related to your area of expertise and of
particular interest to you. Selection of the problem should be done taking into
consideration the factors such as interest, size, economy, researchers’ capability
and limitations and uniqueness.

Before a researcher can proceed with the study, it is essential for him/her to
covert his tentative ideas into a researchable problem. Fig.2 shows the steps
involved in formulating/analyzing a research problem.

9
 Problem situation

Preliminary list of possible

contributing factors and
explanation

Elimination of irrelevant facts

List of probable relevant facts

and explanations

Basic assumptions
(theory)

Research problem

Fig.2: Steps in formulating a problem

It is always desirable to limit the size of the problem in terms of variables.

Problems can be written either in a question form or statement form or in terms of
purpose. Brief rationale and the outcomes may be included in the statement of
the problem. Before finalizing the problem, researcher should examine the issues
of research ability and worthwhileness.

Writing research objectives or questions

Once a research problem has been finalized, it is broken down to specific
research objectives or research questions. For example:

Problem
Determine the current status of women faculty in the polytechnics of J&K.

Research objectives
 Determine the number of female teachers working at different levels in the
polytechnics of J&K
 Determine the number of women teachers at different levels with degree
and post-degree qualifications

10
  Determine the number of female teachers who have upgraded their
qualifications
 Identify the contributions of women faculty in terms of research and
innovations in teaching learning in the polytechnics of J&K
 Identify the career prospects for a women faculty in the polytechnics of
J&K
 Suggest strategies for enhancing women’s participation in technical
education

Problem: Degree of utilization of various resources in the polytechnics of Delhi?

Research questions

 What is the extent of utilization of physical resources in the polytechnics of

Delhi?
 What is the extent of utilization of information resources (print and non-
print) in the polytechnics of Delhi?
 What is the extent of utilization of financial resources in the polytechnics
of Delhi?
 What is the extent of utilization of human resources (both faculty and staff)
in the polytechnics of Delhi?
 What are the problems in optimal utilization of various resources in the
polytechnics of Delhi?

Research objectives or research questions stated clearly provide clear-cut

direction to the research study in terms of information needs and design.

3.2.2 Review of related literature: Before starting reading the related

literature, it is essential that you raise a few questions to which you would
like to find an answer to. The questions may pertain to definition of variables,
objectives/research questions, hypotheses, research design, sampling
procedures, measurements of variables/tools, statistical techniques, findings
etc. The questions provide direction in review of related literature. Both
primary and secondary sources of information should be referred to in order
to limit the scope of the problem, define the problem, avoid unnecessary
repetition, search new approaches, recommend or adopt suitable
approaches and sample current opinion (CPSC, 1984). You should
11
 summarize the information and ensure the completeness and accuracy of
information.

Formulate hypotheses

On the basis of the review of related literature, you may like to formulate
hypotheses for the study. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviours, phenomena or events that have occurred or will occur. Hypothesis
can either be null or alternate. Null hypothesis states that there exists no
relationship between the variables being studied or the differences between the
two groups. For example,
 ‘There is no significant difference between the degree of utilization of
laboratories and workshops in single technology institutes and polytechnics
in Punjab’.
 ‘There is no significant difference in the scores obtained in the entrance test
for polytechnics by students from vocational stream and general stream’.
Alternate hypothesis can either be directional or non- directional. Directional
hypothesis states the direction of relationship between two or more variables
being studied or difference between two groups being studied. For example,

 ‘Degree of utilization of laboratories and workshops is significantly more in

Single Technology Institutes as compared to Polytechnics in Punjab’
 ‘Students from vocational stream have significantly higher scores in the
entrance test for polytechnics than the students from general stream’

Non-directional hypothesis states relationship between two or more variables

being studied or differences exist between two groups being studied but does not
indicate the direction of relationship or differences. For Example:

 There are significant differences in the degree of utilization of laboratories

and workshops in Single Technology Institutes and Polytechnics in Punjab.
 Students from vocational and general stream show significantly different
performance in the entrance test for polytechnics.

12
3.2.3 Decide the techniques and procedure for data collection
Select the sample
First of all, decide the population on which you would like to generalize the
findings of the study keeping in view the objectives or research questions. For
example, population refers to all technical teachers in India or technical
teachers in the state of Haryana. Once the population has been defined, the
question of taking the sample is addressed. You need to decide whether
probability sampling technique or non-probability sampling technique will be
used. The details of the sample design, its size and the specific procedures
used for selecting unit, will influence directly the precision of sample estimates.

The size of the sample should be large enough for generalizability of the
findings of the study. For descriptive studies, a sample of 10% of the large
population is considered minimum. For smaller population, 20% of the
population may be selected.

Select/develop tools/measuring instruments for collection of

data/information

There are four types of tools or measuring instruments, which can be used for
collecting relevant data and information for the survey. These include:
Questionnaires, Interview Schedules, Observation Schedules and Standardized
tests. Research questions or research objectives and the variables of study will
provide the direction as to which technique or techniques will be useful in
collecting data. For example, if you are interested in studying the qualification
and experience of teachers, questionnaire is best suited; if you are interested in
finding out how teachers communicate in classes, observation of teachers’
classroom behavior becomes important and thus observation schedule would
be required. And if you are interested in finding an answer to why teachers
communicate in a specific way, interview schedule would be required.

Data collection procedure

Decisions are made as how the data is to be collected and who are the people
to be involved in data collection. For example, whether the questionnaire is to
be mailed or personally administered, observation of actual process is to be

13
made once or twice and by whom, and who is likely to interview whom and
when.

Decide about the statistical techniques to be used. Keeping in view the

research questions and hypotheses, select the appropriate statistical
techniques for analysis of data.

3.2.4 Collect data: Data collection is an important step in conducting research,

as the findings of your study are likely to be affected by the nature of data
collected. Data is to be collected strictly as per the research design
requirements. You need to prepare all the material, seek prior approval from
competent authority, train people for data collection, if more than one is
involved, ensure confidentiality etc.

3.2.5 Analysis of data: Before you proceed to data analysis, Code the data
and prepare summary sheets. Carry out statistical analysis- descriptive
statistics or inferential statistics based on your research design and research
questions.

3.2.6 Report writing: The last step is writing a research report. The research
report can include; Preliminary materials (Title page, Acknowledgements, Table
of Contents, List of Tables, List of Illustrations, Abstract), body of the report
(introduction, review of related literature, methodology, analysis of data and
results), summary and conclusions, references and appendix, if any. The survey
report is now ready for circulation. The report should be widely circulated so that
various stakeholders can take necessary actions.

14
Practice Task
1. The following are the steps in undertaking survey research. Write the correct
sequence of the step in the space provided.
------ Review related literature
------ Select and define the problem
------ Write research questions or objectives of the survey
------ Collect data
------ Formulate hypotheses
------ Analyze data
------ Decide on the techniques and procedures for data collection
------ Prepare report of survey research
2. For the hypotheses given below, indicate the type of hypothesis in the space
provided
Hypothesis Type of Hypothesis
There are differences in the entry
level performance of students in
government and private institutions.
There is no significant difference in
the performance of boys and girls
of Electronics & Communication
Engineering in the state of
Maharashtra.
The staff in Government
engineering college is significantly
more experienced than private
engineering colleges.
There are differences in the salary
paid to teachers in government and
private technical institutions

3. Write the three types of tools which can be used for collection of data.

15
Feedback
1. The sequence of steps in undertaking survey research is
i. Select and define the problem
ii. Write research questions or objectives of the survey
iii. Review related literature
iv. Formulate hypotheses
v. Decide on the techniques and procedures for data collection
vi. Collect data
vii. Analyze data
viii. Prepare report of survey research

2. Type of hypothesis
Hypothesis Type of Hypothesis
There are differences in the entry Non-directional Hypothesis
level performance of students in
government and private institutions.
There is no significant difference in Null Hypothesis
the performance of boys and girls of
Electronics & Communication
Engineering in the state of
Maharashtra.
The staff in Government engineering Directional Hypothesis
college is significantly more
experienced than private engineering
colleges.
There are differences in the salary Non-directional Hypothesis
paid to teachers in government and
private technical institutions
There are no differences in the Null Hypothesis
motivation level of students in
polytechnics, engineering colleges
and technical universities.

3. Tools that can be used for collection of data are:

 Questionnaires
 Observation schedules
 Interview schedules
16
 References
 CPSC. (1984). Selecting And Describing Research Design (Module 4).
Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College.
 Cohen, Lewis and Manion, L. (1980) Research Methods in Education, London:
Croom Helm.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational Research:
Competencies for Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.

Web resources for further reading

 Bhattacherji, Anol. Survey Research, Chapter 9. In Social science research:
Principles, Methods and Practices. (2012)
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=oa_text
books
 Owens, Linda K. (2002) Introduction to survey research design.
http://www.srl.uic.edu/seminars/Intro/Intro_to_survey_design.pdf
 Ross, Kenneth N. (2005). Sample Design for Education Survey. Quantitative
research methods in educational planning. UNESCO International Institute for
Educational Planning.

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002145/214550e.pdf
 Siniscalco, Maria Teresa; Auriat, Nadia (2005) Questionnaire design: Module 8,
Quantitative research methods in educational planning. UNESCO International I
Institute for Educational Planning.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002145/214550e.pdf
 Survey research methods. Web Centre for social research Methods.
https://socialresearchmethods.net/kb/survey.php
 Survey Research. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=68
 Survey Research. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/pdfs/guide68.pdf

17
 UNIT II

4.1b: Descriptive Research:

Case Study Research
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Case Study Research: Concept 1-2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

3. Designing Case Studies 5-9

3.1 State Research Questions or Objectives of a Case Study 5

3.2 Sate the Propositions 6

3.3 Describe case study approach 7

3.3.1 Select unit of analysis 7

3.3.2 Select sources of evidence 7

3.3.3 Select/develop tools for data collection 8

3.3.4 Describe data collection procedure 8

3.3.5 Preparing for data collection 8

3. 4 Collect data 9

3.5 Analyze Data and Interpret Results 9

Practice Task 10

Feedback 12

References 13
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: CASE STUDY

Learning Outcomes:
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Define case study
 Enlist the characteristics of case study research.
 Explain the steps involved in case study research.
 Enlist the skills needed to carry out case study research.

1. Introduction

Case studies are a type of descriptive research. “The purpose of such studies is to probe
deeply and to analyze intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle of
unit with a view to establishing generalizations about the wider population to which the unit
belongs” (Cohen and Manion, 1980). Case studies have a number of advantages that make
them attractive to researchers. These include: case study data is strong in reality, they allow
generalizations either about an instance or from an instance to a class, recognize the
complexity and embedded ness of social truth, the insights gained through case study may
be directly interpreted and put into action, Case studies, considered as products, may form
an archive of descriptive material sufficiently rich to admit subsequent interpretation and
present research or evaluation data in a more accessible form than other kinds of research
reports (Adelman, Jenkins and Kemmis, 1980).

2. Case Study Research: Concept

“A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in its

real life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” (Yin, 1984).

Case study research includes both single case studies (dealing with an individual,
organization or an institution) and multiple case studies (collection of case studies of
individuals or organization or institutions having similar characteristics). The main
characteristics of case study research method are:
 It is an intensive study of social unit.
 Observation is the primary technique of gathering information.
 It examines a small number of units but the number of variable studied for the unit is
large.

1
Case studies help the researchers to answer “how” and “why” questions. There are many
instances, where one can take up case study. For example, when you are concerned with
questions such as:
 How the institutions attained the ISO certification?
 How teachers at CU are able to constitute interdisciplinary teams for project work?
 How Indo Swiss Training Institute, Chandigarh is able to secure placement for
students?
 How NITTTR, Chandigarh could encourage students for startups?
 Why students of ISTC, Chandigarh are able to acquire skills?
 How decisions are made in the BOGs of Chandigarh University?
 Why PSG institute of Technology is able to network with industry?

case study research is the appropriate strategy.

2
Practice Task

1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Case Study Research?

a) An in-depth investigation of a phenomenon

b) Involves representative sample from population
c) Studies multiple variables
d) Collects data from multiple sources

2. Put a tick mark in the column against the questions that can be answered through Case
Study Research

Question

Why students of a particular teacher are able to score more than

80% marks in each examination?
Why do students bunk class of a particular subject?
Why Nikhil create indiscipline problem in every class?
What are the reasons for mass bunks in technical institutions?
How IIT , Bombay is able to secure rank in top five hundred in Times
Higher Education Ranking ?
What are the entry level qualifications of students admitted in first
year of degree programme in computer science in the state of UP?
What is the impact of TEQIP on the technical education system in
India?

3
Feedback

1. NOT a characteristic of Case Study Research

(b) Involves representative sample from population

2. Questions that can be answered through case study research.

Question Answered
through
Case Study
Yes No
Why students of a particular teacher are able to √
score more than 80% marks in each
examination?
Why do students bunk class of a particular √
subject?
Why Nikhil create indiscipline problem in every √
class?
What are the reasons for mass bunks in
technical institutions?
How IIT , Bombay is able to secure rank in top √
five hundred in Times Higher Education
Ranking ?
What are the entry level qualifications of
students admitted in first year of degree
programme in computer science in the state of
UP?
What is the impact of TEQIP on the technical
education system in India?

4
3. Designing Case Studies

Research design is a plan that guides the investigator/researcher in the process of

collecting, analyzing and interpreting the observations. It is a logical model of proof that
allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relations among the variables
under investigation. In other words it is a blue print of research, dealing with at least four
problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect and how to
analyze the results. The major steps in conducting a case study are:
 State the research questions or the objectives of study
 State the propositions
 Describe Case Study approach
 Select unit of analysis
 Identify sources of evidence
 Select/develop data collection tools
 Describe data collection procedure
 Collect data
 Analyze and interpret the results

3.1 State Research Questions or Objectives of a Case Study

The initial task of the researcher is to clarify precisely the nature of research questions or
the objectives. The case study strategy is appropriate for “how” and “why” of questions.
For example:

 “How enterprise resource planning system was implemented in the IIIT, Allahabad?
 How could YMCA, Faridabad establish linkages with world of work?
 Why IIT, Bombay is able to undertake collaborative research?
 How an institution or industry prepared itself for obtaining ISO certification?
 How an institution or organization attained the status of an excellent institution or an
organization?
 How interpersonal relationships are maintained in a particular tribe or a society?
 How quality is managed in award winning industries?
 How and why do organizations collaborate with one an another to provide joint
services?
 For a case study of an institution, the following were the objectives (Malhotra &
Tulsi, 1995):
 Trace historical development of the institute and identify its missions, goals and
objectives.
 Describe the nature of programmes offered and their relevance to employment
sector.

5
  Identify the characteristics of student input.
 Identify the resources (human, physical, information and financial) being utilized for
carrying out instructional and curriculum processes.
 Understand the nature of curriculum and instructional processes being used to
transform input to output.
 Understand the policies, structures and processes being adopted for managing the
institute.
 Understand the linkage of the institutions with other agencies in the environment
(Proximate and remote).
 Assess outcomes of the institute.
 Identify the factors that could contribute to improving quality of a technical institute.
 Identify factors that could lead to deterioration of the quality of an institute.

3.2 State the Propositions

How and why questions do not point to what should be studied. Propositions need to be
stated. For instance, you might think that organizations collaborate because they derive
mutual benefits. This proposition besides reflecting an important theoretical issue also
directs the researcher to look for relevant evidence to define and ascertain the extent of
specific benefits. For a case study of an institution, the following were the propositions
(Malhotra & Tulsi, 1995):
 Students selected through entrance test which screens them on the basis of their
aptitude for professional programme could influence learning environment and
output of the programme.
 Course offerings of great worth and relevance to the requirements of the world of
work are considered factors that contribute to building excellence in a professional
institute.
 Instructional process that combines strategies for sound theoretical knowledge and
relevant experiential learning help in building excellence in an institute by developing
right kind of capabilities in the students.
 Making assessment of students’ performance integral to the process of instruction
could build a very effective environment and improve effectiveness of the students’
learning.
 A proposition can therefore be forwarded that an institution which portrays a good
work culture, innovativeness and an industrial environment facilitates improvement
of its effectiveness and efficiency.
 Policies and Procedures which ensure selection of quality teaching staff with
practical experience in industry and their on-going professional development builds
up a potential for excellence in an institution.
 A technical institute which is equipped with the latest in technology and develop a
strong linkage with industry for sharing resources for the purpose of mutual benefits

6
 and training facilities helps in improving relevance of the programmes offered, their
cost effectiveness and quality of instruction.
 Autonomy to an institution empowers it to achieve responsiveness to changes in the
environment fast which facilitates building excellence in an institute.
 Establishment of appropriate structures and specific assignment of roles lead to
effective and efficient implementation of policies, programmes and activities of any
organization and habituating sound procedural configurations for problem solving,
decision making, monitoring and evaluation of curriculum processes, quality
assurance and management of inputs.

3.3 Describe Case Study Approach

The approach to be followed in undertaking a case study research is described below:

3.3.1 Select unit of analysis: Unit of analysis need to be stated explicitly. Case may
be an individual, an organization it could be an individual or a group of individuals,
progressive decision etc. or group of organizations having some similar characteristics,
which are to be studied.
For example:
 Award winning automotive industry
 Industries with ISO certification
 Institutions collaborating with industry for undertaking research
 Collaborating institutions or organizations

If the unit of analysis is a small group, for instance, the persons to be included with in
the group must be distinguished from those who are outside it. In addition, specific
time boundaries are needed to define the beginning and end of the case. This will help
the researcher to determine the limits of the data collection and analysis.

The unit of analysis in case of case study of an institution, YMCA Institute was the unit
of analysis and a purposive sample consisting of Director, Faculty members, non-
teaching staff, students, alumni and industry personnel was studied.

3.3.2 Select sources of evidence: Researcher needs to identify the various sources
of evidence keeping in view the research questions. Evidence for case studies may
come from the following sources:

 Documentation (letters, agenda, written reports, formal studies or evaluation

studies, news clipping, other articles)

7
  Archival Records (service records, organizational records, map or others,
survey data personal records)
 Interviews (structured, semi-structured and focused interview)
 Observations (Direct observation, participant observation)
 Physical Artifacts

3.3.3 Select/develop tools for data collection: Appropriate tools - interview

schedules, observation schedules and questionnaires need to be developed for
collection of data. Principles of designing interview schedules, observation schedules
and questionnaires need to be kept in mind while designing the tools.

3.3.4 Describe data collection procedure: The procedure for collecting each type of
evidence must be explicitly stated in order to avoid any problem in data collection.

3.3.5 Preparing for data collection: The researcher, undertaking a case study must
possess the following skills (Yin, 1984)

 Questioning skills (framing of questions, posing of question reacting to

answers the question
 Listening skills
 Adaptive ness and flexibility

In addition, researcher should have grasp of the issues being studied and should be
free from biases.
If a group of persons is to be involved in the case study for collection of data, training
must be given. Each investigator should have understanding of why the study is being
done, what evidence is being sought, what variations can be anticipated and what
would constitute supportive or contrary evidence for any given proposition.

The researcher (s) must ensure:

 Gaining access to key organizations or interviews

 Having sufficient resources while in field
 Making a clear schedule of the data collection activities
 Providing for unanticipated events

Pilot case study needs to be conducted. The inquiry can be much broader and less
focused than the final data collection plan. Pilot study can help the researcher in

8
 refining research question(s) (if needed), revising propositions, finalizing probing
questions and logistics of the field inquiry.

3. 4 Collect Data

Data for the case study is to be collected from the identified sources of evidence namely
documents, archival records, interviews, observations and physical artifacts as identified at
the design stage. Construct validity of the case study can be enhanced by collecting data
from multiple sources, maintaining a chain of evidence and creating a data base by taking
notes, documenting narratives, and obtaining relevant documents.

3.5 Analyze Data and Interpret Results

Evidence collected from various sources can be analyzed keeping in view the propositions
stated for the study or the case can be described following either a linear structure or
chronological structure or time series analysis depending upon the research questions of
the case study. The researcher must provide adequate explanation, establish causal links,
add narratives and support the description by the relevant material.

See the web links for detailed information.

9
Practice Task

1. Sequence the steps in planning and conducting case study research:

i. Describe case study approach

ii. State the propositions
iii. State the research questions or the objectives of study
iv. Collect data
v. Analyze and interpret the results

2. Enlist the activities undertaken by researcher to describe case study approach

3. Write a case study you would like to carry out and write its objectives

10
Feedback next page

11
Feedback

1. Steps in planning and conducting case study research

i. State the research questions or the objectives of study

ii. State the propositions
iii. Describe case study approach
iv. Collect data
v. Analyze and interpret the results

2. Activities to be undertaken to describe an approach of case study

i. Select unit of analysis
ii. Identify sources of evidence
iii. Select/develop tools for data collection
iv. Describe data collection procedure

3 Consult your course coordinator on this.

12
References:

 Adelman, C., D. Jenkins, and Kemmis, S, (1980). Rethinking case study: notes from
the second Cambridge conference. In H. Simons (ed.) Towards a Science of the
Singular. Center for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia, 45-61.
 Cohen, Louis and Manion, L. (1980). Research Methods in Education. London:
Croom Helm.1980.
 CPSC (1984). Selecting Research Design and Describing Procedures (Module 4).
Singapore: CPSC,
 Malhotra, MM and Tulsi, PK (1995). A case Study of YMCA Institute, Faridabad:.
Unpublished Report, Chandigarh: Technical Teachers’ Training & Institute.
 Yin, Robert K. (1984). “Case Study Research: Design and Methods” New Delhi:
Sage Pub. 1984

Web resources for further reading

 Baxter, Pamela and Jack, Susan. Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design
and Implementation for Novice Researchers. The Qualitative Report Volume 13
Number 4 December 2008 544-559. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter.pdf
 Case Study research design.
http://documents.routledgeinteractive.s3.amazonaws.com/9780415628129/Chapter%
206%20-%20Case%20study%20research%20design%20final_edited.pdf
 Harrison, Helena; Birks ,Melanie; Franklin, Richard & Mills, Jane
Case Study Research: Foundations and Methodological Orientations. Forum
Qualitative Social research , Volume 18, No. 1, Art. 19 – January 2017
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/2655/4079
 Neale, Palena; Thapa, Shyam; and Boyce, Carolyn. (2006) . Preparing A case Study:
A guide for Designing & Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input.
http://www2.pathfinder.org/site/DocServer/m_e_tool_series_case_study.pdf
 Yin, Robert K. (2013). Case Study Research: Design and Methods.
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=OgyqBAAAQBAJ

13
 UNIT II

4.1c: Descriptive Research:

Content Analysis Research
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Content Analysis: Concept 1

3. Steps in Conducting Content Analysis 1-2

3.1 State the Purpose of Content Analysis 1

3.2 Write Research Questions 2

3.3 Sample the Content 2

3.4 Develop Classification System for Analysis 2

3.5 Ensure High Degree of Inter-rater Reliability 2

3.6 Analyze Data and Interpret the Findings 2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

References 5
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: CONTENT ANALYSIS RESEARCH

Learning Outcomes:

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Define content analysis research

 Give examples of content analysis research
 Describe the procedure for undertaking content analysis research

1. Introduction

A teacher communicates in class and also interacts informally with students, develops
instructional material-both print and non-print, prepares question papers to evaluate student
performance, selects books, reference materials, web sites or web resources for facilitating
teaching-learning. These are nothing but pieces of communication. In order to assess the
quality of interaction, resources, question papers etc. one needs to carry out the content
analysis.

2. Content Analysis: Concept

“Content analysis is a technique used to systematically make an objective and quantitative

description of any content of communication (verbal/Non- verbal)”. For example, you may
like to take up content analysis of examination papers to determine quality of questions,
determine its validity or quality of instructions and appropriateness of distribution of marks
etc.

3. Steps in Conducting Content Analysis

The following are the steps in undertaking content analysis (CPSC, 1984 and Gay, Mills and
Ariasian, 2012):
 State purpose of study
 Write research question
 Sample the content
 Develop classification system for analysis
 Ensure high degree of inter-rater reliability
 Analyze data and interpret the findings

3.1 State the Purpose of Content Analysis

The first step is to clarify why content analysis is undertaken. For example, if you are
likely to examine the quality of Power Points made or question papers set by teachers,
the ultimate purpose is to improve the quality of power points or the question papers.
Specifically, you may be interested in determining the adequacy and appropriateness of

1
 instruction, content coverage, quality of questions, weightages assigned to various
ability levels etc. in case of question papers.

3.2 Write Research Questions

For example, if you are likely to carry out content analysis of question papers, the
following may be your research questions to which you would like to find an answer to:
 How many question papers contain required general information?
 How many question papers provide for adequate and appropriate instructions?
 How much of the syllabus is covered in question papers?
 How many questions are appropriately worded?
 How many questions contain grammatical mistakes?
 What weightages have been assigned to various levels of abilities as per Bloom’s
taxonomy?
 How many questions have been repeated for the last three years?
 How many questions have been assigned appropriate marks? ----
3.3 Sample the Content
Decide about the university, number of disciplines, courses, and years for which question
papers will be selected. For example, one may be interested in question papers of
Rajasthan Technical University, Master’s in Civil Engineering discipline, two courses from
each year of study for the last five years. Thus in total, forty papers of Civil engineering
for the last five years (2012-2017) are to be selected for content analysis.
3.4 Develop Classification System for Analysis
The next step is to develop a classification system for analysis. For example, the
following criteria may be used for analysing question papers.
 Completeness of general information
 Appropriateness of instruction
 Adequacy of Instruction
 Adequacy of content coverage as per syllabus
 Accuracy in framing of questions
 Appropriateness of weightages assigned to various ability levels
 Number of questions with grammatical mistakes
 Repetition of question over the last five years

3.5 Ensure High Degree of Inter-Rater Reliability

If more than one researcher is likely to be involved in analysing the question papers, it is
essential to train the persons to avoid any subjectivity in analysis as per the classification
system.

3.6 Analyze Data and Interpret the Findings

Each member of the team analyzes the question papers as per the classification criteria
and then the results for all the question papers are to be collated. Finally, research report
is prepared.

2
Practice Task

1. As a researcher, you are interested in prescribing text book in the subject you are
teaching in your institution. You have five different books; identify the criteria you
would like to adopt to prescribe one of the books as a textbook to your students.

2. Write the research questions you would like to find an answer to for determining
quality of power points used by teachers in teaching learning.

3
Feedback

1. Criteria for analysis of books

 Credibility of author
 Year of publication
 Adequacy of coverage of content as per syllabus
 Statement of learning outcomes
 Adequacy of explanation
 Simplicity of language
 Quality of illustrations
 Use of examples to highlight applications
 Integration of findings of research in text
 Quality of references
 Quality of questions

2. Research questions for content analysis of Power Points

 How appropriate is the sequencing of content?
 How relevant is the content in the PPTs?
 How appropriate is the aspect ratio?
 How appropriateness is the font size
 How appropriate are the colours used?
 How appropriate is the use of animations?
 How adequate is the content on slides?
 How appropriate is the use of bullets or numbering system?

4
References:

 CPSC (1984). Selecting Research Design and Describing Procedures (Module 4}.
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education, Singapore.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational research: Competencies
for Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.

Web resources for further reading:

 An Introduction to Content Analysis. http://www.umsl.edu/~wilmarthp/mrpc-web-

resources/content-analysis.pdf
 Content analysis. https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html
 Franzosi, Roberto. Content Analysis: Objective, Systematic, and Quantitative
Description of Content. http://www.unive.it/media/allegato/Scuola-
Dottorale/2011/allegato/Content_Analysis_-_Introduction.pdf
 Mayring, Philipp (2014). Qualitative Content Analysis. Theoretical Foundation, Basic
Procedures and Software Solution.
https://www.psychopen.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/books/mayring/ssoar-2014-mayring
Qualitative_content_analysis_theoretical_foundation.pdf
 Prasad, B. Devi. Content Analysis. A Method in Social Science Research.
http://www.css.ac.in/download/Content%20Analysis.%20A%20method%20of%20Soc
ial%20Science%20Research.pdf
 Bengtsson, Mariette. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using
content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, pp. 8-14.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352900816000029

5
 UNIT II

4.2: Correlation Research

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Correlational Research: Concept 1

3. Purposes of Correlational Studies 1

4. Advantages of Correlational Research 1-2

5. Correlation : Definition 2

6. Different Types of Correlations 2

6.1 Positive Correlation 2

6.2 Negative Correlation 2

6.3 No Correlation 2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

7. Correlation Coefficient 5

8. Correlation Does Not Tell About Causation 5

Practice Task 6

Feedback 8

9. Methods for Correlation Analysis (An Introduction) 9-11

9.1 Scatter Plot Method 9

9.1.1 Scatter plot for positive correlation 9

9.1.2 Scatter plot for negative correlation 9

9.1.3 Scatter plot for no correlation 9

 9.2 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation 10

10. Different Types of Correlational Studies 12-15

10.1 Relationship Studies 12

10.2 Prediction Studies 12

10.3 Steps to be Followed In Relationship Studies and 13

Prediction

Studies

Practice Task 16

Feedback 18-19

References 20

 CORRELATION RESEARCH

Learning Outcomes

After reading the material, you will be to:

• Define Correlational research
• Explain different purposes of correlation studies
• Differentiate among the different types of Correlation

1. Introduction
In practice, we have come across a large number of problems involving the use of two or
more than two variables. If two Variables vary in such a way that movements in one also
effect the other, these variables are considered as interrelated. For example, there exists
some relationship between use of mobile phones and less number of hours’ students
devoted for studying, Teacher effectiveness and attendance of the students in classrooms.
In nutshell the correlational research involves study of bivariate data.

2. Correlation Research: Concept

Gay, 1990 define Correlation research as collection of data in order to determine whether,
and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The
measurement of degree of relationship between the variables under consideration is done
through the correlational analysis.

3. Purposes of Correlational Studies

• To explore relationship between two or more than two variables.
• To predict scores on a variable from subjects scores on the other variables.
• Investigate relationship that appears to need further analysis.

4. Advantages of Correlational Research

• The relationships among a large number of variables in a single study can be

analysed. For example, in behavioural sciences, we are frequently confronted
with situations in which several variables are contributing causes of a particular
pattern of behaviour. The experimental techniques permit a manipulation of only
a single variable. Whereas, the Correlational method allows the researcher to
analyse how several variable either singly or in combination might affect a
particular pattern of a behaviour.
• It provides information concerning a degree of relationship between the variables
being studied.

1

5. Correlation: Concept
Whenever we study bivariate data we may like to know the degree of relationship between
the variables of data known as correlation. When one variable increases, another variable
either increases or decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion means a correlation exists.

6. Different Types of Correlations

The different types of correlation are as follow:

6.1 Positive Correlation

If the values of two variables changing in the same direction, the correlation is said to be
positive correlation.
If One Variable (X) is decreasing other Variable Y is also decreasing.
if One Variable (X) is increasing other Variable Y is also increasing.

Variables change in the same

direction

6.2 Negative Correlation

If the values of two variables changing in the opposite direction, the correlation is said to
be negative correlation.
If One variable(X) is decreasing and other variable (Y) is increasing
If One variable(X) is increasing and other variable (Y) is decreasing

Variables change in the opposite direction

6.3 No Correlation
One variable (X) do not have any relationship with other variable(Y).

2

Practice Task

1. Define Bivariate Data.

2. Describe the purposes served by Correlational research.

3. Enlist the different types of Correlation that can exist for a given research Problem.

3

Feedback to Practice Task

1. Data in which we secure measures of two variables for each individual. For example,
for a student if I have to measures of height and weight.

2. The Different Purposes served by Correlational research are:

- To explore relationship between two or more than two variables.
- To predict scores on a variable from subjects scores on the other variables.
- Investigate relationship that appear to need further analysis.

3. There can be three different types of Correlation that can be exist for a research
problem.

- Positive Correlation
- Negative Correlation
- No Correlation

4

7. Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient or correlation index is the measure of correlation that summarizes
the direction and degree of correlation. The value of correlation co efficient is ranging
between + 1.00 to - 1.00. The symbol that is used to represent it generally is
• If there is a perfect positive relationship between the variables, the value of
correlation co efficient is 1.00.
• If the relationship is perfectly negative between the variable, the value of
correlation co efficient is – 1.00.
• If the value of Correlation Coefficient is 0 indicates no relationship at all

8. Correlation Does Not Tell About Causation

Correlational research serves the purposes such as to find relationships between two or
more variables, to better understand the conditions and events one can encounter and
possibly to predict the future. The another important factor to consider is the causation which
means cause & effect relationship.

Causation always infer correlation on the other hand correlation only tells that a relationship
exists between two variables but tells nothing about cause and effect.
If two variables vary in such a way that movement in one are accompanied by movement in
other, these variables are called cause and effect relationship. There can be direction
problem and magnitude problem. For example, there are two variable X and Y

i. If two variables are correlated we do not know which affect other.

X causes Y either directly or Indirectly
Y causes X either directly or Indirectly
ii. Two variables may be correlated due to third variable.
Variable X is Correlated with Variable Y but there is third Variable Z which is the common
underlying cause that produce changes in both X and Y.

5

Practice Task

1. Define Correlation Coefficient.

2. The scores for intelligence test and achievement test for a given class students are
enlisted in the table below. Identify what type of relationship exist between the two
scores.

Scores in achievement test Scores in intelligent test (IQ)

40 85

41 86

100 145

3. “Correlation Does not always imply causation”. Elaborate the statement.

6

 Feedback next page

7

Feedback to Practice Task

1. The correlation coefficient is the measure of correlation that summarizes the direction and
degree of correlation. The value of correlation co efficient is ranging between + 1.00 to
- 1.00.

2. If this is the case, the researcher could have said that there is a perfect positive
Correlation exist between achievement & IQ test. The scores in intelligence test increase
along with achievement test.

3. Causation means cause & effect relation. It always infers correlation but correlation only
tells that a relationship exists between two variables but tells nothing about cause and
effect.
If two variables vary in such a way that movement in one are accompanied by movement
in other, these variables are called cause and effect relationship. There can be direction
problem and magnitude problem. For example, there are two variable X and Y

i. If two variables are correlated we do not know which affect other.

X causes Y either directly or indirectly
Y causes X either directly or indirectly
ii. Two variables may be correlated due to third variable.
Variable X is correlated with Variable Y but there is third Variable Z which is the
common underlying cause that produce changes in both X and Y.

8

9. Methods for Correlation Analysis (An Introduction)

Following are the different methods for Correlation analysis:

9.1 Scatter Plot Method

The simple method of ascertaining whether two variables are correlated or not are scatter
diagram. There can be different types of correlation for a given data. When this method is
used the given data are plotted on a graph paper in the form of dots i.e., for each pair of X
and Y values we put a dot and thus obtain as many points as the number of observations.
By looking at the scatter diagram an idea can be formed what type of correlation exist
between the data. The Scatter plot for different Correlations are as follows:
9.1.1 Scatter plot for positive correlation

Figure 1: Scatter Diagram for Perfect Positive Correlation

9.1.2 Scatter plot for negative correlation

Figure 2: Scatter Diagram for Perfect Negative Correlation

9

 9.1.3 Scatter plot for no correlation

Figure 3: Scatter Diagram for No Correlation

9.2 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

The most commonly used correlation coefficient denoted by ‘r’ is Karl Pearson’s
Coefficient. It measures the degree of linear relationship between two variables say x & y.
The Value of ‘r’ is -1 ≤ r ≥ +1. (The degree of Correlation is expressed by a value of
Coefficient and change of direction is Indicated by (-ve) or (+ ve) sign).
(For further details refer to Module 9: Analysis of Data; Descriptive and Inferential Statistic
by Dr. P. K. Tulsi)

10

 The different types of Correlation Coefficient are given in the table below:

Table 1: Different Types of Correlational Coefficient

11

10. Different Types of Correlational Studies

There are two different types of Correlational studies.

10.1 Relationship Studies

In relationship studies the Correlational coefficient is best used to measure the degree
of relationship between two variables & to explore possible causal factors that can later
be tested in an experimental design.
In recent years a statistical technique known as path analysis has become popular for
testing cause & effect hypothesis using correlation data. This technique requires the
measurement of three or more variable & the formulation of theory that makes explicit
their causal relationship to each other.
In relationship studies the variables may be measured at the same point in time or
different points in time. These are concerned primarily with gaining a better
understanding of complex behaviour pattern by studying the relationships between
these pattern & variables to which they are hypothesized to be carefully related

10.2 Prediction Studies

Prediction studies tend to be more concerned with maximizing the correlation between
the predictor variables and the criterion. In prediction studies the researcher determines
the extent to which subject scores on a predictor variable predict their scores on
criterion variable. In prediction studies, the variables used for prediction must be
measured prior to the variable to be predicted. The prediction studies serve the following
purposes:
• Facilitate decision making in selection of individuals
• If number of predictor variables correlate with a criterion, then prediction is
based on combination of those variables

12

 10.3 Steps to Be Followed in Relationship Studies and Prediction Studies

Steps Relationship Studies Prediction Studies

Problem Identify specific variables In prediction studies the criterion
Definition that appear to be pattern (variable) need to be
important determinants of defined very carefully. Many studies
the complex have failed to find predictive
characteristics or relationships because a poor
behaviour pattern being criterion was specified.
studied The prediction studies can be
carried out for different purposes

Selection of It is very important to It is important to draw subjects from

Subjects select subjects that are the specific population more
homogeneous otherwise, pertinent to the study.
relationship between
variables may be
obscured by the
presence of subjects
who differ widely from
each other
Data collection Data can be • The predictor variable need to
collected by various be identified and must be
methods such as measured a period of time
Standardized test, before the criterion occurs.
Questionnaires, • Data can be collected by
interviews, various methods such as
Observation standardized test,
techniques. The only Questionnaire, Interviews,
requirement is the Observational techniques.
data must be • The long term and short term
quantitative type prediction studies can be made.
• The short term prediction is
more of the determinates of the
behaviour being predicted are
likely to be present. These

13

 Steps Relationship Studies Prediction Studies
studies allow less time for
important predictor variables to
change or for the new
determinants to emerge.
• The long term prediction
studies are carried out for
certain variable important to
success could not possibly be
measured because they are not
present at the time when
prediction were made
Data analysis • Scores for one The basic form of data analysis in a
variable are prediction study consists of
correlated with the correlating each predictor variable
scores for another with the criterion variable.
variable Multiple regression equation is often
OR used to determine whether two or
• Scores for a more of the predictor variables in
number of variable the study can be combined to
are correlated with predict the criterion better than
some particular anyone predictor variable does
variable of Interest alone.
The multiple regression equation
uses the subject’s scores on two or
more tests to predict the
performance on the criterion
measure.
Moderator analysis is also used
sometimes to maximize the
correlation between variables. The
purpose of moderator analysis is to
identify a subgroup for whom the
correlation between a criterion and
a predictor variable in significantly
greater than the correlation for the

14

 Steps Relationship Studies Prediction Studies
total sample from which the
subgroup was formed
Interpretation of Computation of • Predicted scores are always
Data correlation depends presented in range not as a
upon the type of data we single number.
have ( Refer Module 9”:
Descriptive and
Inferential statistics)

15

Practice Task

1. State the major purposes served by Prediction Studies.

2. Give two examples of relationship studies.

3. Enlist the major steps to be involved in Relationship and Prediction studies.

16

 Feedback next page

17

Feedback to Practice Task

1. The prediction studies serve the following purposes:

- Facilitate decision making in selection of individuals
- If number of predictor variables correlate with a criterion, then prediction is based on
combination of those variables

2. The examples of relationship studies are given below:

- To determine the relationship between motivational level of student and score in
academic achievement.
- To determine the relationship between pH value and adsorption efficiency of
nanomaterial for heavy metal removal from wastewater

18

3. The various steps involve in conducting prediction and relationship studies are
given below:
S. No Prediction Studies
1. Problem selection
- Predictor variables selected
should have some relationship
with the criterion.
- Criterion variable should be
defined properly
2. Sample and Sampling
Technique
- Subjects selected from whom
data can be collected and are
available to the researcher.
3. Selecting and Developing
Measuring Instruments
- Instruments used are valid and
reliable.
4. Data Collection
5. Data analysis and
interpretation
In most of the cases Multiple
regression equation are used.
Predictor scores are always
presented in range not as a
single number
Relationship Studies
Problem selection
- Identify variables related to the complex
variable under investigation.
- Some logic for including variables in the
study.
Select Sample and sampling Technique
- Subjects selected from whom data can be
collected and are available to the
researcher.
Selecting and Developing Measuring
Instrument
- Instruments selected must measure variables
accurately, otherwise correlation coefficient will not
indicate the true relationship
Data Collection
- Data on some of the variables can be from
records
Data analysis and interpretation
- scores for each variable are correlated with
the scores of complex variables.
- Product moment correlation coefficient
mostly used.
- Computation of correlation depends on the
data we have.
19
References

• CPSC (1984) Developing skills in Technician Education Research Selecting Research

Design and describing Procedures, Module 4
• Gay, LR (1990) Educational Research Competencies for Analysis & Application
Maxwell, Macmillan International Editions, NY
• Gay, LR (2015) Educational Research Competencies for Analysis & Application
Maxwell, Macmillan International Editions, NY
• Wiersma William (2000) Research Methods in Education – An Introduction London,
Allyn and Bacon, Inc

E resources
• LP 2G correlation and limits of correlations Published on 1 9/20/2016,Source:
https://media.lanecc.edu/users/kime/Psy201researchmethodsG.pdf
• Correlational Research One observation can have many observations

http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~ccollin/PCLWebsite/Teaching_files/PSY2174_S11_Slides09C
orrelation_1.pdf

Watch videos
• Brannon Gaylen, “Correlational Research: A Review of Chapter 11” Published on
You Tube on Mar 3, 2013
• Khan Academy “Correlation and causality, Statistical studies, Probability and
Statistics”, Published on You Tube by on Aug 18, 2011

20

 UNIT II

4.3: Ex-Post Facto Research

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Ex-Post-Facto Research – Concept 1-2

3. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Experimental Research 3

4. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Correlational Research 3

5. The Characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research 4

6. Advantages, Limitations and Use of Ex-Post-Facto Research 4-5

7. Procedural Steps for Conducting Ex-Post-Facto Research 6

8. Stating Problem of Research 6

9. Selecting the Subjects of the Study 7-11

Practice Task 12

Feedback 14

References 15
 EX-POST-FACTO RESEARCH

Learning Outcomes:

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
 Identify the problematic situations that warrant the conduct of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
 Describe characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
 Describe steps involved in the conduct of Ex-Post-Facto research.

1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. Sometimes a researcher
wishes to study things beyond his/her control, e.g., one can't make someone underweight to
study the effects it has on their brain. Here, he/she examines the effect of an independent
variable, present prior to the study, on a dependent variable, it means he/she should know
about the Ex-Post-Facto research.

The present learning module will enable learners understand the concept, purposes and
characteristics, and steps involved in the conduct of Ex-Post-Facto Research.

2. Ex-Post-Facto Research – Concept

The dictionary meaning of ex-post-facto is "from what is made afterwards", i.e., acting
retrospectively. Applying it to educational research, it means observing the present state of
affairs of a phenomenon and investigating the cause-and-effect relationships between the
present state and the possible causal factors. The implication being that the causal factors
occurred at a previous time.

Sometimes a researcher wishes to study things beyond his/her control, e.g., (a) one can't make
someone underweight to study the effects it has on their brain, (b) one can't alter someone's
brain to see how it affects their motor skills. In these situations, the researcher wishes to
examine the effect of an independent variable, present prior to the study, on a dependent
variable. Here, the sample is not randomly subjected to experimental/control group but
purposefully in a particular group based on some prior thing they have. Let us know, how
weight affects self-confidence levels in adults? For this, the participants are divided into
different groups (overweight, normal weight, underweight) and their self- confidence levels are
measured. This is an example of ex-post-facto design because a pre-existing characteristic
(weight) was used to form the groups.

1
Other problematic situations are:
 Determining the factors that led to low skills of engineering graduates in engineering
drawing
 Investigating the effects of background education and training of teachers on their
teaching effectiveness
 Determine the factors associated with low motivation/burn-out of technical teachers.
 Identifying possible determinants of the road accidents.
 Determining the effect of first year BE attendance of students on their grade
achievement in second year.

For example, assume a situation in which the skills of engineering graduates in Engineering
Drawing are found to be low. The investigator is interested in determining the factors that led to
this situation. For this, he can search and examine past records, talk to engineering graduates,
technical teachers, observe drawing classes, reconstruct past events and identify factors that
might explain the low achievement of skills. These factors may include, grades obtained in
individual subjects and overall grades, motivation of students, course content, the nature of
exercises practised in Engineering Drawing, teaching and learning activities, performance
assessment procedures etc. You will note that all these factors have played their part in the
past. The investigator cannot manipulate them. He/she only assesses them by using suitable
measures and examines if they are causally related to the low skills of engineering graduates in
Engineering Drawing by using appropriate statistical analysis. The causes are, therefore,
studied after they have exerted their effects that is ex-post-facto.

In studying the causes, the investigator compares the group of engineering graduates who
have low skills in Engineering Drawing with a similar group of students who have high skills in
Engineering Drawing. Ex-post-facto or causal comparative research, therefore, involves
determining causes of a phenomena by comparing a group in which the variable is present with
a similar group in which the variable is absent or present to a lesser degree.

Let us imagine another situation in which there has been a drastic rise in the number of fatal
road accidents in a particular location in a city. An expert is hired in to investigate the cause(s).
As such, he/she can neither find the reasons for the actual accidents because they have
happened; nor can he/she use technology for a video replay of the incidents. However, he/she
made an attempt for reconstruction by examining the accident spots, studying the statistics, and
taking note of the statements given by witnesses and victims.

The expert, in this way, identified the possible factors that led to such accidents: Poor road

2
conditions, Excessive speed, careless driving, the effects of drugs/alcohol, inefficient vehicles,
frustration, and so on. On the basis of examination, he/she formulated hypotheses (e.g.,
lowering the speed limit, improving road conditions, or increasing police surveillance) as to the
likely causes and submitted them to the concerned authorities in the form of
suggestions/recommendations. The matter which of interest to us is that while identifying the
causes retrospectively, the expert has adopted an ex-post-facto perspective. Researcher, then
studies the independent variable(s) in retrospect for their possible relationship to, and effects
on, the dependent variable(s). Therefore, the researcher examines retrospectively the effects of
a naturally occurring event on a subsequent outcome with a view to establishing a causal link
between them.

3. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Experimental Research

The major differences between experimental and ex-post-facto research are:

1. In an experimental research, the researcher forms equivalent groups, subjects them to
different treatments, and then studies the difference between them on the dependent-
variable. In an ex- post-facto design, however, research begins with the identification of
the groups that are different on the dependent variable followed by a search, in
retrospect, of the plausible factors that could have brought out this difference.

2. Experimental research allows for control, e.g., at the time for forming equivalent groups
through random assignment of subjects to the groups, through assignment of treatments
to the groups randomly and in manipulating the independent variable or treatment.

3. Whereas true experimental research can establish cause-and-effect relationships, the

results of ex-post-facto research are taken to indicate evidence of a relationship only
and further experimentation is needed to establish causality.

4. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Correlational Research

Both the methods of research are non-experimental. They study relationships between the
variables, and do not permit manipulation of independent variables. The major differences
between the two are in terms of the:
1. manner in which the variables to be related are measured and
2. kind of statistical analysis carried out on the data.

Imagine a study attempting to investigate the effects of background education and training of
teachers on their teaching effectiveness. In an ex-post-facto research design, the variable

3
"teaching effectiveness" will be taken as a discrete variable. A scale will be used to categorize
teachers into two or more comparable groups of say most effective, moderately effective and
least effective teachers. These groups of teachers will be compared to study the differences in
their background education and training. Statistical analyses are used to establish the
significance of these differences.

In a correlational study, the variable "teaching effectiveness" will be measured as a continuous

variable say on a scale having a large number of items, e.g., 30. The scores obtained by
teachers on this scale will be correlated with their scores on the other variable,i.e., background
education and training. Statistical analysis involves computation of the appropriate correlational
co-efficient.

5. The Characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research

Study of the earlier paragraphs on the concept of ex-post-facto research and the ways in which it is
different from experimental and correlational research, will reveal the following as its characteristics:

1. Data are collected after the presumed causes have occurred.

2. It does not permit any manipulative control on the independent variable or variables.
Examples of non-manipulated independent variables: Age, Gender, height, weight, Socio-
economic status, learning styles, family environment, type of institution attended, etc.
3. Unlike experimental research which begins with a specific interpretation and ends up with a
conclusion that is either congruent or not congruent with the observed data, ex-post-facto
research may result in many plausible causes of the behavioural pattern being studied.

6. Advantages, Limitations and Use of Ex-Post-Facto Research

Many of our investigations in the field of education are ex-post-facto. This is so because it
becomes difficult and sometimes impractical, uneconomic and unethical to exercise control and
manipulate independent variables in the problem situation. For example, in studying the factors
that lead to drop-outs or failures of students, it would be unethical to divide students into two
groups, treat one group with conditions that promote success and the other with those that
could cause failure or drop-outs. As there will be many factors that could cause students to fail
or drop out, each will have to be manipulated separately by exercising control over others if an
experimental design is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships. This will need a
number of experiments to be conducted that could be time consuming and expensive. There
could also be some factors which are not possible to manipulate such as social status and
attitudes of parents that may cause students to fail or drop-out. The following sections describe

4
some advantages, limitations, and uses of ex-post-facto research.

Advantages

1. It is useful for identifying several possible causes of observed variations in a behavioural

pattern. Take an example of a study on "Developing instructional techniques to improve
practical skills of Civil Engineering students in Building Construction". By using an
experimental design, we can study the effectiveness of only one technique at a time. An
ex-post-facto design can, however, permit the study of large number of instructional
variables by comparing a sample that comprises high achieving group with a low
achieving group of students.
2. It can be used in situations where rigorous experimental research is not possible.
3. It helps in generating useful information about the nature of the phenomenon and is,
therefore a valuable tool in exploring in particular, simple cause-and-effect relations.
4. It can help in generating useful hypotheses that can be tested by a more rigorous
experimental method at a later stage.

Limitations

1. In an ex-post-facto research, there are limitations to the interpretation of its results. One
does not know whether a variable is the cause or an effect of the behavioural pattern
being studied. For example, in a study on the impact of teacher training, it was found that
the trained teachers spent more time on individual guidance given to the students than
untrained teachers. However, the pattern of individual guidance given by the teachers
before they were trained was not known. In such a situation, interpretation of the
findings is subject to the following questions: Do teachers who are trained spend more
time on individual guidance? Or Do teachers who spend more time on giving individual
guidance more often get trained? Or is there a third factor that causes the teacher to
spend more time on individual guidance and in getting trained?

2. The findings of ex-post-facto research cannot, with certainty establish a cause-and-

effect relationship in the absence of the control of variables. The results can only
conclude a relationship among the variables.

Appropriate Uses

1. It is primarily used for determining causes, but can also be used to determine effects of
observed differences.
2. It can be used in investigating problem situations where more powerful experimental

5
 research is not possible. In other words, in situations where it is not possible to select,
control and manipulate factors related to studying directly the cause-and-effect
relationships.
3. It is particularly suitable in the education, social and psychological context, where it is
not possible to control independent variables such as teacher characteristics, social
status, gender and intelligence.

7. Procedural Steps for Conducting Ex-Post Facto Research

The steps followed in conducting an ex-post-facto research are listed below. Each step is to be
carefully planned before conducting research.

1. State the problem of research

2. Select subjects for the study. This consists of three steps:
a. defining the group that possesses the characteristics of the behavioural pattern
being studied.
b. form meaningful sub-groups.
c. select comparison groups
3. Select/Construct appropriate tools for measurement and collect data.
4. Select appropriate statistical techniques, analyse data and interpret results.
5. Write a Research Report.

8. Stating Problem of Research

In ex-post-facto research, a problem is stated either in the form of an objective or a

hypothesis.

Stating a problem in the form of an objective is preferred when the researcher cannot predict
the difference between the defined group (in which the characteristic behaviour to be studied is
present) and the comparison group (in which the characteristic behaviour is not present). For
example, if the researcher cannot predict a difference between the behaviours of teachers with
high and low motivation when investigating a problem regarding low motivation or burn-out of
teachers, the problem can be stated: "Determine the factors associated with low
motivation/burn-out of technical teachers".

A problem should be stated in the form of a hypothesis when the researcher can predict the
possible difference between the groups in advance of the data collection. The earlier problem
when stated in the form of a hypothesis will appear like this: "There is no significant difference

6
 between the frequency of behaviours exhibited towards students by teachers with high
motivation and low' motivation".

The problem can also be .stated· in the form of a directional hypothesis when the researcher
is able to predict the direction of behaviour, e.g., the teachers with high motivation will exhibit a
greater frequency of positive behaviours towards students than those with low motivation".

As far as possible, a researcher while stating the problem in ex-post-facto research should
attempt to state alternative hypotheses regarding the causes of differences observed between
the two groups. In the study cited earlier, some of the possible causes of low motivation of
technical teachers could be: feelings of security, opportunity to develop close friendship in the
institution, prestige of the position in the institution/outside the institution, authority connected
with the position, opportunity for independent thought of action, opportunity for participation in
decision making, opportunity for career development and personal growth. Hypotheses could
be constructed around these variables and then tested to illustrate, one null hypothesis has
been constructed around one of these variables. “There is no significant difference between the
percentage of teachers with high and low motivation with regard to the opportunities they
receive for career development".

Use of alternative hypotheses reminds a researcher that findings of ex-past-facto research are
subject to various causal interpretations.

9. Selecting the Subjects of the Study

After the problem has been defined, the next step in the planning of an ex-post-facto study is to select
subjects for the study. This will involve a) defining and selecting the group that possesses the behavioural
pattern to be studied, b) forming meaningful sub-groups and c) selecting comparison groups. Let us study
them in detail.

a) Selecting the Defined Group

Defining the group that possesses the characteristics of the behavioural pattern under study is
extremely important as it determines the meaning and applicability of the results. For instance, a
study on "Determining the factors associated with the poor performance of Mechanical
Engineering graduates in production, planning and supervision" will require an operational
definition of 'Poor Performance in Production, Planning and Supervision'. One such definition
could be: "Any Mechanical Engineering graduate who obtains an overall average rating score of
3 or less than 3 on the supervisors' rating scale", when the maximum rated score is 5. Another

7
 definition could be: "Any Mechanical Engineering graduate who obtains less than 50 on a written
test in Production, Planning and Supervision". A third definition could combine the conditions of
the earlier two definitions. You will note that defining the dependent variable differently will result
in different procedures for defining the samples. This will, in turn, lead to different findings.

Once the operational definition of the dependent variable is finalised, it can then be used to
select the group which possess the defined characteristics of this variable.

b) Forming Meaningful Sub-groups

After a group of Mechanical Engineering graduates has been selected by applying the
operational definition, it is important to see that the individuals in the group are reasonably
homogeneous in terms of other factors that could cause low performance in production,
planning and supervision. There could be different causes for which the individuals in the
group are performing low. These causes could be the differences in gender, or parents'
profession or achievement of students in the engineering programme. It is important for the
researcher, therefore, to sub-divide the main group into smaller groups so that they are
homogeneous with respect to certain critical variables. The six sub-groups formed for the
above example are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Sub-grouping of low performing Mechanical Engg. graduates in Production Planning &
Supervision
Achievement in the engineering High Low
programme
Parent’s Profession Engineering Non-Engineering
Gender Male Female

To form meaningful sub-groups, a review of literature can help provide ideas. In case no
previous studies have been conducted on the topic, then common sense, and reasoning
based on psychological or educational theory could be of help.

c) Selecting Comparison Group

After selecting the defined group that possesses the characteristic to be studied such as in the
example of the low performance of Mechanical Engineering graduates, the next step is to
select a comparison group that does not possess this characteristic, so that they can be
compared on other variables. The comparison group is selected from the population similar to
that of the defined group and is different only in respect of the variable being studied.

8
 There are two ways in which comparison groups can be formed. One method is to select at
random from the defined population e.g. you can use random number tables to select the
comparison group from the population of Mechanical Engineering graduates who do not
perform low in production, planning and supervision.

The second way of forming a comparison group is by matching it with the group in which the
characteristic is present. The matching can be done on the basis of one or more variables. For
example, for each of the sub-groups defined earlier, comparison groups can be formed by
matching in terms of gender, place and nature of job, and curriculum studied in the
engineering programme. Such a procedure will generate groups that would be similar to each
other on these variables.

One big disadvantage in using this method is that the groups cannot differ on the matching
variables. Thus, the possibility of detecting these matching variables as the possible causes
for the phenomenon under study is lost. The method of random selection is therefore,
preferred.

Select/Construct appropriate tools for measurement and collect data.

Selecting an Approach to Ex-Post-Facto Research

Ex-post-facto research, as mentioned earlier, can be used to study both the effects of a phenomenon as
well as its causes. Accordingly, ex-post-facto research can be approached in two ways: by a cause-to-
effect approach or a effect-to-cause approach.

In studying the influence of the pedagogical training of teachers on students' learning, a researcher can
study factors such as achievement motivation and attitude of students taught by trained teachers and
compare them with that of a similar set of students taught by a comparable group of untrained teachers.
In following this procedure, the researcher is adopting the cause-to-effect approach.

Taking another example of investigating factors associated with student indiscipline in technical
institutions, a researcher can compare factors such as the leadership style of the principals, teaching
style of teachers and facilities in institutions having no problems with student indiscipline and compare
with institutions having problems with student indiscipline. This procedure of research follows the effect-
to-cause approach.

The selection of any of these approaches to research is, therefore, dependent on the nature of the
problem. The research design used in both approaches is the same. It is similar to an experimental

9
design except that the independent variable X (pedagogical training of teachers), is not manipulated.
There is no limitation on the use of instruments for collecting data. The instruments used may
include standardized tests, researcher made tests, questionnaires, interviews, observations.
The choice of the instruments is dependent on the nature of the data to be collected.

Suitability of different instruments and the procedure for collecting are discussed in other
modules. You may refer to these modules

Collecting Data

Two types of data are collected in this method of research. The first category of data is past
biographical information. This helps in explaining the present behaviour more accurately. The
second kind of data is the present data about the groups. This helps in finding the difference
between the behaviours exhibited.

The degree of emphasis placed on collecting these types of data depends upon the nature of
the problem.

Analysing Data and Interpreting Results

There are two major steps in analysing data in ex-post-facto research

The first step involves calculating descriptive statistics, such as the frequency, mean, standard
deviation and variation. This helps in summarizing the data from the groups being compared.

The second step involves carrying out statistical tests to determine whether the difference
between the groups being compared is significant or not. There is a variety of tests available for
this purpose. The appropriate choice of these tests depends upon several factors. Some of
these factors are: the scale of measurement of the variables (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio),
the number of groups being compared, the research design employed, the nature of
hypotheses (null, directional), the sample size (less than or greater than 30). Table 2
describes some of the most commonly used tests of statistical significance and their appropriate
use. You can read this table in conjunction with Module 8 on statistical analysis to develop an
insight into the selection of appropriate statistical tests of significance.

Table 2. Statistical Tests of Significance and their Appropriate Use

Type of Test Appropriate Use

z-test Testing Null Hypothesis of no difference between population means (or
large samples with N 30)

10
Type of Test Appropriate Use
t-test When size of samples compared is less than
30
t-test for When scores of two groups are independent i.e., when groups to be
Independent compared are selected randomly from two different population
Means
t-test for Correlated When matched groups are used and compared.
Means
One-tailed t-test When it is certain that the mean score of
one group is greater or smaller than that of
the other. Used for directional (Alternate)hypothesis
Two-tailed t-test When it is not known that the mean of one group is greater than or
less than that of the other group
Analysis of variance When there are more than two groups being compared.
Analysis of co- To control for initial differences between the groups compared
variance
Chi-square test 1. When data is in the form of frequency
counts
2. To know whether the actual behavioural
pattern exhibited by a group and measured
in terms of frequency counts differ frum
the expected behaviour.
3. To compare directly the research gcoup
with the comparison group.
4. When the categories into which the
frequencies fall are discrete and not
continuous

11
Practice Task

1. State any two characteristics of ex-post-facto research.

2. Which one of the following makes ex-post-facto research different from experimental
research?
a. Size of groups selected for comparison.
b. Scales of measurement used for measuring variables.
c. Types of statistical tests used.
d. Type of relations established.

3. Does the following: ‘to establish cause-and-effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables’ an example of Ex-Post-Facto Research?

4. Write any two limitations of the ex-post-facto research.

5. Write any one use of an ex-post-facto research.

12
Feedback next page

13
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

1. The characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research are:

a. Data pertaining to the independent (active) variables are collected after they have
occurred.
b. It does not allow exercise of any control such as the manipulation of independent
variables, or random distribution of subjects while forming the groups to be compared.
2. d.
3. No.
4. Two of the limitations of ex-post-facto research are that:
a. It poses difficulty in interpretation. It is difficult to label any variable in the problem of
study as the cause or effect.
b. The outcomes of ex-post-facto research cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
They can only indicate the existence of a relationship among the variables studied.
5. It is useful where the purpose investigation is to explore and find out as many factors as
possible for a particular given phenomenon. OR It is useful in determining the cause-and-
effect relationship where exercising control on the variables is not possible.

14
References
 Best, JW and Kahn, JV (2006). Research in Education. 10th Edition. Boston A & B/Pearson.
 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York: Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of Materials
and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 Campbell, DT & Stanley, JC (1966). Experimental and Quasi Experimental Designs for
Research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 Cohen, L; Manion, L and Morrison, K (2013). Research Methods in Education.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781135721961/chapters/10.4324%2F97802037209
67-27.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 4a: Selecting
Research Design and Describing Procedures – Ex-Post-Facto Research. Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Garrett, HE and Woodsworth, RS (2003). Statistics in Psychology and Education, Bombay:
Vakils Fetter and Simons.
 Gay, LR (2000). Educational Research, Ohio: Charles E Merril Publishing.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with SPSS
Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Fisher, RA and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267164026_RA_Fisher_and_the_Design_of_Exp
eriments_1922-1926.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited
Publishers.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kumar, R (2016). Research Methodology – A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. New
Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., Third Printing, 399pp.
 Philip, C; Tino, S and Mario, S (2016). Experimental Design Research - Approaches,
Perspectives, Applications. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
 Salkind, NJ (2010). Ex Post Facto Study. Sage Publications.
 Shoket, M (2014). Research Problem: Identification and Formulation. International Journal
of Research, Vol. 1, Issue 4, May, 2014; ISSN 2348-6848.
 Simon, MK and Goes, J (2013). Ex-Post-Facto Research.
http://www.dissertationrecipes.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Ex-Post-Facto-
research.pdf
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
New Delhi: Bharati Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors).
 Srinagesh, K (2005). The Principles of Experimental Research. Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Tatke, J (2009). Research Methodology. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning.

Support learning resources:

 Video film on ‘Ex-Post-Facto Research – Concept, Characteristics, Advantages &
Limitations’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Process of Conduct of Ex-Post-Facto Research’developed/recorded by
Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Ex Post Facto Designs: Definition & Examples. https://study.com/academy/lesson/ex-post-
facto-designs-definition-examples.html
 Ex Post Facto Research Design.
https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ex+Post+Facto+Research+Design

15
 UNIT II

4.4: Experimental Research

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Experimental Research- Introduction 1-2

3. The Purpose of Experimental Research 3

4. The Characteristics of Experimental Research 3-4

5. Experimentation in an Educational Setting 5-6

6. Experimental Control 7-12

7. Factors Affecting Experimental Research 13

8. The Appropriateness of Experimental Designs 14

Practice Task 15

Feedback 16

References 17
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Learning Outcomes:

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of Experimental Research.
 Identify the problematic situations that warrant the conduct of Experimental Research.
 Describe characteristics of Experimental Research.
 Describe various experimentation designs in Educational Setting (True, Quasi and
Pseudo).
 Describe factors affecting experimental research.
 Describe steps involved in the conduct of experimental research.

1. Introduction

Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. Since the research
problem requires the researcher to answer the question, ‘What effect will there be on (A) if
(B) is administered, introduced, removed, and so on’, it means he/she should know about
the experimental research.

The present learning module will enable learners understand the concept, purposes and
characteristics, and various experimental research designs.

2. Experimental Research – Introduction

There are many problems facing instructors, teachers and administrators in education that,
because of their nature cannot be examined readily through correlational and descriptive
research. Everyday problems that confront teachers in the classroom, administrators in the
institutions & engineers in industries require careful analysis to enable the experimenter make
sound decisions. A few such situations are:

 Effect of a new procedure on the time taken by students to strip, clean and re-assemble
a carburetor
 Study the effect of intensity of light on visual activity
 Effect of a particular medication in reducing the body temperature
 Design an experiment to examine relative performance of 10 automobiles
 Determining the appropriateness of method of instruction
 Effect of workshop class size on the acquisition of practical skills by students

Clearly, it would be inappropriate to conduct surveys in order to resolve many of the educational

1
or industrial issues facing teachers, administrators and engineers, as we could not rely on the
validity or reliability of their answers. The one method of research that is most appropriate in
certain educational settings and many of industrial settings for providing reliable information is
experimental research.

For many people, the notion of experimentation conjures up a picture of scientists/engineers in

white coats working in laboratories and workshops with chemicals and equipment’s. For others,
the picture may be of rats running through mazes or of subjects, either, human or animal being
subjected to various treatments or conditions. We are here trying to remove some of the
mystique surrounding experimentation and show that if experiments are designed rigorously
and administered professionally, they can be vehicles for providing useful data that can help
resolve pressing educational and managerial or industrial problems.

Many experimental research designs are available to the educational researcher. There are
many good textbooks devoted specifically to experimentation. All current theory in
experimentation stems from the work of Campbell, D. and Stanley, J. Rand McNally, Chicago,
(Experimental and Quasi Experimental Research, 1963) and should you wish to further your
interest in experimental research this text provides the obvious starting point.

It answers the query, ‘What will happen, if this is done under carefully controlled conditions?’. It
means that the researcher should anticipate the other factors that could influence the outcome
of the experiment and try to eliminate or control them for establishing a logical association
between the factors manipulated and their observed effects. It involves manipulation (which is
deliberate and systematic) of certain stimuli and observation of how the condition or behavior of
the subject is affected or changed'. Campbell & Stanley refer experiment research to that
portion of research in which variables are manipulated and their effects upon other
variables observed’. Experimental research incorporates those types of research design in
which a researcher wants to establish cause-and-effect. It is the only type of research that
makes the testing of this association possible. Essentially, the researcher will be asking a
question which may commence: 'What effect will there be on (A) if (B) is introduced, removed,
administered and so on?'.

Early Experimentation was based on the law of single variable. If 2 situations are similar in all
respect and one element is added (or removed) to (from) one but not the other, then any
change that occurs may be attributed to the added (subtracted) element. Robert Boyle, an Irish
Physicist, and AC Charles, a French Physicist, used this method and discovered their
laws/principles. Later, Fisher gave the concept of factorial designs as study of complex

2
interactions through factorial designs made possible vide Fisher’s concept of selection of
subjects randomly, assignment of treatments randomly and ANOVA & ANCOVA.

Experimental research involves the comparing the effects of a specific treatment with that of a
different treatment or of no treatment, i.e., there are two groups – one experimental and another
control which are equated as nearly as possible before the start of experimentation. The
experimental group is subjected to influence of the factor under consideration while control
group is not given any treatment. Finally, observations are made to find what
change/modification occurs in the experimental group in comparison to the control group.
However, the experiments are not always characterized by treatment and non-treatment group
comparisons. The experimenter can vary the type, amount or degree of the experimental factor
when applying to a number of groups.

As such, the experimental research is useful for developing an organized body of knowledge.
Here, 'experimental research' is used to describe all methods of experimentation: true
experimental designs, pseudo experimental design and quasi experimental designs.

3. The Purpose of Experimental Research

Purposes of any experimental design are to:

 Enable a researcher answer, ‘If this is done under carefully controlled conditions, what
will happen?’
 Control for possible rival hypotheses or extraneous.
 Predict phenomenon and to explain some kind of causation
 Generalize the relationships between the variables studied for applying to the target
population of interest.

4. The Characteristics of Experimental Research

Independent, Dependent and Extraneous Variables

The least encumbered experimental designs involve the manipulation of one variable followed
by an observation of the effects of this manipulation on a second variable. The variable to be
manipulated is called the independent variable or treatment/experimental variable. In education,
independent variable may be: size of class, use of reinforcement, type of learning material or
method of instruction. The variable that is measured to find the effect of the experimental
treatment, i.e. whether the class size, use of reinforcement etc. had any effect, is referred to the
dependent variable. The dependent variable may be a score on a test or inventory,

3
performance of a task or a change in behaviour as measured by an achievement scale. To give
an example, we may design an experiment to determine the effect of workshop class size on
the acquisition of practical skills by students. The workshop class size would be the
independent or experimental variable and the measure of practical skills the dependent
variable. Any difference in practical skill might be attributed to the experimental treatment. We
can only say, might, because there may have been other factors called extraneous variables
affecting the experiment which may also attribute to the change in practical skills.

The Experimental Setting

Many experiments take place in laboratories where control can be exercised over these
extraneous variables. If the effect of these variables is controlled, the researcher can be more
confident that the outcome of the experiment (as measured by the change on the dependent
variable) is a result of the treatment condition.

In medicine and other areas of science such as physics and chemistry, laboratory experiments
abound: in education and psychology they are less prevalent and some would suggest
undesirable. Even though the laboratory experiment is 'tidier', and therefore scientifically
preferable, experimental research conducted in the classroom may have the advantage of
being more relevant to the teacher.

The Choice of Setting

In order to conduct an experiment in the classroom, the researcher may need to neutralize or
allow for the effect of a multitude of influences and this may be extremely difficult. But, through
this process of conducting experiments in the classroom, the teacher as a researcher may gain
a thorough understanding of classroom practices, students and his teaching skills. Here, one
approach is not being advocated in preference to the other. The researcher has to consider the
nature and context of the problem being investigated and then choose the design and setting
that is most appropriate. Invariably, this will involve 'trade-offs': having to concede
generalizability for accuracy, or contamination for applicability, in order that a balance is
achieved

Establishing Cause-and·-Effect
Experimental research is the means by which we establish cause-and-effect relationships. The
means by which we check whether or not the desired effect has taken place is through
comparison. An instructor may want to determine the effect of a new procedure on the time
taken by students to strip, clean and re-assemble a carburettor. The instructor may decide to
compare students' assembly time before they learn the new procedure with heir assembly time

4
after they have learnt the procedure. Alternately, he/she may use two groups: one using an
existing procedure and another group the new procedure. The times of the two groups could
then be compared. These experiments introduce most simple designs involving the
manipulation of only one variable: the assembly procedure. One of the major characteristics of
experimental research is that it makes multiple comparisons possible. Studies of this latt.er kind
are generally referred to as multi-variate studies.

Multivariate Studies

Multivariate studies include all of those experiments in which there either multiple independent
variables, or multiple dependent variables in 'some cases, both. Thus, in an experiment, a
researcher can choose have a number of independent variables and may be free to choose
from: age, entrance qualification, gender, college, method of instruction, and choose to use
more than one dependent variable, including variables attention span, test score, time taken,
skill acquisition, or perforating. Obviously in multi-variate studies the researcher needs to more
rigorous in designing the study than may be the case in a univariate study.

5. Experimentation in an Educational Setting

Experimental research designs can be classified by the extent of control that is exercised over
extraneous variables, in other words, by the validity and reliability of the measures taken in the
experiment. There are three broad categories of design:
 True Experimental Designs
 Quasi Experimental Designs, and
 Pseudo Experimental Designs

A. True Experimental Designs

As their name suggest, are designs in which the researcher exercises complete controls to
minimize the threats of extraneous variables or incorrect manipulation of treatments. With
experiments of this kind, we can be relatively confident that the independent variable was
responsible for any change in the dependent variable, that is, if there was a significant change
in the measure taken on the dependent variable

True experiments involve the:

a. two (or more groups), with at least one treatment group and one control group.
b. maintenance of equivalency amongst groups by random assignment of subjects to
groups.

5
Using these two conditions we can now modify the previous experiment. Now rather than
having one group, we may have two groups and students will be randomly assigned to one of
the two groups. One group will receive the treatment (instruction in the new procedure for
carburettor assembly) while the second group may receive the old instruction. The groups will
be tested on assembly times and differences between groups compared. If the group receiving
the new procedure scored assemble times significantly different to the other group, we can be
confident that the change in score was attributed to the treatment.

It stands to reason that true experimental designs because of their controls over extraneous
variables are preferable to other experimental designs. But often in an educational setting
because of existing courses and classes it is impossible to design an experiment with such rigid
controls as subjects cannot be randomly assigned to groups. In such cases the researcher may
have to opt for another type of research design.

B. Quasi Experimental Designs

These designs are used when true experimental designs are not feasible, in other words when
total control over the experiment is not possible. Many a times, it may not be practical to assign
students randomly to groups in the classroom or practical workshop. The researcher may be
able to use two groups as two classes are taught in the same programme, but he may not be
able to alter the size or composition of classes to reduce differences inherent in their
composition.

In other circumstances it may be possible to assign subjects randomly to groups but the nature
of the observation and/or treatment may inhibit administration of the observation to both groups
both before and after the treatment. In the previous example the researcher be able to assign
the students into two random groups (as there may be a large population from which to select
students) but the time taken to make observations (measuring the assembly time by each
student) may be prohibitive. In this instance, the researcher could pre-test the one group,
administer the treatment to both groups, and then post-test the second group. As students have
been randomly assigned to the groups the researcher can compare the pre-test times with the
post-test times.

In quasi-experimental designs the researcher can control at least one and may be all of:
a. timing of making the observations,
b. timing of applying the treatment, and
c. assigning of treatments to groups.

6
C. Pseudo Experimental Designs
These designs incorporate those designs where the researcher does not have the built-in
control to say the treatment had an effect. In addition to the independent variable there may
several other plausible explanations as to why the dependent variable changed or remained the
same.

You will recall the example cited earlier that concerned the time taken by students to strip, clean
and re-assemble a carburettor. In this experiment we presumed in the first instance that one
group of students was involved. They were pretested (in order to determine their assembly
time) treated (instructed in the new procedure) and post-tested (in order to see if there was a
change in the assembly time). The obvious assumption is that if there is a change in the
assembly time it has been caused by the new procedure. However, other events may have
intervened between the pretesting and post-testing particularly if a long period of time
separated these events. Some students were involved in an additional workshop class in which
they had practice in the re-building various engine parts. On another occasion an instructor was
absent and students were sent to the library where they saw a film on the functioning of petrol
engines. In addition to this, the teacher conducting the research was unhappy with the original
instructional procedure, but had devised the new instructional procedure and, therefore taught it
most enthusiastically.

So, while we have assumed that it was the new procedure which resulted in the change in
assembly time, the change could have resulted from the new procedure and/or any combination
of the other variables:
practice in engine building, viewing the film and teacher enthusiasm. True experimental
research is designed to help overcome the kind of contamination in experiments described
above.

6. Experimental Control

The one feature that recurred in the previous discussion of experimental designs was
'experimental control'. Huck, et.al summed up the notion of experimental control in the following
way: 'The quality of the experimental design provides the extent to which extraneous variables
can be controlled and eliminated, i.e., the extent to which a researcher can exercise
experimental control'.
Experimental control is associated with five design characteristics:
1. Random assignment of individuals to groups that will be compared;
2. Random assignment of treatment;
3. Degree to which the independent variable can be manipulated by the researcher;

7
 4. Time when the measurements on the dependent variable occur; and
5. Choice of groups which are to be measured.

 Designing an Experiment to Solve a Problem

It is only by orienting the design to the solving of research problem that the proper
emphasis in experimentation can be maintained. The design is not an end in itself, it is a
vehicle for achieving an end: validity. Factorial Designs enable the researcher to study the
effects of manipulation of at least 2 independent variables upon the dependent variable.
In addition, main effect (impact of each independent variable on the dependent variable)
and interaction effect (interaction of the independent variables on the dependent
variable) can also be studied.

Two experimental designs have been selected for description. The first 'the one group
pre-test post-test design' is an example of a pseudo experimental design; the second 'the
post-test only control group design' is an example of a true experimental design.
Each design is presented in a similar way:
 a description of the design characteristics
 a description of the procedural steps
 a summary of the design's strengths and weaknesses
 a note on appropriate statistical tests.

The following symbols will be used to identify design features:

O denotes the collection of data on the dependent variable (e.g. administration of a test,
timing of a task, completing an attitude survey).
X denotes the exposure of a group of subjects to the independent variable or treatment
condition.
R denotes the random assignment of subjects to the various groups that comprise the study.

The time sequence of the experiment is indicated by the left to right positioning of symbols
across the page. Where more than one line is indicated in the design, each line represents a
separate group.

1. The One Group Pre-test Post-test Design

Design Characteristics: O1 X O2

The one group design as the title suggests involves one sample group, to which an observation
or pre-test (O1), treatment (X) and second observation or post-test (O2) are administered. With

8
the observations occurring prior to and after the treatment by the independent variable the
researcher can make one comparison: of the observed scores O1 and O2. On the basis of this
comparison the researcher can support or reject a hypothesis or research question concerning
the effect of the treatment, X.

Should there be a statistically significant difference between O1 and O2,then the researcher can
conclude that the treatment has had some effect on the identified sample group.

Let us take an example: A teacher has been concerned that students continually hand-in
assignments
late, so he designs a simple experiment to determine the effect of 'a penalty' on the handing-in
of assignments. In the semester two major assignments are to be submitted. The first is due
after six weeks of tuition, the second after twelve weeks.

The teacher will test the hypothesis: that the issuing of a penalty will have no effect on
assignments being handed in late. The teacher allows students to hand in the first assignment
when they want but he keep a record of the pattern. This becomes O1, the observation.

Having returned the first assignment, he institutes the penalty: no assignment handed in after
the date due will receive more than a pass grade'. This becomes X, the treatment.

The teacher then monitors the pattern in which the second assignment handed in. This
becomes O2, the second observation.

The two observations: O1 and O2 can then be analysed and compared to determine if there is
any change in the hand-in pattern.

Procedural Steps
Having isolated a problem and searched the relevant literature to find out more about the
problem area you are ready to precede with the experiment.

1. Identify the research problem and write as a research question.

2. Identify the population to which the problem is directed.
3. State the hypothesis(es) that is to be tested in the experiment.
4. Obtain or construct the instrument (test, inventory, observation check sheet or rating
scale, that will provide an accurate measure of the competency being tested).
5. Pilot-test the instrument to check suitability.
6. Design the treatment, and if necessary pilot-test to identify and correct any problems in
design, suitability or administration.

9
 7. Determine the time required for the entire experiment, and specifically for the O's and
X.
8. Find a suitable setting or location, that is as free as possible from influences that may
confound the experiment.
9. Select the sample group to be involved from the population, ensuring that it is of an
appropriate size (this will depend on the research question and resources available to
the researcher)
10. Instruct any person who may be involved in the experiment (coders, raters, or
teachers) as to their task and role in the experiment
11. Administer the observation (O1).
12. Administer the treatment (X).
13. Administer the final observation (O2).
14. Compile and score results of O1 and O2.
15. Analyse results statistically to determine significance of findings.
16. Determine educational significance of results
17. Relate results to research question or hypothesis.
18. Prepare research report, document or journal article.

Strengths and Weaknesses

The main strengths of this design are that the researcher is free to:
 limit the size of the study to one group, thereby minimizing the time and resources
needed.
 select the sample group to participate in the study (such as our existing class group).
 conduct the study himself without requiring outside help.
 select the setting in which the experiment will take place.
 use a straightforward statistical means to test the significance of the results.

The strengths of this design are off-set by a number of weaknesses. The experiment may be
confounded because:
 bias has been introduced by selecting subjects who have either a desirable or
undesirable quality or skill that affects the results.
 the length of time between O1and O2 may be so great that changes (biological and
psychological) have occurred among the subjects, or subjects have dropped out of the
experiment.
 the subjects' results on the instrument (dependent variable) may have changed
because of some problem with the instrument: the instrument may not measure what it

10
 is purported to measure, and there is no check for this in the design.
 the subjects may have become accustomed to using the instrument by the time O2 is
administered.

Statistical Tests
The statistical test available for this type of comparison is quite straightforward. A 't' test of
significance can be used. It determines whether the results on the O1 and O2 statistically would
occur by chance alone, or whether they would occur by design, that is as a result of the X.

The Post-Test Only Control Group Design

Design Characteristics: R X O1
R O2
Subjects are randomly assigned to one of the two groups. One group receives the treatment
(X), the second group (a control) receives no treatment, then both groups are post-tested or
observed (O1 X O2),

The scores or observations (O1 and O2) are compared and on the basis of this comparison the
researcher can support or reject a hypothesis or research question concerning the effect of the
treatment, X.

For the purpose of comparing O1 and O2it is preferable if the second group receives no
stimulation that may in any way be related to the treatment condition (independent variable). It
is preferable also if O1 and O2 take place simultaneously and as soon after X as possible.

The post-test only design is different to the previous example in three ways. The post-test only
design
1. requires two groups, an experimental group and a control group.
2. involves the random allocation of subjects to the two groups.
3. eliminates the need for a pre-test, as the random allocation of subjects ensures
comparability between the groups.

Let us take an Example: A teacher is concerned about students learning favourable attitudes to
industrial safety so he acquires a series of four films on the theme 'Safety at Work'. He has
access to a group of part-time students who are already working, and are, therefore familiar
with the work environment.

At the beginning of a semester, he randomly assigns the students into one of two classes.
During the first two weeks of the course, he shows the four films to one class, and lectures to

11
the second class on the theme in the normal way. The screening of the films represents the
treatment, X.

The teacher locates an instrument from the Industrial Safety Council (ISC) that asks a range of
questions about industrial safety. It has been designed by the ISC to determine workers' attitudes to
safety at work.

At the end of the second week, the instrument is administered to both classes. The students' attitudes
are judged on the dependent variable, O1 representing the group seeing the films, O2 representing the
class instructed in the usual way. O1 and O2 can then be analysed and compared to determine if there is
any difference in attitudes from one group to the other.

Procedural Steps

The procedural steps that apply to the post-test only design are the same as those for the one group
design with the exception that with the post-test design there are two groups, the subjects are randomly
assigned each of the groups, and the observations O1 and O2 both occur as post-tests.

Strengths and Weaknesses

The random assignment of subjects to the groups helps overcome many of weaknesses inherent in
designs that do not use a process of randomization. With randomization we are free to assume that the
groups are equal.

The strengths of the post-test only control group design are that:
 the experiment can take place over a short period of time, as a result problems associated with
time can be overcome.
 the shorter period of time needed simply means that the experiment can be completely
efficiently.
 the threats to testing are removed as each subject is only observed or tested once.
 the two groups' performance is being compared, not the change in performance of one group
(as with the previous design).
The strengths of true experimental designs far out-weigh the weaknesses. However, weaknesses can
occur if the:
 population is not large enough to take a random sample and the choice of sample is limited.
 sample size is small and there are a number of subjects who drop-out of the experiment, as the
groups will not be comparable on the dependent variable.
 setting and population are not well described and defined, as the results will not be useful for
generalization.

12
Statistical Tests
The most appropriate statistical test for this two group design is the t-test. In the post-test only design the
t test is used to compare the groups with respect to their post-test means.

7. Factors Affecting Experimental Research

Within an educational setting the researcher intending to conduct an experiment must be aware
of the limitations of experimental designs. Often the researcher may need to concede some
degree of control over the experiment simply to ensure that the project reaches fruition, and
limit the scope of the study in order to make it manageable and cost efficient.

There are some factors, irrespective of the type of experimental design, that may interfere the
interpretation the outcome or generalization of the experimentation. Factors affecting the
interpretability of experiments are referred to as threats to internal validity, i.e., the extent that
the effect of manipulated factors on the observed consequences is actually genuine. While,
factors affecting the extent of generalization of the experiment are referred to as threats to
external validity, i.e., the extent to which the genuine relationships between variables be
generalized to non-experimental situations – other settings, other treatment and/or
measurement variables, and other populations.

When the researcher is concerned with internal validity, the question must be asked: Did the
experimental treatments make a difference to the observations? (or was it something else?)

During the course of the experiment many factors may take effect. Sources of internal validity
include factors such as:

 Testing (pretesting may produce a change; During a Pre-test, subjects think about few
items and may change their answers on the Post-test).
 Differential Selection (different individuals possessing previous knowledge may affect
the final measurement).
 Maturation (subjects may have undergone some biological/psychological changes
during the conduct of the experiment, i.e., subjects change over a period of time; or
bored, tired, wiser or influenced by incidental learning or experiences and thus affecting
their responses on the post-test.
 Unstable Instrumentation (Inappropriate instruments & their poor calibration, biased
observers, or scorers may provide inaccurate measurements).
 Statistical regression (forming groups on the basis of extreme scores of
measurements)
 Mortality (the loss of subjects with incomplete data could greatly affect the comparisons
because of their unique characteristics).

13
When the researcher is concerned with external validity, the question must be asked: To what
populations and instances or settings can the results of the experiment be generalized? (or do
the results only apply to the subjects involved in the experiment?)

There are a number of factors, which if not controlled can jeopardize either the internal or
external validity of experiments. At this point, it is sufficient to say that threats to internal validity
are a product of the experimental design, whereas threats to external validity are a
consequence of factors such as: inadequate description of the independent and dependent
variables used in an experiment, limitations on the sample and interaction of the treatment
effect and subject characteristics. Extraneous variables influence results of experiment and as
such are impossible to eliminate completely. Hence, try to anticipate such factors during
selecting the experimental design and take necessary precautions to control/eliminate them.

8. The Appropriateness of Experimental Designs

There are many experimental designs that can be used in technician education research. When selecting
a design, the researcher should be concerned with the appropriateness of the design to the:
 previous research in the discipline or area of study on which the experiment is based.
 nature of the problem being investigated.
 situation or setting in which the experiment will take place
 resources, both human and financial, made available for the project.
 time available for conducting the project.
 number of variables (both independent and dependent) that will affect the experiment.
 instruments available for use in measuring the dependent variable.
 sample (subjects) available to the researcher and its size.
 use that will be made of the findings (whether they will only interest the researcher or whether
they will be of interest to others).
 generalizability of the findings to a broader population.

The emphasis should always be placed on using a design that will the researcher with valid and reliable
information about a research problem.

14
Practice Task

1. State the main feature that distinguishes experimental research from other forms of
research.

2. What name is given to any variable on which the measure is taken in order to determine
whether the experimental condition has had an effect?

3. Indicate the main distinguishing feature of True experimental designs, Quasi experimental
designs, and Pseudo experimental designs

4. Below is give a problem situation with one characteristic, indicate the control characteristic
associated with the problem:
‘The institute only had one class of electrical engineering students, so a class from another
institute was used as the control group for the experiment’.

5. Which statistical test is used to test the significance of the comparison between 01 and 02?

6. What does 'a threat to internal validity' indicate?

7. Briefly describe four criteria that can be used for determining how appropriate a design may be for
an experimental research study.

15
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

1. Experimental research is the only type of research that attempts to establish a cause-and-
effect relationship between one variable and another or one set of variables and another.
2. Dependent Variable.
3. True experimental designs utilize two or more groups to each of which subjects are
assigned randomly so as to control for threats to validity; Quasi experimental designs are
based on true designs but may not have the controls over the random assignment of
subjects to groups. With quasi designs the researcher may be able to control when the
observations are made, when the treatment is applied and which group receives the
treatment; and Pseudo experimental designs do not have built-in controls to minimize the
effect of extraneous variables that may jeopardize the effect of the experimental treatment.
4. Control was not exercised as the groups that were to be measured were not equivalent and
therefore could not be compared on the dependent variable.
5. A ‘t’ test
6. A threat to internal validity' means that some factor is affecting the results of the
experimental study in such a way that the researcher will be unable to determine whether
the change is a result of the treatment or an extraneous variable.
7. Check the four criteria against the ten points noted in the last input: 'The Appropriateness
of Experimental Designs'.

16
References

 Best, JW and Kahn, JV (2006). Research in Education. 10th Edition. Boston A & B/Pearson.
 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York: Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of Materials
and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 Campbell, DT& Stanley, JC (1966). Experimental and Quasi Experimental Designs for
Research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 4a: Selecting
Research Design and Describing Procedures – Experimental Research. Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Dunford, R (2004). Developing a research proposal. In Burton, S. &Steane, P.
(Eds.) Surviving your thesis (pp.46-58). New York, NY: Routledge.
 Garrett, HE and Woodsworth, RS (2003). Statistics in Psychology and Education, Bombay:
Vakils Fetter and Simons.
 Gay, LR (2000). Educational Research, Ohio: Charles E Merril Publishing.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with SPSS
Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Fisher, RA and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267164026_RA_Fisher_and_the_Design_of_Exp
eriments_1922-1926.
 Huck, S. W., & Cormier, W. H. (1996). Principles of research design. In C. Jennison
(Ed.), Reading statistics and research (2nd ed., pp. 578-622). New York: Harper Collins.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited
Publishers.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kumar, R (2016). Research Methodology – A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. New
Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., Third Printing, 399pp.
 Philip, C; Tino, S and Mario, S (2016). Experimental Design Research - Approaches,
Perspectives, Applications. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing
 Shoket, M (2014). Research Problem: Identification and Formulation. International Journal
of Research, Vol. 1, Issue 4, May, 2014; ISSN 2348-6848.
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
New Delhi: Bharati Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors).
 Srinagesh, K (2005). The Principles of Experimental Research. Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Tatke, J (2009). Research Methodology. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning.

Support learning resources:

9. Video film on‘Experimental Research – Concept and Characteristics’

developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
10. Video film on‘Experimental Research – Internal & External Validity’developed/recorded
by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
11. Video film on‘Experimental Research Designs’developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
12. Centre for innovation in Research & Teaching. Types of Experimental Research.
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/research_ready/experimental/design_t
ypes
13. Bhat, A. Experimental Research – Definition, Types of Designs & Advantages.
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/experimental-research/

17
 UNIT II

5: Undertaking Action Research

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Meaning and Historical Development of Action Research 1

2.1 Difference between Action Research and Fundamental 2

Research
2.2 Situations for Undertaking Action Research 3
3. Characteristics of Action Research 3

4. Goals of Action Research 4

5. Features of Action Research 4

6. Action Research – Process 5-7

7. Uses of Action Research 7

8. Limitations of Action Research 8

9. Summary 8

Practice Task 9

Feedback 10

References 11
 UNDERTAKING ACTION RESEARCH

Learning Outcomes:

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of action research;
 Differentiate between action research and fundamental research;
 State the goals of action research;
 Describe the various steps involved in action research; and
 Describe the uses and limitations of action research

1. Introduction
As you all know, the terms 'scientific method of inquiry' and 'research' are being
interchangeably used by teachers, researchers, and educationists in education, but
there are minute differences in both. Research is more formal, systematic and involves
the process of scientific method of analysis. While, it is possible to employ the scientific
spirit without research but opposite to it is not possible. Research is a more specialized
phase of scientific methodology in which researcher wants to fill-up the gaps left in a
system, to discover new facts, establish new theories, generalizations and laws.
Research endeavours to organize data in quantitative terms is systematically, logically
and objectively. In research, every term is cautiously defined, all procedures are
selected and described fully, all delimitations/boundaries are recognized, all references
are adequately described and all data are collected correctly and results are objectively
recorded. In addition, all findings are reported and generalisations are cautiously arrived
at to enable the researcher use the findings for further research or improvement in the
system.

2. Meaning and Historical Development of Action Research

Action research is a type of research which is used to solve immediate problems. It

refers to on-the-spot research aimed at the solution of a particular and immediate
problem arising as part of the operation of the institution or world of work.

Action research has shot into prominence due to works of Collier (1945). Collier was of the
view that it would be futile effort to improve teaching-learning system until and unless
teachers, principals and others involved in this process did not research to solve their own
problems. Lewin and his associates gave much importance to improve human relations in
order to modify the human behaviour through education. According to them, the main
purpose of research is to bring improvement in social relations. Taba, Brady and
Robinson (1952) made extensive use of action research in developing their curriculum

1
models.
Action research is research wed by teachers, supervisors and administrators to improve
the quality of their decisions and actions. In other words, it is concerned with institutional
problems carried on by institute personnel to improve institution practice.

Now-a-days classroom teachers are using action research to solve their own classroom
problems as they actually experience them. The problem may be concerned with the
discipline in the class, truancy, teaching methods or individual learning difficulties, even
parental problems with some children. As emphasized by Stephen, M Corey (1953), any
change in teacher behaviour must be preceded by a corresponding change in teacher
attitude, a change which is more likely to take place as a result of research which the
teacher actually helped plan, conduct and evaluate than as a result of reading a study on
the subject reported in a journal. Action research his made a great contribution in the area
of in-service education of teachers. The participation of teachers as a group in the solution
of their own problems is likely to lead to increased research conscientiousness and faculty
morale and to promote a problem solving approach to teaching.

2.1 Difference between Action Research and Fundamental Research

Action research differs from fundamental research in many aspects. Fundamental

research is concerned with the derivation of generalizations and conclusions of wide
applicability, whereas action research is concerned with the solution of specific
problems and there is very limited scope for drawing any conclusion of wide
applicability.

Fundamental research employs a scientific rigor to solve the problem whereas in

action research, scientific rigor can be sacrificed to find a workable solution to an
immediate problem.

Fundamental research method is employed to solve problem of vital importance

having wide spread usage whereas action research may be undertaken to solve
individual teacher's teaching or discipline problems.

Fundamental research differs from action research from the point of view of
investigation. The goal of fundamental research is to add new knowledge and to find
ways and means to apply knowledge to new situations whereas action research is
concerned with goal of modification of teacher's professional competence and
students learnability
2
 These two types of researches also differ from the point of view of population or
sampling techniques. In fundamental research, a representative sample is selected
from a well-defined population by using various sampling techniques. In action
research, the situation which is to be studied becomes the population and no
sampling is required in action research.

These two types of researches also differ from the point of view of usage of
researches. The results of fundamental type of researches are used to discover new
knowledge or to use knowledge in formulating new theories and laws but results of
action research are visualized through the personal development or modification in
one's behaviour.

2.2 Situations for Undertaking Action Research

Some situations which demand undertaking action research are given below:
• Development of teaching skills amongst in-service teachers
• Improvement in the functioning of the organization through change
• Improvement in the procedure of internal evaluation of students
• Improvement in the interpersonal relations of employees in the organization
• Improvement in the motivation of students in the classroom
• Improvement in the pass percentage of results in a subject
• Appropriateness of method of instruction/ Introduction of Innovation in teaching learning
• Effect of workshop class size on the acquisition of practical skills by students
• Introduction of the use of smart board in the classroom

3. Characteristics of Action Research

In view of the foregoing, certain characteristics are derived as given below:

• Action research aims at solving a problem or introducing an innovation in a

specific situation
• It focusses on a specific problem in specific setting and does not employ rigorous
controls on the variables
• Action oriented hypotheses indicating the anticipated result or consequences are
formulated.
• No sampling is required as the situation to be studied becomes the population of
the study.
• It is carried out by a single individual or a group of individuals or a combined team

3
 of inside and outside members
• It is situational, it enables the researcher/practitioner to diagnose a problem in a
specific context and solve the same.
• It is participatory, i.e., the team involved in solving a problem is engaged
directly/indirectly in implementing the findings.
• It is collaborative, i.e., it can be undertaken while working by outside and inside
teams together in solving a problem.
• It contains an element of Self – evaluation, i.e., solutions are continuously
evaluated in the problem situation and modified.
• It is Empirical, i.e., it employs scientific method.

4. Goals of Action Research

As already discussed, the focus of Action research is on the problems requiring

immediate attention/solution. Its goal is not to develop a theory or establish a principle,
i.e., goals of wide applicability, but its goals are narrow ranged and are studied in terms
of their local use/applicability, i.e., not in terms of universal validity. Its sole aim is to
improve teaching-learning practices to improve the overall system in an educational
setting. It is undertaken to make the education system effective for generating an
environment conducive for student- learning and to improve the working conditions of
education system.

5. Features of Action Research

After studying the historical development of action research and its characteristics,
following features of action research can be derived:

1. It is a situational approach strategy mostly employed to solve immediate

problems.
2. It is informal and flexible in nature.
3. It is undertaken with the motive of improvement in the existing arrangements.
4. This type of research does not involve imagination or artificial situations.
5. The hypothesis or the hypotheses in this type of research are always action
oriented and they state the anticipated result or consequences.
6. In this research, researcher can use survey or experimental method of
research.
7. Though it is not rigorously scientific, still it is not subjective or purely based on
guess work.

4
 8. Its purpose is not to generalize but to provide immediate solution to classroom
teacher problems.
9. Its result can be used by an individual or to improve a particular situation but it
is based on collaborative and participatory principles.
10. In action research, evaluation is in-built and the procedure involves a plan of
self-evaluation. Hence, there is no need of any other type of external
evaluation.

There is no need to describe the results of action research in form of a thesis or

dissertation. It can be explained or presented orally or informally.

6. Action Research – Process

In scientific research both inductive and deductive processes are used. In every type of
research whether fundamental, applied or action, almost same steps are followed. The
difference is only in rigor and precision. In action research, following steps are taken in
the sequence as given below:

Step I Identifying, evaluating and formulating the problem

• Diagnosis of the problem
• Gaining acceptance of the problem identified
• Defining and delimiting the problem
• Review of the literature
• Formulating objectives/hypotheses

Step II Selecting Research Procedures

• Deciding evaluation criteria

Step III Implementing the findings

Step IV Overall evaluation

Let us learn all these steps in detail:

Step I Identifying, evaluating and formulating the problem

• Diagnosis of the Problem

This is the most important step for the success of a problem solution. In order to identify
5
the problem, teacher must possess sensitivity to situations and curiosity to find answer to
puzzling or complex situation. It is not necessary that a person, who has more experience
of classroom teaching or who spends more time with classes, will be able to identify the
problem easily. It requires qualities such as imagination, honesty and devotion towards
duty. Following activities may also help the researcher in this regard:
 Ask about problems and the underlying causes
 List the strengths and potential areas for improvement
 Have a System’s view and frame diagnostic questions about the adequacy of
objectives, inputs, processes and inter-relationships among components

• Gaining acceptance of the Problem Identified

Obtain agreement by holding discussions with the interested parties. In addition, outcome
leads to statement of questions to be answered, i.e., likely causes are identified.

• Defining and Delimiting the Problem

Next step, after identification, is to define the problem clearly and precisely. In defining a
problem, researcher tries to relate different concepts and terms in a clear fashion. While
defining a problem, investigator will try to delimit the problem keeping in view the
purpose, goals, time, and energy available to pursue the investigations.

• Review of the Literature

Third step is to analyse the causes of the problem-why this particular problem has arisen,
whether it is the result of some personality characteristics or it is due to nature of
curriculum, evaluation methods of teaching, learner's characteristics or due to classroom
environment. In short, one has to find out external or internal factors responsible for
creating the problem. To know this, researcher consults his colleagues, students,
sometimes; superiors and experts in the field. At this stage researcher uses his
experience and imagination to search out possible causes of the problem.

• Formulating Objectives/Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a guess or an attempt to explain the nature of relationship between variables for
finding a possible answer of the problem. In other words, action hypothesis indicates a
relationship between proposed action and anticipated consequence, a very important
step in research, because it gives direction to the researchers. It helps in collecting
evidence to solve or choose an alternative way to solve the problem. Without a
hypothesis, research will be subjective and based on hit and trial. Without hypothesis,
researcher may waste lot of time, energy and money with no success. A good

6
hypothesis saves time, energy and labour of the researcher to a great extent. A good
hypothesis is result of critical thinking, insightfulness and one's imagination power.

Hypotheses can be formulated by deriving implications from inquiry as well as from the
literature review. As a researcher, generate a number of solution/ideas.

Step II Selecting Research Procedures

Now the researcher selects research design which may be experimental, ex-post-facto or
descriptive. He/she also selects the subjects which may be limited to specific situation. In
addition, he/she selects/develops measuring instruments (prepared; standardised
instruments). Resources are allocated and tasks for collecting data, analysing data,
reporting research findings and planning for appropriate actions are finalized.

• Deciding Evaluation Criteria for Acceptable Outcomes of an Innovation

In action research, the hypothesis/hypotheses are examined through practical means.

For examining hypothesis, the researcher prepares a design to test the truthfulness or
effectiveness of it. In the design, full description about the tools, population, situations
and resources along with constraints is made.

Step III Implementing the Findings

By following the design of the action research, the action hypothesis is either accepted
or it is modified or is rejected to take up another hypothesis. This is done on the basis of
evidence gathered. Researcher evaluates the hypotheses in the light of the evidence
procured, and decides about its acceptance or rejection. The final decision, thus
reached, will be used to solve the immediate problem for which action research was
undertaken.

Procedures for data collection are implemented as per the plan. The tasks are monitored
and feedback is provided to the research team, tabulation and analysis of data.

Step IV Overall Evaluation

The data collected and analysed is interpreted and inferences are drawn. The findings
are then evaluated to study the worth of innovation in the light of the agreed upon criteria
of evaluation.

7. Uses of Action Research

Action research is the most useful type of research in the field of education at all levels. In
7
the following areas of education, it can be used profitably for:
 improving teacher behaviour:
 improving teaching competency of in-service teachers;
 solving discipline and organization problems of the classroom or institutions;
 improving school learning;
 improving examination system;
 preparing models of evaluation;
 preparing strategies of evaluation, different types of questions such as essay type questions, short
answer questions; and,
 providing education for optimal learning by all individuals having differential abilities, attitudes and
aptitudes.

8. Limitations of Action Research

We have discussed a number of advantages of action research, but it has a number of

limitations also. Its limitations range from poor quality to the inability to generalize results
beyond the specific situation under investigation. It is less scientific. It is more specific and
less generalizable. Its results cannot be extended to other situations. Its validity can be
questioned. These limitations can be minimised if the teachers associate research
specialists either as consultants or members of the research team. Its purpose is to
improve school programme and improve those who are to improve school practices.

9. Summary

Corey (1953) has applied the concept of action research first time in the field of education.
It is a process for studying problems by practices scientifically to take decision for
improving their current practices. Action research is focused on the immediate application,
nor on the development of theory, nor upon general application. Its findings are to be
evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universal validity. Action research
differs from fundamental research in many aspects. In designing and conducing action
research project, following six steps are used- identification of the problem; defining and
delimiting the problem; analyzing the causes of the problem; formulation of action
hypothesis or hypotheses; selection or developing suitable design for evaluation of
hypotheses and, final decision about action hypotheses. Action research is most useful
type of research in the field of education at all levels. Besides, it has a number of
limitations also.

8
Practice Task

1. State the main focus of Action Research.

2. Action research is normally undertaken in a single institution because of:
a. difficulty in obtaining permission to study learners in multiple institutions
b. inability of teachers possessing the necessary skills to carry out research across multiple
settings
c. answering questions about improving practice in a particular setting
d. designing data collection methods used in such research for single settings

3. The criteria which is of prime concern in evaluating an action research topic should be studying:
a. the topic of immediate attention to the researcher
b. with others assistance in improving practice
c. the topic without the need for observation
d. the topic of concern to teachers throughout the institution

4. Which of the following is NOT the true features about action research?
a. Systematic collection of data
b. Systematic analysis of data
c. Improve practice with the results of action research
d. Generalization of results

5. Which of the following research questions is BEST answered using action research?
a. How can I improve the low motivation level of students in my class?
b. How do students from Govt. Institutions adjust to classroom practices in Private
Institutions?
c. Is there a difference between male and female students in achievement in mathematics?
d. What factors influence student interaction in multiethnic classes?

6. In analyzing video based lectures, action researcher should:

a. allow focusing themes to emerge as the video lectures are viewed
b. focus only on their own communication in the video based lectures
c. select focusing themes before viewing
d. verify the video based lectures by a disinterested third party

9
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

1. The main focus of Action Research is to solve immediate problems.

2. b.
3. a.
4. d.
5. a.
6. c.

10
References

 Cohen, L; Manion, L and Morrison, K (2007). Research Methods in Education (6th ed).
London: Routledge Falmer.
 Collier, J (1945). United States Indian administration as a laboratory of ethnic
relations, Social Research, 12, pp275-6.
 Corey, SM (1949). Action research, fundamental research and educational practice.
Teachers’ College Record, 50 509-514.
 Corey, SM (1953). Action Research to improve school practices. New York: Bureau
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.
 Jacobs, S (2016). The Use of Participatory Action Research within Education-Benefits to
Stakeholders. World Journal of Education. Vol. 6, No. 3, 48-55p.
 Lesha, J (2014). Action Research in Education. European Scientific Journal, 379-386p.
 Lewin, K. (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues 2 34-
36.
 Masters, J (1995). The History of Action Research. in I. Hughes (ed) Action Research
Electronic Reader, The University of Sydney, on-line.
http://www.behs.cchs.usyd.edu.au/arow/Reader/rmasters.htm.
 Sodhi, GS & Dutt, Sunil (2006). Essentials of Educational Technology. Patiala: 21st
Century Publications.
 Taba, H; Brady, E and Robinson, J (1952). Intergroup Education in Public Schools.
Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Support learning resources:

 Video film on ‘Action Research – Need and Concept’ developed/recorded by

Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Action Research – Process’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.

11
 UNIT II

6: Sampling Techniques
 CONTENTS

S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Various Terms Used In Sampling 1-2
3. Sampling: Definition 2
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling 2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
5. Characteristics of a Good Sample 5
6. Determination of Sample Size 5
Practice Task 6
Feedback 8
7. Different Sampling Techniques 9-15
7.1 Probability Sampling 9
7.1.1 Types of probability sampling techniques 9
7.1.2 Steps to be followed for different probability 12
sampling techniques
7.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different 14
probability sampling techniques
8. Non Probability Sampling Technique 16-19
8.1 Different Types of Non Probability Sampling Techniques 16
8.2 Steps to be followed for Different Non- Probability Sampling 17
8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Non- Probability 18
Practice Task 20
Feedback 22
9. When to Select Different Sampling Techniques? 23
References 24
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Learning Outcomes

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Define sampling
 Understand various terms used in Sampling
 Describe the factors that influence the selection of sample size
 Distinguish between probability & non probability sampling
 Develop an understanding about different sampling techniques
 Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each sampling techniques

1. Introduction
In research the problem can be studied as a whole, but it requires large number of resources
such as men, material and money. The observation we are getting from the whole, may not
be reliable and sometimes it is also not possible to obtain data from every respondent related
to a question of inquiry. By researching some portion of respondents, we can generalize and
predict the behaviour of mass phenomena. The process is known as sampling.

2. Various Terms Used In Sampling

The various terms which are used again and again in the process of sampling are as follows:

a) Population: It is a complete set of elements. These elements can be people, cases or

piece of data. It can also be defined as aggregate of all observations of interest to
researcher.

Population can be

 Finite Population
 Infinite Population
 In Research the population can also be termed as
 Target population: It refers to the entire group of individuals.
 Accessible Population: Population, the researcher realistically selects from target
population

b) Element: An individual member of the population is known as element.

c) Sampling Unit: A member of the sample is known as Sampling Unit.

d) Sampling Frame: It comprises all the elements of a population with proper identification
that is available to us for selection of sample at any stage of sampling.

e) Sampling Error: arises on account of sampling

1
 f) Sample: It is subset of the population. Only few elements of the population are being
selected. Sample helps the researcher to generalize the results, for generalization it must
always be representative of the population.

3. Sampling: Definition

Sampling is a methodological plan to obtain sample from a given population. It involves

selecting a fractional part (element) of the respondent from a larger defined group
(Population). The results obtained from sampling must provide a sound basis for accurately
understanding the phenomena being studied.

4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling

Advantages Disadvantage

 Large heterogeneous (group) Population  If sample is not carefully selected

can be studied due to sampling. (biased) or not of appropriate size
(small) the results concluded may not be
reliable and valid

 Sampling save resources  In research, sometimes it is not possible

to identify common characteristics in the
population available.

 Sampling increases the speed of  If the population is very large and

research divided into sections and subsections
then sampling procedures becomes
more complicated which require more
efforts and labour

2
Practice Task

1. Define the terms Population and Sample.

2. Define Sampling.

3. Give an example of a finite population and infinite population.

3
Feedback to Practice Task

1. Population is defined as the aggregate of all observations of interest to the researcher.

Whereas a Sample is a subset of the population from which the researcher intends to
generalize the results.

2. The nature of phenomena being studied can be understood by researching some portion
of the respondents. The process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.

3. Finite Population: Diploma students of the branch Mechanical Engineering passed in the
year 2017 from Punjab state, India.

Infinite Population: Diploma students of the branch Mechanical Engineering passed from
all the states of India.

4
5. Characteristics of a Good Sample

 Sample must be accurate and free from bias.

 Sample must be precise (representative of the population).
 If two samples from the same population are taken, they should give more or less the
same.
 Sample must be adequate, otherwise it may not represent the characteristics of
population.
 There must be random and independent selection of all the element from population
to be selected in the sample.

6. Determination of Sample Size

The selection of sample size depends upon the purpose of the study, kind of analysis to be
carried out and the nature of the population under scrutiny. Before selecting the sample
researchers must know the kind of relationships they want to explore from the sample selected
and need to think out in advance of any data collection. Generally larger sample size is
considered better because it gives greater reliability but also enable more sophisticated
statistics to be used. For determining the sample size there is no fixed rule but are guidelines
that should be observed in determining the size of a sample. These are as follows:

Nature of Study Continuous and intensive A Smaller Sample is enough

Non repeated and extensive study A Larger Sample is needed

Nature of Homogenous A Smaller Sample is enough

Population
Heterogeneous A Larger Sample is enough

Population Size If the size of Population is small A Larger Sample is needed

If the size of population is large A Smaller Sample is enough

Degree of For greater accuracy and reliability of a results A larger sample is required
Accuracy and
Precision But it is not true in all the cases , the experienced researcher select a sample
required more accurately as compared to non-experienced researcher

Nature of If response rate is valid and reliable no need to select a large sample
respondents

Resources Sometimes the selection of sample also depends upon resources available.
Available

5
Practice Task

1. A plastic manufacturing house is thinking to reduce the price for its food packaging plastic
product, for this survey is being conducted regarding sale of their product in a “known
shopping complex”. On the basis of survey, the company decides they will not reduce the
price.
Sample selected for the study is accurate or not?
2. A manufacturing industry would like to make a study in the quality of water purifiers
it manufactured. What are the different steps to be followed by the researcher for
the sampling design?

3. Faculty who came at NITTTR, Chandigarh to attend three days’ workshop on research
methodology are requested to log their phone numbers so as to receive information for
similar workshops in future. The department wishes to study participants’ satisfactions rate
through interviewing on phone, getting comments and reactions.
Whether the sample is representative of the population or not?

6
Feedback next page

7
Feedback to the Practice Task

1. Sample is Inaccurate and bias is present in the study.

- Decision based on survey taken in a costly shopping complex where customers can
easily have offered the price of the product.
Did not consider sales of product in other areas where they have middle and low class
consumers.

2. Target Population: Consumers of Water purifiers

- Parameter of interest –Scale that is used for quality check, it may be Likert
Scale from 1 to 5 (Where 5 being the most satisfactory)
- Sampling Frame-Database of the outlets where water purifiers are sold,
usually customers give information about them for warranty purposes.
- Sampling Method: Probability Sampling
3. Sample used here is not an exact report of the population. Limited only to those participants
who log in their phone numbers, those who did not were not included.

8
7. Different Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling

Simple Random sampling Purposive sampling

Systematic sampling Convenience sampling

Cluster sampling Snow ball sampling

Stratified sampling Quota sampling

7.1 Probability Sampling

In Probability sampling every member of population has equal and same chance of being
selected for the sample and is drawn randomly from the wider population. It is regarded as
the best and scientific method and is useful when researcher wants to make generalization
from selected sample. A probability sample is also known as equal probability sampling
design (EPS).

7.1.1 Types of probability sampling techniques

a) Simple random sampling

Random does not mean haphazard or hit miss. Selection of item depends on chance,
not on personal bias. In this Sampling technique Every member in the defined
population have an equal and independent chance of being selected for the sample.
The Probability of a member being selected is unaffected by the selection of other
members of the population.

In Research methodology the Random tables are being used to select the sample for
the given size of population. (Refer Table 7.1.1 for Twenty-Five Hundred
Randomly Assorted Digits)

9
 Table 7.1.1 : Twenty-Five Hundred Randomly Assorted Digits

Columns
Rows
00-04 05--09 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
00 54463 22662 65905 70639 79365 67382 29085 69831 47058 08186
01 15389 85205 18850 39226 42249 90669 96325 23248 60933 26927
02 85941 40756 82414 02015 13858 78030 16269 65978 01385 15345
03 61149 69440 11286 88218 58925 03638 52862 62733 33451 77455
04 05219 81619 10651 67079 9251 I 59888 84502 72095 83463 75577
05 41417 98326 87719 92294 46614 50948 64886 20002 97365 30976
06 28357 94070 20652 35774 16249 75019 21145 05217 47286 76305
07 17783 00015 I0806 83091 91530 36466 39981 62481 49177 75779
08 40950 84820 29881 85966 62800 70326 84740 62660 77379 90279
09 82995 64157 66164 41180 10089 4157 78258 96488 88629 37231
10 96754 17676 55659 44105 47361 34833 86679 23930 53249 27083
II 34357 88040 53364 71726 45690 66334 60332 22554 90600 71113
12 06318 37403 49927 57715 50423 67372 63116 48888 21505 80182
13 62111 52820 07243 79931 89292 84767 85693 73947 22278 11551
14 47534 09243 67879 00544 23410 12740 02540 54440 32949 13491
15 98614 75993 84460 62846 59844 14922 48730 73443 48167 34770
16 24856 03648 44898 09351 98795 18644 39765 71058 90368 44104
17 96887 12479 80621 66223 86085 78285 02432 53342 42846 94771
18 90801 21472 42815 77408 37390 76766 52615 32141 30268 18106
19 55165 77312 83666 36028 28420 70219 81369 41943 47366 41067
20 75884 12952 84318 95108 72305 64620 91318 89872 45375 85436
21 16777 r116 58550 42958 21460 43910 01175 87894 81378 10620
22 46230 43877 80207 88877 89380 32992 91380 03164 98656 59337
23 42902 66892 46134 01432 94710 23474 20423 60137 60609 13119
24 81007 00333 39693 28039 10154 95425 39220 19774 31782 49037
25 68089 01122 51111 72373 06902 74373 96199 97017 41273 21546
26 20411 67081 89950 16944 93054 87687 96693 87236 77054 33848
27 58212 13160 06468 15718 82627 76999 05999 58680 96739 63700
28 70577 42866 24969 61210 76046 67699 42054 12696 93758 03283
29 94522 74358 71659 62038 79643 79169 44741 05437 39038 13163
30 42626 86819 85651 88678 17401 03252 99547 32404 17918 62880
31 16051 33763 57194 16752 54450 19031 58580 47629 54132 60631
32 08244 27647 33851 44705 94211 46716 11738 55784 95374 72655
33 59497 04392 09419 89964 51211 04894 72882 17805 21896 83864
34 97155 13428 40293 09985 58434 01412 69124 82171 59058 82859
35 98409 66162 95763 47420 20792 61527 20441 39435 11859 41567
36 45476 84882 65109 96591 25930 66790 65706 61203 53634 22557
37 89300 69700 50741 30329 11658 23166 05400 66669 48708 03887
38 50051 95137 91631 66315 91428 12275 24816 68091 71710 33258
39 31753 85178 31310 89642 98364 02306 24617 09609 83942 22716
40 79152 53829 77250 20190 56535 18760 69942 77448 33278 4880S
41 44560 38750 83635 56540 64900 42912 13953 79149 18710 68618
42 68328 83378 63369 71381 39564 05615 42451 64559 97501 65747
43 46939 38689 58625 08342 30459 85863 20781 09284 26333 91777
44 83544 86141 15707 96256 23068 13782 08467 89469 93842 55349
45 91621 00881 04900 54224 46177 55309 17852 27491 89415 23466
46 91896 67126 04151 03795 59077 11848 12630 98375 52068 60142
47 55751 62515 21108 80830 02263 29303 37204 96926 30506 09808
48 85156 87689 95493 88842 00664 55017 55539 17771 69448 87530
49 07521 56898 12236 60277 39102 62315 12239 07105 11844 01117

10
b) Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is the alteration of simple random sampling also known as interval
or gap sampling. It Involves selecting subject from a population list (Population list
need to be arranged in a systematic and logical manner) in a systematic manner rather
than random selection. This method is used, where a complex list of Population from
which sample to be drawn is available.
The researcher is selecting Kth unit until intended sample size is obtained. Where K is
calculated as

K = Population Size
Desired sample size
For example if the size of the population is 3000 and the desired sample size is 100
the Kth unit will be 30th.
While calculating Kth unit, it is possible we get fractional value. In this case, use
approximation procedure.
i. If fraction value is less than 0.5, it should be omitted.
ii. If fraction value is more than 0.5, it should be taken as 1.
iii. If fractional value is exactly 0.5, it should be taken as 1.

c) Stratified sampling
It is an attempt to obtain more reliable sample than simple random method. If the
Population size is large and heterogonous, but consists of several subgroups in which
the elements are homogenous by nature or having similar characteristics the
population is divide into those subgroups, known as strata. The researcher makes to
ensure all strata are presented in the sample and sample members are randomly
selected from each strata.

Following are the characteristics that need to be followed to divide the

population into strata

i. Base of stratification (How many strata for a given population?)

 Strata should be constructed in a way that within strata the units are
homogenous.
 Maximize difference among strata (marked difference between strata)

ii. Number of strata (How many strata for a given population?)

11
  More the strata more will be the cost so, only feasible number of strata need to
be there
 More than six strata may be undesirable.

Sample size within strata

It depends upon on how many observations should be taken from each strata.

Stratification can be done by two methods:

Equal Allocation Proportional Allocation

Select equal number Select strata members in the

of units from all the sample, proportional to the
strata member in strata.

d) Cluster sampling technique

It is also known as multistage sampling/area sampling. In this technique, the areas or

cluster are identified first then to sample individual from the cluster. It is used when the
characteristics of population is not well known and list is unavailable.

7.1.2 Steps to be followed for different probability sampling techniques

Types of sampling Steps to be Followed

Random Sampling - Defined the Population

- Determine the desired sample size
- List all the members in a population
- Assign a number to each member of the
population
- Enter a table of random numbers at any point
- Move in any predetermined direction
- Read the numbers of the individuals to be
included in the sample

Systematic Sampling - Identify and define Population

- Determine desired sample size
- Obtain list of Population (preferably randomized)
of the population

12
Types of sampling Steps to be Followed

- Set ‘K’ (K = Population Size / Desired sample size)

- Start at some random place at the top of
Population list
- Take every Kth name or item until the desired
sample in reached, go back to the top of the list.
If end of list is reached before the desired sample
go back to the top of the list

Stratified Sampling - Define Population

- Determine desired sample size.
(Equal
- Identify strata for which you (researcher) want to
Allocation/Proportional guarantee appropriate representation
Allocation) (Proportional / equal)

Equal allocation - Select equal numbers from the strata

- All strata should contribute the same number to
the sample
Proportional Allocation - Select Strata members in the sample proportional
to the number of members in the strata for a given
population
Cluster Sampling - Define the population
- Select area or cluster of elements first
- Sample individuals or elements within the clusters
- Randomly select the clusters
- Exact sample size may not be known until after
the sample is selected
- Include in the sample all population members in
each selected cluster

13
7.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different probability sampling
techniques

Types of Advantages Disadvantages

sampling

Random - Selection of a sample - Need name of all Population

Sampling depends entirely on chance members and sometimes it is
so no personal bias. difficult to reach all.
- Requires minimum - Size of sample required is
knowledge of the large (compared to stratified)
Population to be sampling - Sometimes over or under
- Represents Population in a represent the sampling units
better way and very easy to
conduct
Systematic - A convenient and simple - Sometimes Sample selected
Sampling way to select Sample as per the convenience of the
- Save resources researcher
- More accurate sample - Periodicity happens
sometimes while selecting
sample
Stratified - More precise sample - Sometimes it is difficulty in
Sampling - It balances the uncertainly reaching all selected in the
of random sampling against sample
the bias of deliberate - Population characteristics
selection must be known and if strata
- Sample represents the are not made properly the
desired strata and reduces results will be biased
the time & expenses - The cost per observation may
- Accuracy is maximum if be high as compare to simple
strata is formed uniformly random sampling, if stratified
and homogeneity sample will be distributed
more geographically

14
Types of Advantages Disadvantages
sampling

Cluster - Efficient and flexible - Researcher may select

Sampling - Reduce cost and time sample as per the
spend convenience
- Useful for educational - Periodicity happens
research sometimes while selecting
- Larger area is covered sample
- Researchers do not need to
name all the members of
the population

15
8. Non Probability Sampling Technique

Non-Probability sampling design are used when the researcher knows generalization is
not required and assume that there is an even distribution of characteristics with in the
population, believing that any sample would be representative. The researcher already
knows that the group does not represent the whole population. The elements of population
do not have any known chance of being selected in the sample.

8.1 Different Types of Non Probability Sampling Techniques

a) Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling is an arbitrary technique for a particular study. This method is

useful for selecting a sample in relation to some criteria which are considered important
for the particular purpose and the Individuals are selected because of their expertise,
specialized knowledge or characteristics. This method helps to achieve
representativeness and focus on special unique characteristics.

b) Convenience Sampling

Convenience Sampling is also known as opportunist or accidental sampling. As per

his/her own convenience, researcher identifies the first individual to serve as a
respondent and continuing that process until the required sample size has been
obtained or those who happen to be available and accessible at that time will be
selected.

c) Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is also known as Chain referral method. On the basis of the
characteristics the researcher identifies a small number of individuals in which he is
interested. This is usually done when size of population is very small. In this sampling
technique interpersonal relations plays an important role.

d) Quota sampling

Quota is set according to some specified characteristics from the population such as
age group, income group etc. From each quota the sampling units are collected and
selection of sampling units depends upon the personal judgement. It is equivalent to
stratified sampling.

16
The major difference between quota and Stratified Sampling are in Quota sampling
after dividing the population into quota, the representative individual are non-randomly
selected to full the quota.

8.2 Steps to be followed for Different Non - Probability Sampling

Techniques

Types of sampling Steps to be Followed

Purposive Sampling - The selection of samples depends upon the purpose

with respect to the research problem.

Convenience - Researcher find some people that are easy to find

Sampling

Snowball Sampling - A small group is initially identified.

- Data is collected from the group.
- The identified group members are asked to identify
others who might have specialized knowledge regarding
the topic, those thus identified and recommended.
Quota Sampling - Identify the characteristics and determine what the
population looks like in term of specific qualities. Create
“Quota” based on those qualities and select sample
from each quota.

17
8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Non - Probability
Sampling Techniques
Types of Advantages Disadvantages
sampling

Purposive - Less costly and time - No equal chance for all the items
Sampling efficient of the universe being included in
- Homogeneity of the sample and Inability to make
subjects in the sample generalization concerning the total
- Prevents unnecessary population
and irrelevant items - Amount of knowledge of the
entering into the population required in advance is
sample per chance very high
- Results are unbiased - Enough scope for bias or
prejudices of the investigate to
play and influence the selection
- Not suitable for large samples
Convenience - Easy to use - Biased and un satisfactory
Sampling - Involves who so ever
happens to be
available that time.
- If Population is
homogeneous the
results would be
accurate

Snowball - Save resources - Sample selection and researcher

Sampling - Planning needs to be criteria may be inaccurate
done beforehand
- Population that is difficult
to sample while using
other sampling methods
can be assessed easily

18
Types of Advantages Disadvantages
sampling

Quota Sampling - Quick and easy - People who are can accessible
- Saves money and time are under representation
- Prevent decision to be - No guidelines in selection of
polluted by unnecessary respondents
input

19
Practice Task
1. Indicate (√) whether each of the following is a probability or nonprobability
sample.

Probability Techniques Non Probability

Techniques
Sampling Techniques

Purposive Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Random Sampling

Judgemental Sampling

2. Suppose you have to select a sample of 10 persons from a population of 72

members. Use table no. 7.1.1 and select the 10 members for the sample.
3. Calculate the sampling interval if the Population size is 40 and Sample size is 5.

4. The researcher wants to draw a stratified sample of 200 students from a

technical institution containing 70% of girls and 30% of boys

- How many girls should be in the sample?

- How many boys should be in the sample?
5. The researcher is interested in studying the attitude of persons living in a large city.
What sampling technique the researcher can select?

20
Feedback next page

21
Feedback to Practice Task

Sampling Techniques Probability Techniques Non Probability

Techniques

Purposive Sampling √
Stratified Sampling √
Random Sampling √
Judgemental Sampling √

2. Since there are 72 members of population, two digit random numbers are
necessary. Any number selected between 73 and 99 can be disregarded. Select
Column No. 10-14 and row no. 31 first two digits of each unit is selected as
57,33,09,40,95,65,50,91,31,77,83,63,58,15. Exclude the no. 95,91 and required
no. in sample are 57,33,09,40, 65,50, 31, 63,58,15.

3. Population Size N= 40

Sample Size n = 5

Sampling interval = 40/5= 8

4. n= 140 ( 70 % of 200)

n= 60 (30 % of 200)

5. For a researcher it is difficult and expensive procedure to develop a list including each
person details.

The researcher can use cluster sampling technique to divide the city into blocks or
neighbours hood, and the localities present in each block from where the sample can
be selected.

22
9. When to Select Different Sampling Technique?
Sampling Technique
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Quota Sampling
23
When to use?
Entire population in homogenous
 Population is heterogeneous
 It is possible for the researcher to
isolate certain homogenous strata
for the given population
When population is very large spread over
a wide geographical area.
 When data does not exhibit pattern
and there is low risk of data
manipulation.
 When population size is more and
there is need to create multiple
sample
As per convenience of the research
When only limited number of people can
serves as a primary data source due to
nature of research design aim/objectives.
When potential participants are difficult to
find.
When entire population is unavailable
References
 Babbie, E. (2001). The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Thomson.
 Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An
integrated approach to research design, measurement, and statistics. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. (p. 118)
 Cohen L. Manion L., Morrison K. (2007) Research methods in education,8th
Edition, Routledge (Taylor & Francis ) Publications. Master e book ISBN
ISBN9781315456539.

E resources
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319998246_Sampling_Methods_in_Res
earch_Methodology_How_to_Choose_a_Sampling_Technique_for_Research
 Galloway, A. (1997). Sampling: A Workbook [Electronic version]
http://www.tardis.ed.ac.uk/~kate/qmcweb/scont.htm
 https://cs.fit.edu/~jpmcgee/classes/CSE5800/SamplingTechniques.pdf

Watch videos
 Ortlieb Evan Published on you tube May 21, 201,” Probability and Non-
Probability Sampling in Research Methods”.

24
 UNIT II

7: Measuring Instruments
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1-2

1.1 Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool 1

1.1.1 Validity 1

1.1.2 Reliability 1

1.1.3 Feasibility 2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

2. Questionnaires 5-11

2.1 Arriving at Content of Questionnaire 5

2.2 Writing Questions or Items 7

2.2.1 Principles of writing questions 9

2.3 Editing the Questions 10

2.4 Assembling the Questionnaire 10

2.5 Expert Validation 10

2.6 Try-out/Pilot Testing 10

2.7 Finalization of the Questionnaire 11

Practice Task 12

Feedback 14

3. Interview Schedules 15-16

3.1 Types of Interview Schedule 15

3.1.1 Structured interview schedule 15

 3.1.2 Semi-structured interview schedule 15

3.1.3 Unstructured interview 15

3.2 Designing the Interview Schedule 15

3.2.1 Arriving at content of interview schedule 16

3.2.2 Writing questions 16

3.2.3 Editing of question 16

3.2.4 Expert validation 16

3.2.5 Finalization of interview schedule 16

Practice Task 17

Feedback 18

4. Observation Schedules 19-22

4.1 Types of Observations 19

4.2 Designing Observation Schedules 19

4.2.1 Checklists 19

4.2.2 Rating scales 20

4.2.3 Counters/Frequency 21

4.2.4 Field notes 22

Practice Task 23

Feedback 24

5. Standardized Tests 25

5.1 Characteristics of a Standardized Test 25

Practice Task 26

References 27
 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Define measuring instrument/tool
 Enlist the various types of measuring tools
 Explain the process of arriving at content of measuring tools
 Explain the principles to be taken into consideration while designing a questionnaire
 Explain three types of interview schedule
 Differentiate between direct and participant observation
 Explain the characteristics of standardized tests
 Select or design measuring instrument as per the research questions

1. Introduction
Data need to be collected or information needs to be elicited from the sample of the study to fulfil the
objectives or test the hypotheses. As in science and engineering, you use instruments to measure
temperature, pressure, volume etc., in education; instruments are used to collect relevant data and
information and are referred to as measuring instruments/tools. In other words, measuring
tools/instruments are devices used to quantify and record information important to a research study.
They allow the researcher to implement the research method and to produce data for analysis. There
are a number of measuring instruments and include: questionnaires, interview schedules,
observation schedules, and standardized tests. Broadly these can be classified into researcher
designed and standardized tests.

1.1 Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool

The characteristics of any good measuring tool are validity, reliability and feasibility.

1.1.1 Validity: It refers to whether the test measures what it intends to measure. Take an
example of watch. If your watch gives time as per Indian standards, it is said to be valid.
But, if it shows 10.05AM instead of 10.00AM, it is not valid measure of time.

1.1.2 Reliability: It refers to consistency in measurement. In other words, it refers to

dependability. If your watch shows 10.05 AM instead of 10.00 AM and shows 10.35 AM
instead of 10.30 AM and so on. The variation is fixed, you can depend on your watch. But, if
your watch is sometimes five minutes faster and another time fifteen minutes faster, it is not

1
 dependable. Any thing, which is valid, is reliable too. Thus, reliability is a necessary
condition but not a sufficient condition.

1.1.3 Feasibility: Any tool selected for collection of data should be practicable and
you should be able to administer it.

The various types of instruments that can be used for collection of data are explained in subsequent
sections.

2
Practice Task
1. Write the measuring instruments commonly used to gather data or information.

2. Write the major characteristics of a good measuring instrument.

3. Differentiate between reliability and validity.

3
Feedback
1. Write the measuring instruments commonly used to gather data or information.

Questionnaires
Interview Schedules
Observation schedules
Standardized Tests

2. Write the major characteristics of a good measuring instrument.

Reliable
Valid
Objective
Feasibility

3. Differentiate between reliability and validity.

Reliability refers to consistency of scores or dependability while validity refers to whether a test
measures what it intends to measure. Anything that is reliable may not be valid but anything, which
is valid ought to be reliable.

4
2. Questionnaires
Questionnaire is a self-report instrument and consists of number of questions/items. The process of
designing a questionnaire include the following steps:
 Arriving at content of questionnaire
 Writing questions
 Editing the questions
 Assembling the questionnaire
 Expert validation
 Try out the questionnaire
 Finalization of questionnaire

2. 1 Arriving at Content of Questionnaire

Content of questionnaire is generated from the purpose and research questions of the study as
shown in Fig 1 below (CPSC, 1984):

Study Purpose

Research Questions Research questions

Criterion Questions Criterion Question Criterion Question

Questionnaire Items

Fig.1: Arriving at content of measuring tool

Let us take an example, say the purpose of research is to study the activities undertaken by
teachers to plan, organize, deliver and evaluate instruction in technical institutions

5
Research questions: From the purpose of study, one can state the research questions
as:
 What activities are undertaken by teachers to plan instruction?
 What activities are undertaken by teachers to organize instruction?
 What activities are undertaken by teachers to deliver instruction?
 What activities are undertaken to evaluate instruction?

Criterion questions: Let us take first research question i.e. what activities are undertaken to plan
instruction. The criterion questions can be:
 Do the teachers sequence the content matter?
 Do the teachers write learning outcomes at lesson level?
 Do the teachers select instructional strategies to achieve learning outcomes?
 Do the teachers select instructional media for integration in teaching learning?
 Do the teachers select evaluation techniques for assessing student performance?
 Do the teachers plan for activities to involve students in teaching learning?
 Do the teachers plan for techniques for classroom management?

Questions/items: For each criterion question, one can frame questions or items. For example:

Criterion question: Do the teachers write learning outcomes?

Questions/ items
 Do you write learning outcomes for each lesson?
 Which taxonomy you follow to write learning outcomes?
 How do you ensure that learning outcomes are written at different levels?
 What according to you are likely to be the benefits of writing learning outcomes at lesson
level?
Criterion question: Do the teachers select instructional strategies to achieve learning
outcomes?

6
Questions/items
 What are the basis for selection of instructional strategies?
 Which of the instructional strategies are preferred to facilitate achievement of learning
outcomes at lower level?
 Which of the instructional strategies are preferred for facilitating achievement of
learning outcomes at higher level?

2.2 Writing Questions or Items

The questionnaire can consists of different types of items depending upon the objectives of the
study. The various types of items that can be included in questionnaires include:
 Alternate response type items
 Multiple response type items
 Multiple choice type items
 Ranking type items
 Rating type items
 Open- ended questions

Examples of different types of items:

Alternate response type questions:
What is your gender: Male/ Female
Are you married? Yes/No
Are you resident of India? Yes/No
Do the teachers possess adequate subject matter knowledge? Yes/No
Are the teachers punctual for class? Yes/No
Do the teachers give ample examples? Yes/No

Multiple response type items:

Please tick mark on the activities you undertake during delivery of instruction in class:
 State the objectives of topic
 Assess the previous knowledge of the learners
 Give adequate explanation of concepts, principles etc.
 Provide examples from world of work
 Involve learners in development of topic

7
Multiple-choice type items
Tick mark the highest qualification possessed by you.
 Diploma
 Graduation
 Post Graduation
 Doctoral degree
How many years of teaching experience do you possess?
 Less than 5 years
 Between 5-10 years
 Between 10-20 years
 More than 20 years

Ranking Type questions

Rank the teachers in your department on the basis of their teaching effectiveness by assigning
1 to the most effective and 10 to the least effective.

S. No Teacher’s Name Rank

1. Dr SL gupta
2. Dr S Reji
3. Dr Suhail Khan
4. Ms Preeti
5. Mr. SK Jain
6. Mr. Sumeet Singh
7. Ms Ruhi
8. Ms. Tammana
9. Mr Sunil Goel
10. Ms Preetkanwal

Rating type questions

Rate your teachers on the basis of their teaching on a five-point scale i.e. Excellent(Ex), Very
Good (VG), Good(G), Satisfactory (S) and Poor(P)

8
 S. No Teacher’s Name Rating
Ex VG G S P
1. Dr SL Gupta
2. Dr S Reji
3. Dr Suhail Khan
4. Ms Preeti
5. Mr. SK Jain
6. Mr. Sumeet Singh
7. Ms Ruhi
8. Ms. Tammana
9. Mr Sunil Goel
10. Ms Preetkanwal

Open Ended questions

Write any three problems faced by you in teaching.

______________________________________________________________

Suggest any three strategies to improve the quality of practical work in the institute.

______________________________________________________________

2.2.1 Principles of writing questions: For designing a questionnaire, following principles of

writing questions need to be taken into account (CPSC, 1984 and Johnson and Christensen,
2008)
 Make sure the questions match the research objectives
 Pose direct questions
 Use simple language
 Stick to familiar words

9
  Check all meanings of words
 Underline words to be emphasized
 Do not abbreviate words
 Avoid the use of concept words
 Include different types of items/questions
 Use mutually exclusive categories in multiple choice questions
 Use multiple items to measure construct
 Never use double negatives
 Do not use leading or loaded questions
 Avoid double barrelled questions

2.3 Editing the Questions

Once questions are written, the researcher reads the questions and checks the questions for
relevance, simplicity, language, grammatical correctness, correctness of alternatives etc. and
finalize the questions after making necessary modifications.

2.4 Assembling the Questionnaire

Once the questions have been finalized, the questions need to be sequenced and proper
instructions need to be included. While assembling the questionnaire, researcher should:
 Provide clear-cut directions to the respondents
 Ensure of confidentiality
 Limit the number of items
 Items of one particular type should be grouped under one section
 Proceed from simple, easy questions to difficult and complex questions
 Seek personal information at the end
 Thank the respondent for the time given

2.5 Expert Validation

A few experts in the area can be identified for expert validation of the questionnaire. On the
basis of the feedback, additions or deletions can be made in the questionnaire.

2.6 Try-out/Pilot Testing

Draft questionnaire can be administered on a representative sample from the population and
then reliability, validity etc. can be worked out. Feedback can also be obtained.

10
2.7 Finalization of the Questionnaire
Questionnaire can then be modified on the basis of feedback from respondents. The
questionnaire is now ready for use.

11
Practice Task

1. Write the correct sequence of the steps to be followed in developing a questionnaire.

1. Arriving at content of questionnaire
2. Assembling the questionnaire
3. Finalization of questionnaire
4. Writing questions
5. Editing the questions
6. Expert validation
7. Try out the questionnaire

2. Select a study, write its research questions and write the criterion questions
and for each criterion question, write at least three to five sample questions.

12
Feedback next page

13
Feedback

1. Write the correct sequence of the steps to be followed in developing a questionnaire.

1-4-5-2-6-7-3

2. Select a study and write its research questions and write the criterion questions
and for each criterion question, write at least three sample questions.

Discuss your answer with your peers.

14
3. Interview Schedule
Interview schedules are especially useful when the researcher wants to answer questions related to
why and how. Interview schedule is used to elicit information from the respondents in a face-to-face
situation or through telephone.

3.1 Types of Interview Schedule

Interview schedule can be:

 Structured interview schedule

 Semi-structured interview schedule
 Unstructured interview

3.1.1 Structured interview schedule is a replica of a questionnaire which has all the
questions to be posed to the respondent with a difference that the interview schedule is filled-
in by the researcher himself or herself.

3.1.2 Semi-structured interview schedule consists of broad questions related to objectives

and probing questions are posed to the respondent depending upon the response of the
respondent. For example: how do you plan instruction, is a broad question and depending
upon the answer from the respondent, probing questions can be posed. If the reply of the
teacher is that he sequences the content, probing question can be what are the basis for
sequencing the content are, how do you ensure that learning is facilitated.

3.1.3 Unstructured interview involves posing random questions to various respondents.

3.2 Designing the Interview Schedule

While designing an interview schedule, the same process as followed in the design of
questionnaire can be followed. The questions should follow a funnel sequence- starting with
broad questions and then posing specific questions. The steps in the process of designing
interview schedule include:
 Arriving at content of interview schedule
 Writing questions
 Editing of questions
 Expert validation
 Finalization of interview schedule

15
3.2.1 Arriving at content of interview schedule: The process as detailed to arrive at the
content of questionnaire is used to arrive at the content of interview schedule.

3.2.2 Writing questions: For structured interview schedule, all questions are detailed out.
For semi-structured interview schedule, broad questions are written and aspects to be
covered are indicated. Aspects identified help the interviewer to pose probing questions to
interviewee. Please see the example below:

How do you plan instruction? (write learning outcomes, select and sequence content
matter, select appropriate instructional strategies, select media, select evaluation
techniques, select strategies for motivating students and classroom management, refresh
knowledge)

In case of unstructured interview schedule, the researcher has in mind the questions that
need to be posed.

3.2.3 Editing of question: Draft set of questions is read carefully to ensure relevance,
simplicity, appropriateness of language, grammatical correctness, sequencing etc.

3.2.4 Expert validation: A group of experts can validate the questions and suggest
modifications.

3.2.5 Finalization of interview schedule: On the basis of expert validation, necessary

addition or deletions can be made in the interview schedule.

16
Practice Task

1. The three different types of interview schedule are:

2. Prepare a semi-structured interview schedule for interviewing the Principal regarding

management structure, policies and processes followed in the institution.

17
Feedback

1. The three different types of interview schedule are:

 Structured interview schedule

 Semi-structured interview schedule
 Unstructured interview schedule

2. Prepare a semi-structured interview schedule for interviewing the Principal regarding

management structure, policies and processes followed in the institution.

Discuss your answer with your peers.

18
4. Observation Schedule
Observation schedules are used to observe and record an existing phenomenon or on-going
process.

4.1 Types of Observations

Observations can be direct observation or participant observation. Direct observation means the
researcher silently inconspicuously observes a process or phenomenon. In case of participant
observation, the researcher becomes a part of the process or phenomenon and actively
participates in it.

4.2 Designing Observation Schedules

To arrive at the content of observation schedule, study purpose, research questions and criterion
questions are taken into consideration and the behaviour, qualities or aspects of the process or
phenomenon that need to be observed are identified. Decisions are made as to whether checklist
or rating scale or counters or field notes are to be used depending on the behaviour or aspects to
be observed, Observation schedules can thus include:
 Check list
 Rating scales
 Counters
 Field notes

4.2.1 Checklists: Enlists the behaviour or trait or qualities to be observed and the observer
simply puts a tick mark on those which are present and put a cross which are absent. The
items are to be arranged in order of their occurrence.

19
Checklist for teacher’s behaviour in class
Please put a tick mark (✓ ) on the activities performed by a teacher in a class and a cross (✖)
on activities not performed by the teacher.

✓ /✖ S. No Activity
Teacher
1. Gained attention of the learner
2. Stated the objectives of the lesson
3. Assessed the previous knowledge of learners
4. Build the rationale for the lesson
5. Gave adequate explanation for concepts, principles etc.
6. Related the topic with other topics & subjects
7. Gave adequate examples
8. Integrated media in teaching learning
9. Provided adequate practice through tasks and exercises to
10. Encouraged learner participation
11. Obtained feedback
12. Provided corrective feedback to learners
13. Summarized the lesson with the help of learners

4.2.2 Rating scales: The researcher observes a phenomenon or process and rate the
behaviour, traits or qualities on a three point or five point or seven point scale determining the
extent of these behaviour, traits or qualities.

20
Rating scale for teacher’s behaviour in a class
Please rate the behaviour of teacher on a five point scale i.e. Excellent (Ex), Very Good
(VG), Good (G), Satisfactory (S) and Poor (P)

S. Activity Rating
No Teacher Ex VG G S P
1. Gained attention of the learner
2. Stated the objectives of the lesson
3. Assessed the previous knowledge of
learners
4. Build the rationale for the lesson
5. Gave adequate explanation for concepts,
principles etc.
6. Related the topic with other topics
& subjects
7. Gave adequate examples
8. Integrated media in teaching learning
9. Provided adequate practice through
tasks and exercises to
10. Encouraged students learner participation
11. Obtained feedback
12. Provided corrective feedback to learners
13. Summarized the lesson with the help of
learners

4.2.3 Counters/Frequency: The observer observes a phenomenon or process and

records the frequency of occurrence of behaviour.

21
Frequency of Questions Posed In a Class

S. No Level of ability assessed Frequency

1. Remembering ////
2. Understanding //// //
3. Applying //
4. Analysing /
5. Evaluating /
6. Creating /

4.2.4 Field notes: The observer records the observations in his/her own words
Observation schedule once designed can be given to experts and based on their
feedback, necessary changes can be incorporated in the observation schedule.

22
Practice Task

1. Prepare a checklist for observing the quality of feedback provided by teacher to

students who answered the questions posed in class.

2. Prepare a checklist for observing activities undertaken by teachers and students

during the organization of laboratory experiment.

23
Feedback

1. Prepare a checklist for observing the quality of feedback provided by teacher to students who
answered the questions posed in class.

Take the feedback from your peer by uploading the work on discussion forum.

2. Prepare a checklist for observing activities undertaken by teachers and students during the
organization of laboratory experiment.

Take the feedback from your peer by uploading the work on discussion forum.

24
5. Standardized Tests
A standardized test is a test that is administered, scored and interpreted in the same way for all the
test takers. Standardized test must be (a) representative of a domain knowledge, (b) dependable
with regard to the format and scoring and, (c) consistent in terms of testing conditions
(samples.jbpub.com/9780763773625/73625_ch01_final.pdf.)

5.1 Characteristics of a Standardized Test

The characteristics of standardized test include:
 It is reliable. Reliability refers to consistency of measurement that is how consistent the
test scores or other evaluation results are from one measurement to another (Gronlund,
and Linn, 1995). Measures of reliability include –test-retest reliability, split-half reliability,
and internal consistency.
 It is valid. It means that the test measures what it intends to measure. Validity measures
include face validity, construct validity, concurrent or predictive validity can be determined
depending upon the nature of variable measured.
 It provides normative data for interpretation of scores.
 It provides standard set of instructions. While administering the standardized test,
directions given by the author must be religiously followed.

A variety of standardized tests are available to measure intelligence, aptitude, interest,

personality, job satisfaction, emotional intelligence, creativity, motivation etc. Each standardized
test thus, needs to be administered as per the standard procedure and specified instructions.

The researcher can select test(s) from the available ones or can develop his/her own test. Validity
and reliability need to be established for the test.

25
Practice Task

1. Go to the website referred in the text, write names of ten standardized tests of interest to you
as teacher and share your answers on discussion forum.

26
References
 CPSC, (1984). Selecting / Developing Measuring Instruments (Module 6). Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College.
 Gronlund, Norman E. and Linn, Robert L. (1995) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching..
NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.
 Johnson, B and Christensen, L. (2008) Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative and
Mixed Approaches. New Delhi: Sage Publications.

Web resources for further reading

 Das, DK Lal. Methods and Tools of Data Collection. http://ignou.ac.in/upload/Bswe-

003%20Block-4-UNIT-19-small%20size.pdf
 Data Collection Methods. https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-
binaries/10985_Chapter_4.pdf
 Methods of Data Collection. http://uca.edu/psychology/files/2013/08/Ch6-Methods-of-
Data-Collection.pdf
 Personal Interviews. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3241e/w3241e05.htm
 Questionnaire Design. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3241e/w3241e05.htm
 Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods- Data Collection
Methods: Some Tips and Comparisons.
https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2002/nsf02057/nsf02057_4.pdf
 Phellas, Constantinos N.; Bloch, Alice and Seale, Clive. Structured Methods: Interviews,
Questionnaires And Observation. http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-
binaries/47370_Seale_Chapter_11.pdf
 Siniscalco, Marria Tresa,and Auriat, Nadia. Questionnaire Design.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002145/214555e.pdf

27
 UNIT II

8: Collection of Data
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Collection of Data: Some Guidelines 1-2

2.1 Before the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines 1

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

2.2 During the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines 5-7

2.2.1 Collection of data through questionnaires 5

2.2.2 Collection of data through interviews 6

2.2.3 Collection of data through observation schedules 6

2.2.4 Collecting data through standardized tests 7

Practice Task 8

Feedback 10

3. Guidelines for Consideration after Data Collection 11

Practice Task 12

Feedback 14
 COLLECTION OF DATA

Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Explain the guidelines for collecting data through questionnaires
 Explain the principles of collecting data / information through interviews
 Explain the guidelines for collecting data though observation schedule
 Explain the procedure for collecting data through standardised tests.

1. Introduction
In the last module, you have learnt that the researcher can use any of the measuring
instruments namely, questionnaires, interview schedules, observation schedules or
standardised tests, or a combination of them for collecting relevant data or information as
per the objectives of the study. The procedure adopted to collect data is likely to affect
the quality of data and in turn the reliability of data. Thus, systematic procedure needs to
be followed to collect data.

2. Collection of Data: Some Guidelines

There are certain guidelines to be followed before, during and after the collection of data.
The guidelines are enlisted below:

2.1 Before the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines

 If there is likely to be a team for collection of data, orientation needs to be given
to the team members regarding the purpose, instructions for administration of
measuring tool(s), items need to be clarified to the members of the team and
precautions to be taken during collection of data need to be specified.
 In case, interviews and observations schedules are to be used, proper training
of interviewers and observers has to be organised. Interviewers need to be
trained in conducting interviews and skills essential such as rapport building,
posing of questions, responding to questions, listening skills, adaptability skills,
notes taking need to be honed. The observers need to be trained in the rating
scales used in observation schedule.
 Permission need to be sought from the competent authority to collect data and
information.
 List of respondents, interviewers or events, objects, documents, artefacts etc.
to be observed need to be prepared.

1
 Sufficient number of copies of questionnaires, interview schedules, observation
schedules or standardised tests should be obtained to avoid any problem
during collection of data.
 Other relevant material e.g. paper, pen, pencils, etc. required during collection
of data need to be obtained.
 Proper schedule of collecting data need to be prepared and adhered to by the
researcher.

2
Practice Task

1. Enlist the points that merit consideration before collection of data.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3
Feedback
Compare your answer with the points enlisted on page number 1&2.

4
2.2 During the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines

2.2.1 Collection of data through questionnaires: There are three different ways
in which data can be collected through questionnaires. These include: personal
administration of questionnaire, mailed questionnaire or on-line questionnaire.

Table 1 given below enlist the various points that need to be taken into
consideration while collecting data through personal administration, mailed
questionnaire or online questionnaire.
Table 1: Points to be considered during data collection through questionnaires
Personally Administered Mailed questionnaire Online questionnaire
Questionnaire
 Introduce yourself  Have adequate number  Upload the
 Clarify the purpose of of questionnaires questionnaire
the questionnaire  Prepare a cover letter  Identify the
 Assure the explaining the purpose respondents
respondents of the and assuring of  Approach the
confidentiality confidentiality. Explain respondents through
 Give instructions as to how the data will letter, e-mail, or
 Clarify any doubts or be used. telephone. Make them
questions of the  Attach stamped and aware of purpose, link
respondents addressed envelope to and assure of
 Give adequate time to facilitate return process confidentiality
the respondents to fill  Prepare a list of  Give adequate time to
in the questionnaire respondents and respondents to fill in the
 Collect the indicate date of mailing questionnaire
questionnaire the questionnaires  Send reminders to
 Thank the respondents  Maintain record of respondents
received questionnaire  Acknowledge the
 Acknowledge the cooperation extended
receipt of questionnaire
 Send reminder I after
the due date

5
 Personally Administered Mailed questionnaire Online questionnaire
Questionnaire
 Send reminder II, if
needed
 Maintain complete
records
 Acknowledge the
receipt of
questionnaires after
reminders

2.2.2 Collection of data through interviews: While collecting data through

structured or semi-structured interview schedule, the following points merit
consideration of the interviewer:

 Introduce yourself
 Clarify the purpose of interview
 Establish rapport
 Pose questions
 Give adequate time to interviewee to respond
 Listen effectively
 Observe the non-verbal behaviour
 Restate, summarize, repeat, mirror the feelings of interviewee
 Seek clarification, if needed
 Pose probing questions in case of semi-structured interview schedule
 Take quick notes
 Record the interview if the interviewee has already permitted
 Thank the interviewee

2.2.3 Collection of data through observation schedules: Data can be either

collected through direct observation or participant observation. Some of the
points to be kept in mind are enlisted below:
Direct observation
 Introduce yourself to person being observed or the person in charge of
activities, process or event to be observed
 Be inconspicuous during the process of observation
 Observe

6
  Record carefully and without bias
 Do not disturb the on-going activities/processes
 Seek clarification at the end of the process or activity, if needed

Participant observation
 Do not disclose your identify
 Behave normally
 Participate in the on-going activities
 Do not hinder the normal process
 Record your observations

2.2.4 Collecting data through standardized tests: Standardized tests can be

individual tests or group tests or there can be speed tests or tests without any
time limits. Each standardized test has a standard procedure for administration
and that needs to be followed. The researcher must ensure adherence to
instruction. During the data collection, the researcher should:
 Introduce himself/herself
 State the purpose of the study and test
 Ensure the subjects of confidentiality of data and information
 Make the subjects comfortable
 Distribute the standardized test and scoring sheet to each subject (if a
group test)
 Ask the subjects to read the instructions carefully
 Clarify the doubts, if any
 Ensure silence in the room
 Allow the time needed to complete the test
 Collect the test

7
Practice Task

Enlist any five points to be taken into consideration while collecting data through

Personally administered questionnaire

Online Questionnaire

Mailed Questionnaire

Interview Schedule

Observation Schedule

Standardized Test

8
Feedback next page

9
Feedback

Compare your answers with the enlisted guidelines on page numbers5, 6 & &7.

10
3. Guidelines for Consideration after Data Collection
A few points merit consideration after the data has been collected:
 Score the selected / developed test as per scoring procedure
 Prepare coding scheme for the variables on nominal scale
 Classify open ended questions into various themes
 Exclude incomplete data
 Prepare master sheet for analysis
 Check accuracy of information

11
Practice Task

Enlist the activities to be undertaken by the researcher after collection of data.

12
Feedback next page

13
Feedback
The researcher should:
 Score the selected / developed test as per scoring procedure
 Prepare coding scheme for the variables on nominal scale
 Classify open ended questions into various themes
 Exclude incomplete data
 Prepare master sheet for analysis
 Check accuracy of information

14
 UNIT II

9: Analysis of Data: Descriptive

and Inferential Statistics
 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Scales of Measurement 1-2

2.1 Nominal Scale 1

2.2 Ordinal Scale 2

2.3 Interval Scale 2

2.4 Ratio Scale 2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

3. Methods of Data Tabulation and Analysis 5-10

3.1 Ranking 5

3.2 Grouping/Frequency Distribution 6

3.3 Graphic Representation 7

Practice Task 11

Feedback 12

4. Descriptive Statistics 13-20

4.1 Measures of Central Tendency 13

4.2 Measures of Variability 14

4.3 Normal Probability Curve 14

4.3.1 Characteristics of normal probability curve 17

4.3.2 Skewness and kurtosis 18

4.3.3 Application of normal probability curve 20

 Practice Task 21

Feedback 22

4.4 Measures of Relationship 23

Practice Task 24

Feedback 26

5. Inferential Statistical 27-34

5.1 Basic Terminology 27

5.1.1 Standard error of mean 27

5.1.2 Hypothesis testing 27

5.1.3 Level of significance 27

5.1.4 Two-tailed and One-tailed test 28

5.1.5 Type I and Type II error 28

5.1.6 Degree of freedom 28

Practice Task 30

Feedback 32

5.2 Inferential Statistical Techniques 33

6. Other Measures of Correlation 35

Practice Task 36

Feedback 38

7. Selection of Statistical Technique 39

7.1 Scales of Measurement 39

7.2 Objectives or Research Questions 39

7.3 Hypotheses of the Study 39

Practice Task 40
Feedback 42

References 43
 ANALYSIS OF DATA: DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Differentiate among the four scales of measurement
 Tabulate the given data
 Explain the role of different graphical representations in summarizing the data
 Explain the conditions under which different measures of central tendency will be
appropriate for use
 Explain the conditions under which different techniques of inferential statistics will
be applicable
 Select appropriate techniques of data analysis for the given research study

1. Introduction
Once the data have been collected from the sample of the study, the next step in
research is to summarize the data and analyze it as per the research questions or
objectives and hypotheses of the study to draw conclusions. Let us first clarify two
concepts - statistics and parameter. Any indices calculated for the sample are
referred to as statistics and any indices calculated for population are referred to as
parameter. As research studies are normally conducted on samples selected from
the population, different statistical techniques are used to fulfill the objectives or test
research hypotheses. The selection of statistical technique is based upon three
factors namely- scale of measurement of a variable, objectives or research questions,
and hypotheses. Let us now understand the scales of measurement.

2. Scales of Measurement
The four scales of measurement are:
 Nominal scale
 Ordinal scale
 Interval scale
 Ratio scale

2.1 Nominal Scale

A nominal scale is a classification system that places people, objects, or other

entities into mutually exclusive categories. A variable measured using a nominal scale
is a classification variable that indicates the group to which each subject belongs but

1
does not provide any quantitative information about the subjects.
(http://support.sas.com/publishing/pubcat/chaps/59814.pdf).

For example, Gender-Male (1) or Female (2), Socio-economic status-High (3),

Average (2) or Low (1).

2.2 Ordinal Scale

Values on an ordinal scale represent the rank order of the subjects with respect to the
variable being assessed. Values on the measurement scale have an ordered
relationship to one another. For example, Ranking of ten teachers on teaching
effectiveness by assigning rank 1 to the teacher who is most effective and 10 to one
who is least effective. The limitation of ordinal scale is that the difference between any
two points on the scale does not represent equal interval i.e difference between Rank
1 and 2 is not the same as for Rank 9 and 10

2.3 Interval Scale

Most of the variables in education research are considered to be on interval scale.

Variable on interval scale means the difference between any two scores on the scale
is equal. For example, the difference between 30 and 40 degree Fahrenheit is equal
to the difference between 70 and 80 Fahrenheit i.e. 10 Fahrenheit. The limitation of
this scale is that i.e there is no true zero point on the scale.

2.4 Ratio Scale

Ratio scales are similar to interval scales in that equal differences between scale
values have equal quantitative meaning. However, ratio scales also have a true zero
point, which gives them an additional property. With ratio scales, it is possible to
make meaningful statements about the ratios between scale values. For example,
one can say that the individual with 6ft height is double the height of an individual with
3ft. Height and weight are examples of ratio scale.

2
Practice Task
1. Write the main characteristics of different scales of measurement.

Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale

2. Give two examples each of different scales of measurement.

Nominal scale

Ordinal scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

3
Feedback
1. Write the main characteristic of different scales of measurement.

Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale

Classify objects, Rank the objects, Trait, object etc. can There is absolute
persons etc. person etc. w.r.t assume any value zero in this scale.
into mutually certain quality or on the continuum. Equal differences
exclusive parameter. The difference between scale
categories between any two values have equal
points on scale is quantitative
equal. meaning
There is no absolute
zero on this scale.

2. Give two examples each of different scales of measurement.

 Nominal scale: Male/female, Rural/Urban, Developed/Developing/Under
developed, Govt./Govt. Aided/Pvt. Institutions, Semester I/II/III/IV/V/VI
students
 Ordinal scale: Ranking students on the basis of achievement, height, weight,
sociability, anxiety, honesty, friendliness etc.
 Interval Scale: Achievement scores, intelligence scores, Aptitude scores,
 Ratio Scale: Height, Weight, Temperature, Pressure

4
3. Methods of Data Tabulation and Analysis
Data collected through standardized tests are scored as per the specified scoring
procedures and coding scheme is evolved for the variables on nominal scale such as
gender- male (1) or female (2); Type of institution-Govt. institution (1), Govt. Aided
Institution (2) and private institution (3), the data are entered in a spreadsheet for further
analysis. In education research, SPSS is normally used for subjecting the data for
analysis. Various methods that can be used to summarize collected data include:
 Ranking
 Grouping/Frequency Distribution
 Graphic representation
 Descriptive statistics
 Inferential statistics

3.1 Ranking
One of the simplest methods is to rank order the respondents on the basis of their
scores on a test or some other variable of interest. Table 1 below provides an
example.

Table 1: Ranking of students on the basis of achievement scores in

strength of materials

S. No. Score Rank

1 97 1
2 95 2
3 93 3
4 92 4.5
5 92 4.5
6 91 6
7 85 7
8 83 8
9 80 9
10 75 10

5
3.2 Grouping/Frequency Distribution
It involves condensing the full set of scores into a smaller, more manageable
numbers by collapsing all scores in a certain range into single score. It is assumed
that the midpoint of the class interval best represents scores in a particular class
interval. For grouping raw scores, one has to determine
 The range of scores (difference between the minimum and maximum
score)
 The size of class interval. As a ‘rule of thumb’, the number of intervals
should be preferably between 10 and 15. As far as, size of class interval
is concerned 2,3,5,10 and 20 are most preferred.
 Exact lower and upper limit of the class interval. For example, for a class
interval of 10-15, the exact lower limit and upper limit of the class interval
are 9.5 and 15.5 respectively.

Table 2: Achievement scores of students in Chemistry

Class Mid-Point Frequency (f)
Interval
65-69 67 2
60-64 62 3
55-59 57 5
50-54 52 7
45-49 47 12
40-44 42 31
35-39 37 15
30-34 32 10
25-29 27 8
20-24 22 4
15-19 17 2
10-14 12 1

In case of open-ended questions or qualitative information, data can be grouped

around themes. For example, when asked about the problems faced in teaching
learning, the data may be grouped as below:

6
 Table 3: Grouping for open ended questions/qualitative
information
Problem f
* Low level of motivation 5
* Lack of previous knowledge 10
* Poor infrastructure in class 15
* Non-availability of internal facility 15

3.3 Graphic Representation

Graphical representations need to be included when they are able to clarify or
augment the text or when they will save space by eliminating the need for lengthy
narratives. Graphical representations should convey essential facts, omit visually
distracting details, be easy to read, use consistent style and need to be carefully
planned and prepared. Graphic representations include:
 Histograms
 Frequency Polygons
 Graphs
 Line Graph
 Bar/ Column Graph
 Pie Graph
Some examples are given below:
Histograms

7
Frequency Polygon

X=axis represents the mid-point of class interval

Y-axis represents the frequencies

Graphs
Line Graph

8
Bar/Column Graph

9
Pie Graph

10
Practice Task

1. Enlist the various methods that can be used to summarize the data.

11
Feedback

1. Enlist the various methods that can be used to summarize the data.
 Histograms
 Frequency Polygons
 Graphs
 Bar/ Column Graph
 Line Graph
 Pie Graph

12
4. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are helpful in describing the nature of distribution of scores,
describing group performance and variability in the scores. Descriptive statistics permit
the researcher to meaningfully describe many scores with a small number of indices.

Descriptive statistics include: mean, median, mode (measures of central tendency) and
range, quartile deviation and standard deviation (measures of variability), skewness and
kurtosis, and measure of relationship.

4.1 Measures of Central Tendency

Table 4 describes the various measures of central tendency and when to use each
one of them.
Table 4: Various Measures of Central Tendency
S. No. Statistics Description/ When to Use
Formula
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean Sum of all Measure of central tendency
scores/Number having greater stability
OR Scores are symmetrically
distributed around a central
point
Extreme scores are not
present in the distribution
When other statistics are to
be calculated
2. Median Mid-point in the When exact mid-point of the
distribution distribution is needed
Extreme scores are present
3. Mode Most frequently Quick and approximate
Mode=3Mdn- occurring score measure of central
2Mean
in the tendency
distribution

13
4.2 Measures of Variability
Table 5 summarizes the various types of measures of variability (spread of scores).

Table 5: Measures of Dispersion

S. No. Measures of Description/ When to Use
Dispersion Formula
1. Range Interval Between When data are too scant or
the highest and scattered Knowledge about total
lowest score spread is required
2. Quartile Q3-Q1/2 When median is the measure of
Deviation central tendency
Concentration around median is
the concern
Presence of extreme scores
3. Standard Statistics with greater stability
Deviation Extreme deviations are to be
taken into consideration
Other statistics are to be
calculated
4. Skewness Sk= To check the distribution of scores
around mean

5. Kurtosis To check the peakedness of the

distribution of scores around
mean

To understand the concept of skewness and kurtosis, one needs to understand the
normal probability curve.

4.3 Normal Probability Curve

Normal probability curve is based on simple binomial theorem. If you toss a coin,
probability is that you may get Head or Tail. The chances of getting a Head or Tail are
50% or in other words, you can say that probability of occurrence of Head or Tail is

14
half. In case two coins are tossed, you may get both Heads or both Tails and you
may get Head & Tail or Tail and Head. In simple words
(H+T) 2 = H2 + 2HT+ T2
Likewise, if you toss a coin n times, the expression can be derived from
(H=T) n =

15
The generalized expression is:

If the chances of occurrence of various events are graphically represented, the result
will be symmetrical polygon with the greatest concentration of cases at the center (Fig
1. ).

Fig. Probability curve obtained from (H+T) 10

The equation of normal probability curve is:

16
 In education research, it is assumed that any trait or quality or attribute is normally
distributed in the population. The normal probability curve thus helps us in finding out
the nature of distribution of scores, skewness and kurtosis of samples of study and
find out how closely the sample scores match the distribution of scores in population.

4.3.1 Characteristics of normal probability curve: The following are the

characteristics of normal probability curve:

 It is bilaterally symmetrical.
 It is asymptomatic to x-axis (Fig 2.)


Fig 2: Normal Probability Curve
 Mean, median and mode coincide
 It is unimodal curve
 Points of inflection are at 1SD unit
 Total area of Normal probability curve is divided into SD units. A fixed
number of cases lie between M+/-SD units. For example, 68.26% cases

17
 lie between M+/-1SD, 95.44% cases lie between M+/-2SD and 99.73%
cases lie between M+/-3SD. The total area of the curve is assumed to
be 6SD or M+/-3SD (Fig 3.)


Fig 3. : Percentage of cases at SD units

 Y represents the height of the curve and is equal to:


 The relationship between PE and σ can be stated as following:
1 PE = .6745σ
1σ = 1.4826PE.

4.3.2 Skewness and kurtosis: The concept of skewness and kurtosis are
explained below.

Skewness: The distribution of scores can deviate from the normal distribution
curve and skewness refers to concentration of cases either on positive or

18
negative side of the curve. When there is concentration of cases on positive side
(Fig.4), the curve is said to be negatively skewed and when there is
concentration of cases on negative side of the curve (Fig.4), the curve is said to
be positively skewed.
 In normal distribution curve, Mean, median and mode coincide
 In positively skewed distribution, Mean> Median> Mode
 In negatively skewed distribution, Mean< Median< Mode

Fig 4. Symmetric, positively skewed and negatively skewed curve (source:

slideplayer.com)

Kurtosis: Kurtosis refers to peakedness of the curve. In normal distribution

curve, the value of kurtosis is .263 and curve is referred to as mesokurtic. If the
kurtosis is larger than the normal distribution curve i.e. .263, curve is said to be
leptokurtic and if it is smaller than the .263, the curve is said to be platykurtic
(Fig 5).

19
 Fig 5: Peakedness of curve
(Source: http://whatilearned.wikia.com/wiki/File:Kurtosis.jpg)

4.3.3 Application of normal probability curve: Normal probability curve helps

in:
 Determining percentage of cases in normal distribution with in given
limits
 Finding the limits in any normal distribution which include a given
 percentage of cases
 Finding score in distribution if Percentile Rank is given
 Comparing two overlapping distributions
 Determining the relative difficulty of questions of a test
 Categorizing group into subgroups

20
Practice Task

1. Write the conditions under which you will use various measures of central tendency.

Measure of Central Conditions under which to be used

Tendency
Mean
Median
Mode

2. Enlist the various measures of dispersion.

3. Which of the measure of dispersion is most commonly used and why?

4. Explain the main characteristics of Normal Probability curve.

21
Feedback

1. Conditions under which various measures of central tendency are to be used.

Measure of Central Conditions under which to be used
Tendency
Mean When interested in average
When there are no extreme scores in the distribution
When further statistics need to be calculated
Median When interested in the point in the distribution below
which and above which 50% of the cases lie
When there are extreme scores in the distribution
Mode When interested in the most frequently occurring
score in the distribution

2. Various measures of dispersion are:

 Range
 Quartile deviation
 Standard deviation
 Skewness
 Kurtosis
3. Standard deviation: Standard deviation is the most stable statistics and is
used in further analysis.

4. Main characteristics of Normal Probability curve are.

 It is bilaterally symmetrical.
 It is asymptomatic to x-axis
 Mean, median and mode coincide
 It is unimodal curve.
 Points of inflection are at 1SD unit
 68.26% cases lie between M+/-1SD, 95.44% cases lie between M+/-2SD
and 99.73% cases lie between M+/-3SD.
 Skewness is zero and kurtosis is .263.

22
4.4 Measures of Relationship
There are a number of statistical techniques that can be used to determine the relationship
between two variables. The most common ones are Spearman’s Rank order correlation
i.e. Spearman’s rho and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The choice of technique
will depend upon the scale of measurement. Table 6 shows when to use each of the two
statistical techniques.

Table 6: Correlation Techniques

Technique When to use
Spearman rank order * Both variables are on ordinal scale
* Magnitude of relationship
* Objective is to study relationship

where di = difference in paired ranks

n = number of cases.
Pearson Product * Both variables are on interval scale
Moment Correlation * Magnitude of relationship
* Objective is to study relationship

OR

xy
r = ---------
 2 2
x y

xy

23
Practice Task

1. Specify the conditions in which you will prefer Spearman rho and Pearson Product-
moment correlation method.

24
Feedback next page

25
Feedback
1. Conditions under which to use
Technique When to use
Spearman rank order * Both variables are on ordinal scale
* Determine magnitude of relationship
Pearson Product * Both variables are on internal scale
Moment Correlation * Determine magnitude of relationship

26
5. Inferential Statistics
Research studies are normally conducted on samples selected from the population.
Inferential statistics is used to infer about the parameters based on statistics. In other
words, inferential statistics help the researcher in generalizing the findings of research,
based on samples, to the population. Generalizations are expressed in terms of
probability.

5.1 Basic Terminology

There are a few concepts, which need to be understood before understanding the
statistical techniques. These include: standard error of mean, hypothesis testing, level
of significance, two-tailed and one-tailed test, Type I and II errors and degree of
freedom (Gay et.al, 2012).

5.1.1 Standard error of mean: If you select 500 samples of 30 from a large
population and calculate the means and graphically plot them, means will be
normally distributed around the population mean. Standard error of mean (SEM)
can be calculated from the sample standard deviation by the formula:

  = Standard deviation of sample

SEM = -------- n = Size of the sample
√ N-1

Larger the sample size, lesser will be the Standard error of mean.

5.1.2 Hypothesis testing: It is the process of decision making i.e. whether to

accept or reject the hypothesis. Hypothesis is not proven; it is either supported or
not supported by the findings. Null hypothesis rejection does not automatically lead
to acceptance of research hypothesis.

5.1.3 Level of significance: Level of significance refers to the probability at which

null hypothesis can be accepted or rejected. Normally, probability level is set at
either at .05 or .01 level. .05 level of significance means that there are only 5
chances out of 100 that the observed differences in the means of any two groups
occurred by chance and .01 level means that there is only one chance in 100 that
the observed differences occurred by chance.

27
5.1.4 Two-tailed and One-tailed test: When a researcher formulates a null
hypothesis i.e. there are no significant differences in the achievement in structural
engineering of students taught through lecture and active learning strategies gets
rejected, the two possibilities are there that the group taught through lecture
outperforms the group taught through active learning strategies, or group taught
through active learning may outperform the group taught through lecture method.
The area of rejection of null hypothesis thus may lie on the positive or negative side
of the curve (Fig 6.). This is a case of two-tailed test.

If a researcher formulates a directional hypothesis as he/she has designed a

special programme to improve the presentation skills of students and test this
directional hypothesis, it is a case of one tailed test where the area of rejection will
be only on the positive side of the curve (Fig. 6) because it is expected that the
group trained in presentation skill is going to be better than the one not trained.

5.1.5 Type I and Type II error: The researcher can make two types of errors in
interpreting the results and accepting the null hypothesis.
 Type I error is made when null hypothesis is rejected although no true
differences exist.
 Type II error is made when null hypothesis is accepted though true
differences actually exist.

The chances of committing Type-I or Type-II error is affected by the level of

significance set by the researcher. A high level of significance (p < .05) reduces
the chances of committing Type I error but at the same time increases the chances
of committing Type II errors.

As committing Type-I error is going to prove serious in social science research, the
researcher needs to reduce Type I error by setting level of significance i.e. p< .05.
In case of exploratory studies, the researcher may set a low level of significance.

5.1.6 Degree of freedom: When a statistic is used to estimate a parameter, the

number of degrees of freedom (df) available depends on the restrictions placed

28
upon the observations. One df is lost for each restriction imposed. Let us take an
example.

For scores 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the mean is 7 and the deviations from means are -2, -1, 0,
+1, +2. The sum total of all these deviations is zero. Of the five deviations, the
researcher has four df (n – 1) as he/she can select any four deviations but the fifth
deviation is fixed because the sum of these deviations is always zero.

The rule is that df available equals to N minus the number of parameters already
estimated from the sample.

29
Practice Task

1. State the purpose of inferential statistics.

2. Explain the basic terms used in inferential statistics.

Basic Term Meaning
Standard error of mean

Hypotheses Testing

.05 and .01 Level of

Significance

One tailed and Two tailed test

Type I error

Type II error

30
Feedback next page

31
Feedback
1. Purpose of inferential statistics

Inferential statistics is used to infer about the parameter from the statistics

2. Basic terms used in inferential statistics.

Basic Term Meaning

Standard error of mean Represents standard deviation of the population

Hypotheses Testing Find out whether findings of the study either support
or do not support the hypotheses
.05 and .01 Level of .05 level of significance means that there are only 5
Significance chances out of 100 that the observed differences in
the means of any two groups occurred by chance and
.01 level means that there is only one chance in 100
that the observed differences occurred by chance.
One Tailed and Two tailed When the area of rejection of a hypothesis can lie
Test only on one side of the curve, it is referred to as a
case of one-tailed test. When the area of rejection of
null hypothesis lie either on the positive or negative
side of the curve, it is referred to as a case of two-
tailed test.
Type I error Type I error is made when null hypothesis is rejected
although no true differences exist.
Type II error Type II error is made when null hypothesis is
accepted though true differences actually exist.

32
5.2 Inferential Statistical Techniques
Various statistical techniques that can be used to infer about the parameters from the
statistics or test hypothesis are tabulated in Table 7 along with the conditions under
which each can be applied. These include both parametric and non-parametric tests.
Parametric tests make certain assumptions such as normal distribution of scores,
homogeneity of variance and independent samples while non-parametric tests make no
such assumptions.

Table 7: Statistical techniques to determine significance of difference

between mean or other measures
S. No. Significance of differences When to use
between among means
1. t-test for independent sample  Test the difference between means
of two independent groups
 Independent variable is on nominal
scale and dependent variable is
on ratio or interval scale
OR

(small samples)

2. t-test for dependent samples  Test the differences between

means of two dependent groups
 Independent variable is on nominal
scale and dependent variable is on
interval or ratio scale

3. ANOVA  Test the differences among the

means of more than two groups
independent variable is on nominal
scale and dependent variable is on
interval or ratio scale.

33
S. No. Significance of 
differences When to use
between among means

4. ANCOVA  Explain some of the variance in

terms of covariate and reduce error
variance.
 Eliminate or remove the bias of
confounding variables.
 Assumes independence of
covariate from treatment effect and
 homogeneity of regression bias.
5. Chi-square test  Useful methods for comparing
experimentally obtained results
with those to be expected
theoretically or on some
hypothesis.
 Variables are on nominal scale.
6. Mann Whitney u test
Test the significance of difference
of medians of the independent
groups
 One variable (independent) is on
nominal scale and other on ordinal
scale (dependent)
7. Median Test  Test the significance of difference
between two medians
 Variable is on ordinal scale
 Samples are independent
8. Wilcoxon signed rank test  Test the difference in the ranks of
two related groups (independent)
 One variable on nominal scale and
another on ordinal scale
(dependent)

34
6. Other Measures of Correlation
There are a number of other measures of correlation that can be used for studying
magnitude of relationship or prediction purpose. These are enlisted in Table 8
along with the conditions under which the technique is to be used or preferred.

Table 8: Other measures of correlation

Sl. Correlation Technique When to use
No.
1. Bi-serial correlation  Interested in magnitude of relationship
Mp – Mq pq  One variable in dichotomous (yes/no,
rpbis = ------------ x ----
 q pass/fail etc.) type and other is in
internal scale.
p = Proportion of entire group in
category
q= 1 – p (Proportion in second
category)
2. Point bi-serial correlation  Interested in magnitude of relationship
 One variable is scored simply on 1 and
Mp – Mq
rpbis = ------------ x √pq 0, say 1 for right and 0 for wrong, time
dichotomy exists.
  Another variable is on internal scale
4. Multiple Co-efficient of  Represents the correlation between
Correlation actual scores (criterion) and scores
predicted on the basis of multiple
R1(2,3) = √1- σ2 1.23
regression equations.
12

5. Partial Correlation  Useful in analysis In which effects of

some variable or variables are to be
eliminated
r12.34…n = r12√.34…(n – 1) - r13.34…(n – 1) x r24.34…(n – 1)
√1-r2 12.34…(n – 1) √1-r2 24.34…(n – 1)

35
Practice Task

1. Specify the inferential statistical technique you would prefer for the purpose and the
conditions.
Purpose and Conditions Inferential Statistical Technique
Test the differences between the
mean achievement scores in
Physics of male and female
students
Test the differences in teaching
effectiveness of teachers at varied
levels of experience i.e less than
five years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years
and more than 15 years.
Test the difference in the ranks of
two related groups
(independent).One variable is on
nominal scale and another is on
ordinal scale (dependent

2. Specify the correlation technique you would prefer for the purpose and conditions
stated below:
Purpose and Conditions Correlation Technique
Both variables are on ordinal scale
and a quick estimate of magnitude
of relation is required
One variable is on nominal scale
and other is on interval scale, you
are interested in relationship
between the variables.
In case of one variable true
dichotomy exists and another
variable is on interval scale

36
Feedback next page

37
Feedback

1. Specify the inferential statistical technique you would prefer for the purpose and the
conditions.
Purpose and condition Inferential statistical technique
Test the differences between the t-test
mean achievement scores in
Physics of male and female
students
Test the differences in teaching Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
effectiveness of teachers at varied
levels of experience i.e less than
five years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years
and more than 15 years.
Test the difference in the ranks of Wilcoxon Signed rank Test
two related groups
(independent).One variable is on
nominal scale and another is on
ordinal scale (dependent

2. Specify the inferential statistical technique you would prefer for the purpose and the
conditions stated below:
Purpose and Conditions Correlation Technique
Both variables are on ordinal scale Rank order correlation
and a quick estimate of magnitude
of relation is required
One variable is on nominal scale Pearson-product moment correlation
and other is on interval scale, you
are interested in relationship
between the variables.
In case of one variable true Point bi-serial correlation
dichotomy exists and another
variable is on interval scale

38
7. Selection of Statistical Technique
Selection of statistical technique depends on the following three factors:
 Scales of measurement
 Objectives or research questions
 Hypotheses of the study

7.1 Scales of Measurement

The first consideration is on which scale of measurement the data is available. Is it
nominal, ordinal, or interval scale? Accordingly, a statistical technique applicable will be
selected.

7.2 Objectives or Research Questions

What are the objectives of the study? Is the primary objective to study relationships
among variables or to find out the differences in the mean scores of various groups? In
case, the primary objective is to determine the magnitude of relationship and scale of
measurement is interval for both the variables, Pearson product moment correlation is
to be used. If the objective is to find differences in the mean score of two groups, t-test
is to be used and if there are three groups, one-way ANOVA may be used.

7.3 Hypotheses of the Study

The third factor to be considered is the hypotheses of the study. One needs to find out
whether null hypothesis or non-directional or directional hypotheses have been
formulated on the basis of review of related literature. In case, null hypotheses have
been formulated, two-tailed test will be applicable and if directional hypotheses have
been formulated one-tailed test will be applicable. If hypotheses are in terms of
relationship, correlational techniques will be used and if stated in terms of differences,
significance of differences between means would be used.

39
Practice Task

1. Explain the factors that will guide the researcher in selection of appropriate
statistical techniques for analysis of data.

40
Feedback next page

41
Feedback

1. Compare your answer with the input on selection of statistical techniques.

42
References
 CPSC (1984) Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results (Module 8). Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College.
 Garret, NE. (2007), ‘Statistics in Psychology and Education’ New Delhi: Paragon
International Publishers.
 Siegel, S and Castellan, N) (1989) Non-Parametric Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences, USA McGraw-Hill Inc.

http://support.sas.com/publishing/pubcat/chaps/59814.pdf
https://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda35b.htm (Sk &Ku)

43
 UNIT II

10: Formulating Research Proposal

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Research Proposal – Concept 1

2.1 Purposes of Research Proposals 1-2

3. Types of Research Proposals 3-4

4. Components of Research Proposals 5-6

5. The Process of Preparing a Research Proposal 7-8

6. Develop a Topical Outline 8

7. Develop Narrative Descriptions for each Section of the Outline 9-11

8. Review by Colleague and Evaluate your Completed Proposal 12

Practice Task 13

Feedback 14

References 15
 FORMULATING RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Learning Outcomes:

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Define a research proposal.
 Explain the significance of formulating a research proposal.
 Describe purposes of writing a research proposal.
 Describe various types of research proposals.
 Describe the components of research proposal.
 Develop the format of a research proposal.

1. Introduction

Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. It is a question raised for
inquiry, consideration, or solution. Now you are required to formulate the proposal.

The present learning module will enable learners understand the significance, types and stages
of formulating a research proposal.

2. Research Proposal - Concept

It is a detailed description of the proposed work documented by a researcher, i.e., a plan of action presented
and justified by the researcher for investigation. Basically, it is a document that portrays the rationale and
plan for implementing a research study. It is essentially the consolidation of the material that results from the
steps taken in the planning of a research study. In other words, it is an outline of future activities of a
research problem. If written adequately, a research proposal provides intent of the researcher about:

 research problem for investigation

 objectives, hypotheses, sampling and methodology
 resources (time, funds, facilities, equipment etc.) required to complete it,
 research outcome(s) to be reported, and so on

Various Terminologies for a research proposal are: research/project proposal; thesis plan; Research outline;
Synopsis; Research Plan.

2.1 Purposes of Research Proposals

The proposal may serve different purposes, depending on the type of study and the people involved. That is,
different situations require different types of proposals. A study being planned by one teacher who will
conduct the study within his/her classroom and will require no special resources may need only a brief
proposal. Conversely, another who wishes to conduct a state-wide or national study that requires access to

1
educational institutions and financial resources, may need a fairly lengthy and detailed proposal. The
purpose and scope of the study will dictate proposal’s form and length. Proposal may be written for
rrequisition of budget for the research or Certification requirements for research about the feasibility of
experimentation to be done on human beings or animals or for obtaining approval of Research Degree
Committee before performing research for a dissertation. In other words, it is a formal offer to render service
or produce a product to a client in response to request of the client.
There are three basic purposes that proposals may serve, which are given here:

 To Facilitate Planning

The proposal can serve the purpose of facilitating the planning of a research study by providing a structure
within which the researcher must plan. That is, the proposal acts as an outline which identifies the important
aspects of the study. In essence, it forces the researcher to address the major components of a study and
document this plans. The proposal answers the following questions about a study:
a. Why is the study being done?
b. What is being studied?
c. How will, it be conducted?
d. Who will be involved in the study?' and
c. When will the study be conducted?

These questions provide the structure and plan for a research study. Their answers are
reflected in the proposal.

 To Gain Support

A proposal may also be used to gain support from others for a research study. Many research studies
require the permission of superiors within an institution, or governmental officials within a State or
country. The proposal may provide a mechanism or vehicle for this request. It can show the importance
and need for the study as well as specify any special considerations that are requested.

Additionally, there is often a need for the financial support of a research study. Many governmental
agencies, universities and colleges allocate money to a special research fund. Researchers are provided
with the opportunity to request these funds for specific research studies. Sometimes, the managers of
these funds will identify problems and ask researchers to write competitive proposals that focus upon the
problems. Other times, the fund managers allow researchers to identify problems and make funding
requests. In either case, a proposal is the primary basis for determining who should receive funds and
how much they should receive.

2
In short, this purpose is achieved by making a formal request for official or financial support through the
use of a research proposal.

 To Inform Others

A proposal can be used to inform a variety of individuals and groups about a research study that is being
planned or conducted. Most research studies involve more people than just the researchers. Therefore,
there will exist a need to inform people who will be involved in or affected by the study.

If other researchers, teachers or administrators will be involved in a study, they will need to know all of the
particulars of the study. A detailed proposal will probably best meet this need. In addition to direct
participants of a study, the subjects of a study may have the need to know something about it. If the
favour of participation is requested, they will need to know the purpose and procedures as they are to be
affected directly. An abstractor short proposal may fit this need.

To conclude, a research proposal describes what researcher will do, why, how and what he/she expect
will result. While clarity about what, why, how from the start of study will help the researcher complete it
timely whereas, a vague or weak research proposal can lead to a painful, and unsuccessful execution
during investigation.

3. Types of Research Proposals

Research proposals vary in form and length by the purpose of the proposal. That is, a classroom study
proposal will vary from a funded study proposal because the purpose is different and the audience of the
proposal will be different. Basically, research proposals in technician education can be divided into three
types. These types include: 1) an action research proposal, 2) a funding request proposal, and 3) a
thesis or dissertation proposal for a graduate school or university.

A. Action Research Proposal

Action research proposals are prepared by teachers and administrators who are interested in solving or
exploring practical problems within their institution. The purpose of this type of proposal is usually
twofold. It assists in the planning of a study and can be used to inform others of the study's particulars.
The audience of an action research proposal includes the researcher and others involved in the study.

The action research proposal is not generally very long nor very formal. It should contain the basic
components of a proposal (discussed later in this unit) but a great deal of energy and time need not be
invested in making the proposal formal. It should be more of a planning document and a guide to

3
implementation, and less of a document used to influence someone. An action research proposal might
range from five to fifteen pages.

B. Funding Request Research Proposal

A proposal that is prepared for the purpose of obtaining financial support is usually a formal proposal. It
is very specific in terms of problem statement and rationale as well as specific procedures and
instruments. Since its purpose is to influence someone to allocate funds, the funding request proposal
must be technically accurate, complete and persuasive.

The funding request proposal often written to conform to guidelines issued by a governmental or funding
agency. Therefore, the researcher must be aware of the guidelines in advance. The audience of a
funding request proposal is primarily the people who will make the selection or funding decision.

The length of a funding proposal will vary, depending on the type of study and the funding
agency. Sometimes a maximum length requirement is stipulated by the funding agency. In
general, a funding request proposal ranges from fifteen to one hundred pages in length.

C. Thesis or Dissertation Proposal

Thesis and dissertation proposals have a very specific place in research. They exist only in
universities and colleges and are written only by people who are pursuing a masters or doctoral
degree. These degrees have a requirement that before award of a degree, one must plan,
conduct and report on a research study. The proposal, therefore, is focussed on meeting the
planning needs and requirements of a particular university or college.

Most universities and colleges that offer the master’s and doctoral degree, have guidelines
which must be closely followed in proposal writing. Many professors have their own style and
content expectations. Proposals of this type have a strong emphasis on background research
and problem formulation along with the inclusion of procedures for data collection and analysis.
The audience of the thesis or dissertation proposal is a professor or group of professors who act
as advisers and evaluators for the proposal and study.

4. Components of Research Proposals

It can be concluded from the previous inputs and practice tasks of this unit that proposals will vary according
to purpose and type. Each may have a different purpose, each may emphasize different points and each

4
may result in different levels of formality and size. Even though proposals will be very different from one to
another, each will contain the same basic components. Most of these components have been referenced in
other modules within this set. This input will state and summarize each component. Unit two of this module
will provide added detail to each component. The components can be easily classified according to the
major planning questions that were stated previously. The [allowing displays this classification and identifies
each component.

Question Proposal Component

1. Why is the study being done? a. Review of literature
b. Problem statement
2. What is being studied? c. Research questions/hypotheses
3. How will it be conducted? d. Method/design
e. Instrumentation
f. Data collecting procedures
g. Analysis procedures
4. Who will be involved in the study? h. Population and sample
i. Research personnel
5. When will the study be conducted? j. Schedule
k. Resources

The following paragraphs provide brief descriptions of each component:

a. Review of Literature

The review of literature is presented in the proposal to provide the reader w it h an overview and rationale
for your study. Additionally, it provides an indication that your study is building on the work of others and
that you have begun a systematic problem solving activity. The review of literature will vary in length, depth
and detail according to the type of study being proposed. For an action research study, the review of the
literature may only consume one or two pages of the proposal. For a funding or thesis proposal the review
of literature might reach thirty pages in length.

b. Problem Statement

The problem statement presents to the reader of the proposal, a very concise description of
what you intend to study. It may be a single sentence or a paragraph and may be presented as
a broad question or a declarative statement. Regardless of proposal type, the problem

5
statements will be similar.

c. Research Questions/Hypotheses

Research questions and/or hypotheses are presented in the proposal to provide the reader with
an indication of how you have focussed your study. The questions or hypotheses show a logical
relationship with the problem statement and help the reader better understand what you are
planning.

d. Method/Design

The method or design section of the proposal reveals to the reader the general type of study or
approach you have chosen. That is, it identifies the study as descriptive, correlation, ex-post
facto, or experimental. It may also provide a brief rationale for the selection of such a method.

e. Instrumentation

This component of the proposal presents a list of instruments that will be used in the study. If
standardised instruments are selected, a brief description of each may be presented. If you
develop new instruments as part of the study, a brief description of the proposed instruments
should be given.

f. Data Collection Procedures

The data collection procedures component of the proposal provide a description of how, where
and when instruments will be administered and data will be collected. The length and amount of
detail of this component will vary w it n the complexity of the study being proposed. In addition,
the type of proposal will result in differences in detail and length. For example, an action
research proposal may include only two or three paragraphs while a funding proposal may
include many pages on this topic.

g. Analysis Procedures

The analysis procedures component of the proposal provides a description of how data will be manipulated
and analysed. It may include a description of how tabulations may be handled as well as what statistical
techniques will be used. The length of this section may vary with proposal type.

h. Population and Sample

This section of the proposal presents a description of the population to which the results will be generalized.

6
It also describes the procedure for selecting the sample(s). This section may describe very specifically the
make-up and strata of the sample with numbers of subjects. The sample section is relatively short with a
range from a paragraph to several pages.

i. Research Personnel

The research personnel section is commonly included in a funding request proposal but seldom include in
the other two types of proposals. In a funding request proposal, this section informs the reader of whom will
be assisting. This section may include a brief biographical sketch of each key person. This section is usually
brief, with up to a half page per key person. Often, more complete curriculum vitae is included as an
appendix to the proposal.

j. Schedule

This component of the proposal provides an indication of critical dates for completion of the research study. It
may be as simple as presenting beginning and ending dates or as complex as detailed calendars for each
procedural step of the study. The complexity of the study will be the greatest factor in determining the detail
provided in this section or the proposal.

k. Resources

This section is common to funding request proposals only. It may have a title such as budget or requested
budget. Essentially, this action includes the details of the finances needed to complete the research study. It
is often broken into categories such as: personnel, contractual services, materials and supplies, equipment,
travel and printing. This section is usually limited to one or two pages.

1. Appendix

The appendix of a research proposal contains documents or items that have a peripheral relationship to the
research study. Items such as instruments curriculum vitae are presented.

5. The Process of Preparing a Research Proposal

Before start writing, a researcher must answer the following questions:

 Do I have the clear research question(s)?
 Have I read intensively in that area?
 Have I discussed the research problem with peers, teachers and sought feedback on
completed proposal?
 Do I have enough time and funds to start?

7
  Do I get support from teachers and friends?
 Do I have checked for Plagiarism

Preparing a research proposal is like preparing any other formal document; it takes planning
and effort. In addition, it may take refinement and improvement efforts to reach the desired level
of quality. If one thinks of the proposal as a plan that has other benefits, its effort can be easily
justified. The better job done in planning will usually result in a better study and higher efficiency
in implementation.

The inputs that you have already read from Modules One through Eight have provided you with ideas and
knowledge about research in technician education. Each of the Modules Two through Eight have covered a
topic that corresponds directly with a component of the research proposal. Therefore, it may be
advantageous to refer back to the pertinent modules for review or assistance.

The process for developing a proposal can be divided into four distinct steps. These steps are:

Step 1 Develop a topical outline that matches the purpose and type of proposal desired.
Step 2 Develop narrative descriptions for each major section of your outline.
Step 3 Get your completed proposal reviewed and evaluated from an expert/colleague.
Step 4 Revise the proposal based on feedback received from an expert/colleague.

6. Develop a Topical Outline

The topical outline provides you with a framework or structure upon which your proposal can
be built. It identifies each component of your proposal and provides you the opportunity to jot
down ideas of content that you will include in each component section.

The purpose, type and other requirements described in the first unit of this module will dictate
the components to be included. The following outline provides an example for an action
research study, planned by a technician educator.

Topic outline for an Action Research Study

1. Review of Literature
2. Problem Statement and Research Questions
3. Method
A. Design
B. Population and Sample
C. Data Collection Procedures

8
 D. Analysis Procedures
4. Schedule
5. Needed Resources
6. Appendices

A proposal to request funding may be structured in a slightly different way. However, it will have
the same basic components. The following outline provides an example of a funding request
proposal.

Topic Outline for a Funding Request Proposal

1. Purpose and Need for the Study Problem Statement

2. Literature Review
3. Research Objectives, Questions and Hypotheses
4. Design of the Study
5. Population and Sample of the Study
6. Instruments of the Study
7. Procedures for Data Collection
8. Procedures for Data Analysis
9. Specifics of Reporting
10. Personnel involved in the Study
11. Schedule of the Study
12. Requested Budget
13. Appendix

7. Develop Narrative Descriptions for each Section of the Outline

The narrative of the proposal should be built on the outline. The specific style of writing that you use
should depend, in a great part on the audience of the proposal. That is, if your superior will read
and evaluate your proposal, then write it in the style to which he is accustomed or prefers. The following'
sections provide points or suggestions that might assist you in writing the narrative of the proposal:

a. Review of Literature

1. Review as much as required to make your readers agree about having reviewed
other studies.
2. Explain the basis for emergence of your proposed study through relevant literature.

9
 3. Use the literature to illustrate the origin of your research questions and/or
hypotheses in case of a larger study.
4. Keep the length of the review as appropriate to the purpose of the proposal and its
type: short for action research and longer for funding and thesis proposals.

b. Problem Statement

1. Be brief and to the point.

2. Reflect about why the study is being conducted clearly in the problem statement.
3. State the problem in the form of a question.

c. Research Questions and/or Hypotheses

1. State research questions concisely and limit their number.

2. State hypotheses when hunches are held.
3. Formulate the null hypothesis when statistical tests are to be made.
4. Ensure that the questions as well as hypotheses relate directly and logically to
problem statement and research questions respectively.

d. Method/Design

1. Describe in brief about the research method/procedure that will be employed.

2. Describe briefly the rationale for choosing particular research method/procedure.

e. Instrumentation

1. Provide a list of instruments that will be included in the research study.

2. Give detail (form, purpose, validity and reliability) about each instrument.
3. Ensure that the research question or hypothesis relates directly to each instrument.
4. Describe the procedures that will be used in development of instruments in case the
researcher wishes to develop them as part of the study.

f. Data Collection Procedures

1. Describe the procedure for collection of the data

2. Describe the suitability of instruments with which group or sample.
3. Present enough detail so that the reader knows exactly what you plan to do in case
of preparing for the funding request proposals.

10
 g. Analysis Procedures

1. Describe how the collected data will be organized.

2. Identify the statistical techniques that will be computed.
3. Ensure that adequate statistical techniques will be used based on the nature of data
and hypotheses.
4. Describe how statistical results will be reported or presented.

h. Population and Sample

1. Identify the target population of the study.

2. Ensure that the size of the sample to be chosen is adequate for the purpose of
generalizations.
3. Identify strata or clusters, if any that will be used in sampling.
4. Describe the sampling technique that will be used.

i. Research Personnel

1. Identify each individual being involved in conducting the research study.

2. Acknowledge each key person being involved in the study.

j. Schedule

1. Indication start date and end date of the project.

2. Include a timeline for each task of the study.

k. Resources

1. Identify any specific resources to be required for the study such as facilities,
equipment, etc.
2. Prepare a budget detailing all financial needs of the study.

1. Appendix

Include any item (which could fit in the body of your proposal) that supports your
proposal. This might include instruments, report/documents, etc.
8. Review by Colleague and Evaluate your Completed Proposal

Once you have completed each of the components of the proposal, you should have it typed.
Then make one or two photocopies. Retain one copy and give the second to a colleague whom

11
you respect and who has experience and expertise in research and proposal writing.
Ask your colleague to read proposal and to evaluate it. Ask him to play the role of the person
who will ultimately read the proposal.

A checklist such as the one presented in the following practice task might be useful in this task.
In addition to the checklist, ask your colleague(s) to make judgements about your proposal and
make suggestions for improvement.

9. Revise the Proposal Based on your Colleague’s Reactions

Based upon the feedback from your colleague, make changes and improvements in your
proposal use the checklist results to identify components that can be improved if necessary,
refer to one of the modules, two through eight, for ideas for change and improvement

10. Research Proposal – Common Mistakes

A researcher must get himself/herself familiarized with certain common mistakes that the other
researchers are committing. A few are stated here:
 Inappropriate context to formulate the research question(s) or hypotheses
 Inappropriate delimitation to conditions for research problem
 Poor in citing landmark studies; citation lapses and incorrect references
 Inaccurate presentation of the theoretical and empirical contributions of other
researchers
 Not focused on the research question
 Enough detail on minor issues, but insufficient detail on major issues
 Too long or too short

12
Practice Task

1. Explain, in brief, the concept of a research proposal.

2. Which one of the following is the main characteristic of a Thesis or Dissertation Proposal?
a. Used primarily as an internal plan.
b. Evaluated by a group of Professors.
c. Used to influence a decision to support the study.
d. Used for solving immediate problem.

3. What does ‘Review of Literature’ indicate in a research proposal?

4. What does ‘Population and sample’ indicate in a research proposal?

5. What practical steps can you take before you actually start your research?
a. Find out exactly what your institution's requirements are for a dissertation.
b. Make sure you are familiar with the hardware and software you plan to use.
c. Apply for clearance of your project through an ethics committee.
d. All of these.

13
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

1. It is an outline of proposed work (future activities) of a research problem to be carried out by a

researcher.
2. b.
3. A rationale for the study by citing the findings of other research.
4. Describes the subjects of the study and how they will be selected.
5. d.

14
References

 Best, JW and Kahn, JV (2006). Research in Education. 10th Edition. Boston A & B/Pearson.
 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York: Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of Materials
and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 9: Preparing
Research Proposals. Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Dunford, R (2004). Developing a research proposal. In Burton, S. & Steane, P.
(Eds.) Surviving your thesis (pp.46-58). New York, NY: Routledge.
 Garrett, HE and Woodsworth, RS (2003). Statistics in Psychology and Education, Bombay:
Vakils Fetter and Simons.
 Gay, LR (2000). Educational Research, Ohio: Charles E Merril Publishing.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with SPSS
Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited
Publishers.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited
Publishers.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kumar, R (2016). Research Methodology – A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. New
Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., Third Printing, 399pp.
 Shoket, M (2014). Research Problem: Identification and Formulation. International Journal
of Research, Vol. 1, Issue 4, May, 2014; ISSN 2348-6848.
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences.
New Delhi: Bharati Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors).
 Tatke, J (2009). Research Methodology. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning.
 Wong, PT (2002). How to write a research proposal. Langley, BC: Trinity Western
University. Accessed December, 29, 2005.

Support learning resources:

 Video film on ‘Research Proposal – Concept, Significance and Types’

developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Research Proposal – Format’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil
Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal.
https://open.lib.umn.edu/writingforsuccess/chapter/11-2-steps-in-developing-a-research-
proposal/
 Developing a Research Proposal.
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/tutorials/researchproposal
 How to Write a Research Proposal. University of Birmingham.
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/law/courses/research/research-proposal.aspx

15
 UNIT II

11.1: Writing a Research Report

 CONTENTS

S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Research Report-Concept 1
3. Systematic Approach to Writing Research Report 2
3.1 Establish the AIM 2
3.2 Consider the Audience/Reader of Research Reports 2
3.3 Institution or Government Officials 2
3.4 Education Practitioners 3
4. Types of Research Reports 4
4.1 Evaluation Reports 4
4.2 Institutional Research Reports 5
4.3 Journal Articles 6
5. Format of a Research Report 6-18
5.1 The Preliminary Section of a Research Report 8
5.2 The Body of a Research Report 14
5.3 The References Materials of the Research Report 17
6. Format of A Journal Article 18-21
6.1 Techniques to Follow When Writing a Journal Article 19
6.2 Major Sections of a Journal Article 20
7. Edit and Revise before final submission of a Research Report 21-22
Practice Task 23
Feedback 24
References 25
 WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Learning Outcomes:

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Define a research report.
 Explain the significance of writing a research report.
 Describe systematic approach to writing a research report.
 Describe various types of research reports.
 Describe the components of research report.
 Develop the format of a research report and journal article.

1. Introduction

Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. You have identified the
problem and stated its objectives and hypotheses. In addition, you have also selected the
method of research, sample and developed the tools. You have also collected the data and
analyse the data. Now, you are required to report the findings. Here, lies the significance of
writing a research report.

The present learning module will enable learners understand the significance, types and
stages of writing a research report.

2. Research Report - Concept

A Report is an account brought by one person to another, especially of some matter

specially investigated. A formal statement of the results of an investigation, or of any matter
on which definite information is required, made by some person or body instructed or
required to do so (shorter oxford English Dictionary). It describes the completed research,
i.e., the concluded activity of research. It describes what research was done and how it was
done and the results and conclusions of the research. The significance of the research is
also addressed. As such it differs from a research proposal which gives emphasis on what
research is intended, how it is to be intended.

Research report is an exposition type of composition and the primary function is to

communicate ideas in a manner understandable to and usable by the reader/audience.
Thus, report writing has been recognized as an indispensable part of any piece of research
work as it records the purpose, the importance, the limitations, the procedures, the findings
and the conclusions.

1
3. Systematic Approach to Writing Research Report

To make any written document effective and efficient, systematic approach can be followed:
 Establish the AIM
 Consider the AUDIENCE/READER
 Devise the STRUCTURE
 DRAFT the text
 EDIT and REVISE

3.1 Establish the AIM

A research should start with the aim. Every report must have an aim – a specific,
specified reason for being written. You must then decide what information is necessary
in achieving that aim.

3.2 Consider the Audience/Reader of Research Reports

Research reports take different forms and different emphasis depending primarily on the
audience. As the writer, you must understand not only the reader's purpose, but his
background as well. You must know who your reader is, what he already knows, and
what he does not know. Try to predict what the reader will understand without
explanation and without definition. In addition, you must know what information to
elaborate. If you use a specialized word, then you must know when to define it. All this
requires a lot of thought before writing a research report.

To be a good research report writer, you must know your audience - its purpose and
knowledge. Audiences are divided into two types. The first type is the institution or
government officials who might consist of institution administrators, government
administrators, and other funding agency officials. The second type is the education
practitioners who might consist of teachers, teacher trainees, and other researchers.
Each type of audience has different interests and will understand the same problem
through a different language and from a different perspective.

3.3 Institution or Government Officials

Who is an institution or government official? He might be an institution principal or

contract administrator. The institution or government official's major concern is with
policy or decision making. The institution or government official must often make
decisions based upon what he/she reads. In writing a research report for an institution
or government official, you must interpret your material and present its implications, not
merely give the facts. The institution or government official is usually knowledgeable in

2
the field and will not need technical terms defined for him. The institution or government
official seldom uses the detail, though he/she often wants it available. Organize your
research report around institution or government official reading habits. The institution or
government official is usually a busy person, so most of them read the summary or
abstract, conclusions and recommendations, and some read the introduction and
background section. Only a very few read the body of the research report or the
appendix material.

Consider the position of the institution or government officials. What do they require of a
research report? Among the major requirements will be that the document:

1. is easily understood.
2. has recommendations that are solidly based.
3. provides a basis for action.
4. recommendations may be translated into policy.
5. provides useful information so that decisions may be made.

3.4 Education Practitioners

Who is an education practitioner? It might be a teacher or a teacher trainee. The

education practitioner's major concern is with improvement of programmes, instructional
material, teaching methods, and self- improvement. The education practitioner many
times will not be able to follow complicated statistics, and will grow restive with too much
theory.

Sentence length should also be kept down when writing for the education practitioner.
Let one sentence carry one idea or one statement, in order to avoid confusion in the
reader's mind. Because the English language is remarkable for its variety of meanings
and expressions, whenever possible, use simple words. Usually with the education
practitioner, you will need to supply background information in order to give the reader
an understanding of the previous work that has been done in the area of study. Some
definition may also be necessary in order that the reader will fully understand the
meaning of .the report and its significance.

Consider the position of the education practitioner. What do they require of a research
report? Among the major requirements will be that the document:

1. provides a clear expression and is easily understood.

2. has academic credibility.

3
 3. provides a clear presentation.
4. has coherence of purpose as exemplified by the report as a whole.

4. Types of Research Reports

When writing a research report it is important to understand that different circumstances

may call for different types of reports. In technical education research the three major
types of research reports are: evaluation reports, institutional research reports, and
journal articles. An evaluation report facilitates the communication of evaluation
procedures which were undertaken, and portrays the results of an evaluation study in
order to assist in decision making and/or making changes to improve vocational
technician education. An institutional research report communicates the purpose,
procedure, and findings of the completed research study to the reader in order to inform
the reader of a specific topic in technician education. A journal article is a report written
for publication by a researcher who has already completed a research study in order to
share with other people the benefit of the new knowledge.

Under each major kind of research report, some different types include:

4.1 Evaluation Reports

Student Follow-up Report - communicates programme success based on the

feedback from former students. The report generally contains an overview of the
procedures, statistics on the number of placements and wages, and places of
employment. Judgement feedback from former students on how the programme
benefitted the-m is sometimes included. The audience of this report usually includes
teachers involved in the programme which the students participated in, administrators
from that institution, and sponsors and supporters of the school.

Summary of Student Assessment Report - documents the progress of individual

and groups of students. Sometimes used to assign grades to students and to monitor
the consistency of student accomplishments from year to year. It includes a
description of assessment procedures used by individual instructors and statistics of
test scores, and course grades. The audience of this report usually includes teachers
and students.

Formative Evaluation of an Instructional Activity Report - documents the results

of a formative evaluation for use in making further improvements and taking
corrective actions. These reports are sometimes very brief and written by the
instructor for his own use. It is a document that helps the instructor determine what

4
he should not do and what works best for him. The audience of this report usually
includes teachers.

Course or Programme Evaluation Report - provides summative evaluation

information regarding decisions for continuing a course or programme. It provides
formative evaluation results to help in improving the course or programme. Usually, a
detailed report in which more than one evaluation technique was utilized. The
audience of this report usually includes administrators and teachers.

Curriculum Product Evaluation Report - provides corrective input for enhancing

the curriculum product or justifying its use. It usually includes an expert judgement of
the curriculum product concerning its cost, use, benefits, etc. The audience of the
report usually includes curriculum developers and potential adopters of curriculum.

4.2 Institutional Research Reports

Curriculum Development Study Report - provides the base or input for the
development of a course or programme. This report usually pulls together all sources
of data (this might include the manpower assessment study report) to justify the
curriculum or spell out what should be in the curriculum. The audience of this report
usually includes curriculum development specialists and teachers.

Manpower Assessment Study Report - identifies and documents the supply and
demand of skilled workers in various occupational and geographical regions. It is
usually a statistical report showing both current employment as well as projections of
the future in an occupational field. The audience of this report usually includes
programme planners and curriculum developers.

Staff Development Needs Assessment Study Report - identifies the in-service or

upgrading needs of individuals and groups of teachers. It usually includes a
description of survey results of faculty interests and perceived needs for
improvement. The audience of this report usually includes administrative staff.

Occupational Analysis Study Report - identifies and documents the specific job
competencies of individuals working in a particular occupation. It usually has tasks
listed with frequency and importance ratings for each task. The audience of this
report usually includes curriculum developers, programme planners and teachers.

5
 Assessment of Student Evaluation Techniques Report - determines the types of
techniques used by teachers for evaluating students and determines their
consistency in application. It usually includes a description of the various techniques
used by instructors with recommendations concerning consistency or improvement.
The audience of this report usually includes administrators and teachers.

4.3 Journal Articles

Research Articles - share specific research findings with scholars and practitioners
in the field. It is a published summary of a research study, and includes a description
of the rationale, methodology, and findings of the research study. It is published in
the journal of a professional association which maintains a review board or uses
referees. The audience of research articles usually includes researchers, university
and other institutional researchers, teachers and administrators.

Prescriptive Articles - interpret research findings into suggested actions which

should be taken by policy makers or practitioners. They are designed to persuade
someone into implementing their research findings for some new innovation.
Prescriptive articles involve a practical interpretation of research with the intent to
motivate some kind of change. The audience of prescriptive articles usually includes
teachers and administrators.

Instructional Articles – instruct/teach practitioners about some things that have

been proven or advanced through a specific or accumulative research effort.
instructional article usually describes some technique innovation which has been
tested in a research study. The emphasis on this type of article is on teaching the
reader how to implement or adopt the innovation that been studied. Specific steps or
procedures as well as description of the underlying rationale are usually provided.
The audience of instructional articles usually includes teachers.

5. Format of a Research Report

A necessary part of any research is the writing of the report to convey the results and
conclusions to interested persons. Most graduate schools, institutions, and professional
journals indicate formats that they expect report writers to follow. These formats differ in
detail somewhat, but they usually include three main divisions: the preliminary materials, the
body of the report, and reference materials. Each of the main divisions may consist of
several sections. However, it is appropriate here to consider the format of a research report.
The format should reflect the stages the research process, but it exists essentially as the

6
means by which the research is communicated. There are various ways in which a format is
established, but it is proposed here that we consider the following, and then make the
necessary adaptations to fit your audience's needs.

I. Preliminary Materials

a. Title Page
b. Acknowledgements
c. Table of Contents
d. List of Tables (if any)
e. List of Illustration (if any)
f. Abstract

II. Body of the Report

a. Introduction

1. Statement of the problem

2. Literature review
3. Underlying hypotheses or key questions
4. Limitations
5. Definition of terms

b. Methodology

1. Sources of data
2. Data gathering instruments
3. Procedures employed (designs, sampling, etc.)

c. Presentation and Analysis of Data

1. Presentation of the findings

2. Tables (usually incorporated into the presentation of the findings)
3. Figures (usually incorporated into the presentation of the findings)

d. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

1. Summary
2. Conclusions
3. Recommendations

7
 Ill. Reference Materials

a. Bibliography
b. Appendices

The list of items outlined above is fairly comprehensive. It is not meant to be a rigid
guideline of every step you must take. Before deciding on a final format it is necessary to
ask yourself:

What is it that is essential to include in order to provide an easily understood research

report, and how do we provide evidence that the recommendations are solidly based? An
outline is effective if it helps to identify and order the subdivisions of the report's major
divisions or sections. Obviously, the outline must precede the actual writing of the report
since it is expected to serve as a guide for the writing which lies ahead. An effective outline
is a check for coverage and an assurance for sequence and logical presentation of ideas
and items.

Since the planning outline is for the writer's use only and considering that it is tentative in
nature, it is expected that as the writer proceeds, addition, removal, and rearrangement of
items may be necessary and desirable. The list of items outlined above is fairly
comprehensive. It is not meant to be a rigid guideline of every step you must take.

Before deciding on a final format, it is necessary to ask yourself:

What is it that is essential to include in order to provide an easily understood research

report, and how do we provide evidence that the recommendations are solidly based? An
outline is effective if it helps to identify and order the subdivisions of the report's major
divisions or sections. Obviously, the outline must precede the actual writing of the report
since it is expected to serve as a guide for the writing which lies ahead. An effective outline
is a check for coverage and an assurance for sequence and logical presentation of ideas
and items.

Since the planning outline is for the writer's use only and considering that it is tentative in
nature, it is expected that as the writer proceeds, addition, removal, and rearrangement of
items may be necessary and desirable.

5.1 The Preliminary Section of a Research Report

You will recall that the preliminary components of the research report consist of the
title page, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of tables, list of illustrations, and
abstract. All the qualities of good writing: clarity, conciseness, and accuracy should be

8
inherent in these preliminary materials, as well as in the body of your report.

The Title Page

The title page, which appears first may contain the following items.
1. title of the study,
2. full name of the research report writer and institution for which he works,
3. name of institution to which the report is submitted, and
4. date when the research report was written.

These items are centred between the margins on the page, and no terminal
punctuation is used. The title is typed in capital letters, but usually only the initial letters
of principal words are capitalized in other items. If the title extends beyond one line it is
double-spaced and placed in the shape of an inverted pyramid.

The title should contain key words or phrases that give a clear and concise description
of the scope and nature of the research report. The title should not claim more for the
study than it actually delivered. It should not be stated so broadly that it seems to
provide an answer that cannot be generalized, either from the data gathered or from

EFFECT OF ONLINE LEARNING AND BLENDED LEARNING ON

ACHIEVEMENT OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN
PSYCHOLOGY AND ENGAGEMENT IN LEARNING IN
RELATION TO METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS

A RESEARCH REPORT

Submitted to the Panjab University Chandigarh

In respect of Doctor of Philosophy

By
Ambalika Dogra
Ph.D. Scholar

January, 2016

the methodology utilized. For example, if a simple descriptive self-concept study was
made of a group of children enrolled in a particular inner-city elementary school, the
title should not read, "The Self-Concepts of Inner-City Children”. A more appropriate
title would be "The Self-Concept of a Group of Delhi Inner-City Children”. An example
of a Title page is given below:

9
The Acknowledgements Page

The 'Acknowledgements' page is usually included when the research writer wants
especially to express his thanks to individuals who have given him substantial
guidance or assistance, however, a long list of acknowledgements is not in good taste.
The word Acknowledgements' is centred on the top of the page, and the paragraphs of
the acknowledgements are typed in standard form as shown below:

T Acknowledgements
h
e The investigator is grateful to the principals (viz.,) who served as respondents and cooperated
in the administering of the instrument used in this survey. The investigator is also grateful to
T the city superintendents (viz.,) who served as respondents and cooperated in the
a administering of the instrument.
b
The responses of all the individuals who participated in the survey are anonymous and are
l
referred to in the study only by means of various types of symbols. In the formulation of
e
methods and the preparation of materials for this study the investigator received many
valuable suggestions from
o
f Special thanks are expressed to Dr. Professor of Education at the Panjab University,
Chandigarh who served
C

Contents

The 'Table of Contents', which is a separate page or pages, gives the reader an
overview of the research report and enables him to locate quickly each of its sections.
The main division titles are usually typed in capital letters, subdivision headings in
small letters with the initial letter of the principal word capitalized. All titles and
headings appear in the exact words and order as they do in the research report, and
each is followed by the correct page citation. The relationship between main headings
and subtopics is shown by proper indentation and capitalization. If possible, the
headings are confined to one line of space, and parallel grammatical structure is used
for the same value of headings. See the example of a 'Table of Contents' below:

10
 Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
List of Illustrations

Chapter
I. Introduction
1.1 The Problem and Its Purposes
1.2 Definition of Terms
1.3 Sources of Data
1.4 Method of Procedure
1.5 Significance of the Problem

II. Some Effects of Changing Social and Economic Conditions on the

Technical Training Institute

III. Importance of Technical Training Institutes Social and Economic

Problems and Their Effects on Enrolment

IV. The Future of Technical Training Institutes in India

Bibliography/References
Appendix

The List of Tables

The 'List of Tables' should give the table numbers in Roman numerals. The first and
last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, 'and adverbs in the title of each
table should be capitalized, and there should be double-spaced periods extending in a
line from the last letter of the title to the corresponding page number. The word "Table"
and "Page" should be placed at the top of the columns of numbers. See the example,
below:

List of Tables
Table Detail Page
No.
1.1 Student Population of Central City by Wards, 1958
2.1 Value of New School Buildings Erected in Central City by
Years, 1958-1968
3.1 The Growth of Central City Public Schools, 1958-1968, as
indicated by Census, Programmes, and Facilities

The List of Illustrations

In the,' List of Illustrations the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives,

11
verbs, and adverbs in the title of each illustration should be capitalized, and there
should be double-spaced periods extending in a line from the last letter of the title to
the corresponding page number. The words "Figure" and "Page" should be placed at
the top of the columns of numbers. Both the figure and page numbers should be
Arabic numerals. When the title of a figure is very long, it is permissible to use a
shortened form. However, in certain reports it may be necessary, in the interest of
clarity, to present the title of the figure exactly as it appears in the text. Descriptive
statements that may be used in addition to the title within the body of the report should
be omitted in the List of Illustrations. The list of illustrations can be prepared as for list
of Tables above.

The Abstract

The abstract is a very concise description of a research report. is of considerable value

to the reader because it provides him with time saving synopsis of an entire report.
The abstract provides essential general information but omits details. Recognizing the
f that different institutions have their own· requirements for abstract preparation, the
following suggestions are offered merely to explain the general nature of an abstract.

Contents of the Abstract

The abstract should provide a brief explanation of the research problem and the topics
studied. The sources of information and the procedure used should be given very
general coverage. Finally, the findings, conclusions, and recommendations (if any)
should be stated briefly.

Preparation of the Abstract

The following suggestions are given for writing and typing the abstract

 Use topic sentences and combine them with transitional statements to form
unified paragraphs.
 Give special attention to sentence structure in order to write a short, logically
consistent, and highly abstract.
 Strive for accuracy as well as unity. Complete sentences should be used.
Abbreviated terms that are not acceptable the main report should not be used
in the abstract either.
 The third person and past tense should be used.
 Limit the abstract to the specified number of words (such as six hundred words
or less).

12
  The abstract should have a top and bottom margin of 25mm left-hand margin of
35mm and a right-hand margin of 25mm.
 The general heading for the abstract should contain the author's name
(surname first), title of the study, and the date. The abstract must be double
spaced.

Sample of an Abstract

Jones, John T., The Effect of a Teaching Procedure, Using Students' Compositions,
On Fourth-Grade Students' Sentence Construction January, 1971.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using students' written
compositions, as the primary aid for teaching, on the production of incomplete and
over-complete sentences written by fourth-grade students. The subjects for this study
were children selected at random from fourth-grade classes at Happy Hollow
Elementary School located in the Centreville School District. Most of the children came
from middle-class homes, although a small percentage were from the upper-middle
class.

The subjects were assigned either to a control group or an experimental group, each
containing twenty-six students. This grouping existed only during periods in which
specific written composition instruction was offered. The same teacher taught both
groups in order to eliminate the difference in teacher ability.

Each written composition class lasted for thirty minutes each day for each group. The
experiment was carried on for one semester. In the control group, the teacher used
materials in the fourth-grade English textbook, and additional duplicated materials, all
of which concentrated on building and writing good sentences. The experimental group
used only student written work as aids to improving the writing of complete thoughts in
sentences. In the experimental group, on Friday of each week, students wrote a new
story. Only incomplete and over-complete sentences were red-marked.

The teacher taught the experimental group with these stories, using projector,
chalkboard, and oral reading of the stories. The story writers were not always identified
as the 3tories were discussed in class. The class would help improve the sentences in
the students' stories. No textbooks, workbooks,
or duplicated materials were used.

13
At the end of the semester each student wrote a story. The students were allowed fifty
minutes to write a what was in a "mysterious box" on the teacher's desk. followed an
outline suggested by the teacher and contained t paragraphs of five sentences each.
The paragraphs answered following questions: What is in the box? What is the
mystery item used for? What would I do with the mystery item if it were mine? These
were graded by two secondary school English teachers and the researcher.

The experimental group wrote fewer incomplete sentences than the control group, the
difference being significant beyond the .01 level of significance (t = 2.90). The
experimental group also wrote fewer over-complete sentences, the difference being
significant at the same level of significance (t = 2.70).

It is concluded that when the experimental method is used the students will write fewer
incomplete and fewer over-complete sentences than when the traditional method of
instruction is used.

It is recommended that similar studies be conducted to assess the effect of the

experimental method (1) when subjects are selected from fifth and sixth grades, (2)
when subjects come from various socio-economic strata, (3) on other criterion
variables such as interest, attitude, and quality of writing.

5.2 The Body of a Research Report

The body of the report follows the preliminary information. The body of ·the research
report contains four logical divisions:
a) Introduction
b) Methodology
c) Presentation and Analysis of Data
d) Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

a) Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem should appear early in the paper, and the various
elements should be presented in definite, lucid terms, leaving no doubt as to the intent
of the researcher. Ambiguous terms and involved wording should be avoided.

Review of Related Literature

14
A thorough review should be made of the literature related to the problem area under
investigation. In this way the researcher will discover whether the study he is
undertaking already has been thoroughly researched, thus making his study
redundant. The researcher should then organize this review of the literature so that the
relationships of other studies to the present one are pointed out. Finally, the
researcher should use the review to establish a theoretical base or rationale upon
which defensible hypotheses can be based or key questions can be developed.

Statement of Hypotheses or Research Questions

Hypotheses in a research study are predictions of facts or relationships based upon

existing information, which will when tested experimentally or empirically, produced
new facts, concepts, or evidence. They should be stated as declarative sentences and
should clearly identify the variables with which they are concerned.

Limitations

This section of the research report should call attention to any limitations that exist in
the reference populations, treatments, instruments used, or research design. These
factors must be described so that a reader may make his own decision about the
applicability of the findings to other situations.

Definition of Terms

Careful definitions need to be stated for all important variables, particularly if these
variables are to be measured by means of a specific instrument or combination of
devices. Many terms commonly in use are subject to a variety of interpretations, and
accurate reporting requires that these terms be defined according to the precise
meaning they are intended to convey. Esoteric technical jargon interferes with the
communication of ideas, as does inconsistent use of any of them.

b) Methodology

Procedures for Collection and Treatment of Data

The procedures followed in conducting the study should be explained in complete

detail. A step-by-step description is needed of the manner in which decisions have
been made about the data required for the study, the devices used for their collection,
and the process by which they have been collected.

In addition, the techniques, devices, and procedures followed should be shown to be

15
appropriate, valid, and reliable for the acquisition of the data upon which conclusions
and inferences are based. Any errors or weaknesses in the procedures that have been
discovered during the conduct of the research should be pointed out, and any
consequent limitations upon the research results should be fully noted. Complete
information, sufficient to make possible an exact replication of the study, should be
included. This information should describe explicitly where and when data have been
gathered, from exactly how many subjects the data have been gathered, the relevant
characteristics of these subjects, and the methods and materials used.

c) Presentation and Analysis of Data

Presentation of Data

Plans for the organization and presentation of the data should be prepared in advance
for any research report. Clarity requires that data categories be specific, and it further
requires that only relevant data be reported. Charts, diagrams, graphs, tables, and
other such devices should be used when they can be designed to present information
effectively and accurately, permitting the reader to examine the data more readily than
in a purely textual presentation. The textual presentation, then, should supplement or
expand upon, rather than duplicate the contents of tables and charts. This discussion
should be stated in a formal narrative style that provides a smooth transition from one
point to the next and clarifies any relationships that bear upon the problem.

Analysis of Data

The analysis of data must be objective and logical. A careful distinction must be made
between fact and opinion, since opinion has no place in this section of the report. The
evidence relevant to each hypothesis or research question should be examined,
including any data that may be contrary to the anticipated outcomes. Although the
researcher is expected to relate his work to previous research and, thus, to generalize,
he should avoid exaggerating and making broad generalizations without adequate
data upon which to base them. All generalizations should be stated with careful
qualifications, and conclusions should be drawn only for the population and
circumstances for which the evidence has been collected. There may be unexpected
developments in the research, such as unanticipated relationships or unforeseen
trends; these matters should be reported fully. Any weaknesses in the research
design, techniques, or population that have come to light should be discussed frankly,
with particular attention given to the manner in which these factors may have affected
the outcome of the research.

16
d) Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

Summary
The summary should briefly review the procedures, findings, and entire involvement of
the problem. The important points in the study are brought together in the summary,
but not all the evidence upon which they are based is repeated.

Conclusions

The conclusions are stated precisely and related directly to the hypotheses or research
questions that were presented. The conclusions announce whether the findings of the study
confirmed or rejected the hypotheses or answered the research questions of the study. If the
conclusions modify an existing theory, this fact is discussed. If the data have any implications
for educational programmes or practices, these may be discussed. If the investigation raises
or clarifies specific questions that suggest areas for further research, this information is
presented concisely.

If no further research would appear to be profitable in this area and a new approach to the
problem is needed, this suggestion is made. However, remember only those conclusions that
can be supported by the data presented in the study should be stated.

Recommendations

The recommendations should indicate how the conclusions might be used or implemented in
educational practice. Recommendations based on the conclusions can be of great help to
teachers, administrators, and others in the field who may not have sufficient training to
discover these applications for themselves.

5.3 The Reference Materials of the Research Report

The reference materials of the report follow the main body of the research report and
contains the following:
a) Bibliography
b) Appendix

a) Bibliography

The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources that were
used when preparing the research report. Some bibliographies classify entries under
headings such as Books, Periodicals, Newspapers, Reports, Public Documents, and
Miscellaneous. A more common approach is to arrange items in a single alphabetized
list. Bibliographical items are usually listed alphabetically by author's surnames, but a

17
 chronological arrangement is used in some research studies. o universally accepted
style for constructing a bibliography exists. You need to adopt one that is approved by
your institution or publisher and use it consistently. Module 2 presents a simple and
workable style for writing bibliographies.

b) Appendix

An appendix, if included, follows the bibliography. You do not merely dump leftover
products of the study in the appendix, rather, you present relevant supporting materials
that are too lengthy to be placed in the body of the research report, such as
questionnaires, form letters, evaluation sheets, checklists, courses of study,
documents, and interview forms. The items in the appendix are grouped, labelled,
lettered, and listed in the table of contents. They should also be cited at the
appropriate place within the body of (he report, for the benefit of the reader who may
require this additional information.

6. Format of A Journal Article

There are many reasons for wanting to publish one's research; other people can benefit from
the new knowledge; one may need to publish in order to get promoted in his job, or one may
just wish to clarify his thoughts and receive reactions to them. The purpose of this unit is to
help the researcher, one who has already completed a research study, understand how to
write a professional journal article.

Preliminary Tasks that should be completed before preparing a Journal Article.

There are several preliminary tasks that should be completed before beginning to draft a
report of the research study for publication in a professional journal.

 Begin concentrating on who might be interested in learning the results of your

research study. Be critical. Be honest. Define an audience for whom the results of
your study would have the greatest potential usefulness. Then write for that audience
or reader.
 Develop a list of the professional journals most likely to be read by your defined
audience. Develop a list of the journals which publish articles on topics similar to
yours.
 Once the list of potential target journals has been developed, the prospective writer
should study past issues. The objectives of this process are to determine which
journal's content most nearly matches your proposed article and to take notes on the
typical length, publication style, and accepted vocabulary. One should also make

18
 note of the editor and the address to which manuscripts are to be sent. Most journals
have notes to prospective writers inside the back cover indicating where the
manuscripts are to be sent, and how to obtain a copy of the journal policy.

Remember to

o identify the audience with the greatest potential interest.

o identify the most appropriate target journal.
o determine the required format.

Only after completing these tasks should the writer begin to outline and draft the article.

6.1 Techniques to Follow When Writing a Journal Article

Keep in mind there are many ways of presenting and/or writing about the same set of
obtained data, but that you are trying to convey specific information to a particular
audience which is accustomed to reading new information in a particular format.
Conform to the style of the target journal.

While writing and re-writing drafts of the article, remember to be concise and do not
go beyond the length of the recommended number of words for articles in the target
journal that you have selected. Do not include any words which are not absolutely
necessary to convey the data, their meaning, and the appropriate interpretations.

Understand ability is just as important as conciseness. Always have one or more

non-involved people read the final draft of the proposed article. A non-involved
person is someone other than yourself or a co-writer. It might be a professor,
committee member, fellow student, or spouse. It does not matter that they may not
be knowledgeable in your field, they can still point out redundancies and in many
instances show where you did not give enough information to the intended readers.

Be very careful when using technical terms. Avoid their use whenever possible, and
ensure that you define each term and use it in its proper context. Use only the
technical terms which are appropriate for the target journal and audience.

Another useful technique for achieving conciseness and understand- ability is to

outline the article first. There is probably no single technique so useful in the initial
phases of article writing than outlining. The table of contents from your formal
research report can serve as the first outline. This outline should be expanded until
you are certain what should be included in your article. Then reduce the outline. In

19
 fact, the journal article may only incorporate one or two chapters of your original
research report.

6.2 Major Sections of a Journal Article

The following are some general topics which are covered in many professional articles.
However, do not use any suggested format blindly, modify it to suit the chosen journal.

Presentation of the Problem

 Review of the Literature: not always required or requested, and usually only
one or two paragraphs. (This may be preceded by a brief introductory
statement.)
 Statement of the Problem: a concise, understandable, perhaps even non-
technical explanation depending upon the target journal, often general in
nature.

Procedures utilized in the Study

 Hypotheses or research questions: only if the target journal requires them,

and then in an appropriate format even if the analysis is non-statistical.
 Description of Population/Samples: often only two or three sentences.
 Types of Data and Methods of Collection: usually brief, but some technical
journals require rather detailed descriptions or explanations.
 Method of Analysis: be brief, cite references of any statistical methods used.

Results

 Tables: remember tables are used to present large amounts of data in an

understandable form. Do not include a table if it is not useful. A well-
constructed table should convey to the reader the essential meaning of a set
of data which otherwise would take several pages to present in prose form.
It should present the data more clearly than if written into the text of your
article. A common error is presenting related data in several different tables,
when the data could be combined into one or two well-organized tables.
 Brief Written Presentation: state the significance level of any statistical test
used and present a summary of the major findings.

Discussion of Results

 The study's objectives, hypotheses or research questions should be

20
 addressed stating whether they were confirmed, rejected, or in the case of
research questions, answered.
 Usefulness of Results - explain how the reader can use the results, why
they are meaningful.
 Implications for Further Study - do not become so involved in stating the
implications of your study that you cause the reader to lose interest or
become bored with reading your personal/professional philosophy.
Implications are justified only when they are clearly probable and based
upon the obtained data.
References

Include an entry for each citation in the article. A bibliography is not included for a journal
article except when it serves a special purpose or when one is requested by the journal staff.
An appendix is not generally required but may be included if it is necessary to present
material that would otherwise break the continuity of the article.

While good writing may be partly a personal judgement there are definite mistakes which
can and should be avoided. For example, all writers must be constantly on guard to prevent
non-informative expressions from becoming part of a proposed article. Use of the first
person is another mistake to be avoided. Normally, it can be avoided or corrected by using
such expressions as, "the researcher" or "the writer", or employing the term "one". For
example, you could change "I do not believe the first person format should be used", to "One
should not use the first person format".

Good writing is difficult, and it is hard work. There is much time involved in editing, setting up
tables, and verifying bibliographic style. It is only natural that one becomes tired of reading
and re- reading the same manuscript, but it is the only way to get an article into a format and
style that will be acceptable for publishing. It is also the best way to maximize your
contributions in a given field of study.

7. Edit and Revise before final submission of a Research Report

The following guidelines will assist the researcher in editing and revising the research report
before submission to the concerned authorities:
 Set aside draft report for a day or two before revising. This makes it easier to view
your work objectively and see any gaps or problems. Rethink ideas, refine
arguments, reorganize paragraphs, and reword sentences. Have somebody else
read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or confusing.
 Proofread the Final Draft.

21
 Detect any careless errors (such as misspelled words and incorrect punctuation and
capitalization).
 Read backwards in order to detect any more errors.
 Errors harder to spot on a computer screen
 Check for Clarity
o Use easily understandable words
o Use verbs in the active voice vs the passive voice
 Check for Conciseness
o Limit paragraph length
o Avoid Camouflaged Words (instead use common terminology)
o Omit Redundancies (unnecessary words)

22
Practice Task
1. Explain, in brief, the concept of a research report.

2. List what a good research report writer should know about the audience/reader of a
research report.

3. What does ‘Review of Literature’ indicate in a research report?

4. What does ‘Population and sample’ indicate in a research report?

5. Which one of the following is NOT the logical division of the Introduction to a research
report?
a. A statement of the problem.
b. A review of the literature.
c. A description of the sample selected for the study.
d. A statement of the hypotheses/research questions.

23
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

1. It describes the completed research, i.e., the concluded activity of research. It describes
what research was done and how it was done and the results and conclusions of the
research. The significance of the research is also addressed.
2. Who the audience/reader is; what he/she already knows or does not know; his/her purpose &
background.
3. A rationale for the study by citing the findings of other research.
4. Describes the subjects of the study and how they were selected.
5. c.

24
References

 Best, JW and Kahn, JV (2006). Research in Education. 10th Edition. Boston A & B/
Pearson.
 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York:
Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of
Materials and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research-Module 10: Writing
Research Reports. Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Dunford, R (2004). Developing a research proposal. In Burton, S. & Steane, P.
(Eds.) Surviving your thesis (pp.46-58). New York, NY: Routledge.
 Forsyth, P (1998). How to be better at writing … reports & proposals. New Delhi: Kogan
Page India Pvt. Ltd., 180 pp.
 Gay, LR (2000). Educational Research, Ohio: Charles E Merril Publishing.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with
SPSS Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P)
Limited Publishers.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kulkarni, PD and Sharma, BB (1986). Independent Study Techniques. Chandigarh:
TTTI
 Kumar, R (2016). Research Methodology – A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. New
Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., Third Printing, 399pp.
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural
Sciences. New Delhi: Bharati Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors).
 Srinagesh, K (2005). The Principles of Experimental Research. Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Tatke, J (2009). Research Methodology. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning.
 Research Report: Introduction, Definition and Report Format.
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/marketing/research-report-introduction-definition-and-
report-format/48713

Support learning resources:

 Video film on ‘Writing a Research Report – Concept and Format’ developed/recorded

by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Research Report – Guidelines’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Meghana, S (2010). Research Report Writing.
https://www.slideshare.net/meghana353/research-report-writing.
 Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style.
https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/writing-a-research-report-in-american-
psychological-association-apa-style/
 Vidya-mitra (2016). Writing a Research Report. Video on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nte0uN2Ezs

25
 UNIT II

11.2: Evaluation of Research Report

 CONTENTS

S. No Page

Learning Outcomes

1. Introduction 1

2. Purpose of Evaluation of Research Report 1-2

Practice Task 3

Feedback 4

3. Parts of Research Report 5

3. Parameters for Evaluating Research Report 5-8

4. Who Should Evaluate Research Report? 8

Practice Task 9

Feedback 10

References 11
 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH REPORT

Learning Outcomes

After reading the material, you will be able to:

 Explain the purposes served by evaluation of research report
 Identify the aspects of research report that need to be evaluated
 Identify the parameters for evaluating a research report
 Design rubric for evaluating a research report

1. Introduction
Evaluation of a research report is the last step in research and evaluation serves many
important purposes for the researcher, policy makers, administrator funding agency and
those interested in implementation of research findings or replicating the research in
different contexts.

2. Purpose of Evaluation of Research Report

Five major purposes are served by evaluation of any research report. These include:
(CPSC, 1984)

 Improve the quality of research: Evaluation helps in identifying the strengths

and weaknesses of the report. Thus, it helps in taking correctives to improve the
quality of further research.
 Enhance use of the findings of research: Evaluation of research report w.r.t.
its objectives, hypotheses, sampling technique used and sample, quality of
measuring tools and interpretation of results will provide an insight and the
stakeholders of the accuracy, adequacy, appropriateness and relevance of
research, will help in implementing the findings of research with confidence.
 Facilitate decision-making: A high quality research will facilitate the decision-
making process at various levels. For example, teacher may be facilitated in
taking a decision whether to use or not to use innovative technologies in
teaching-learning., administration may be helped in making a decision to provide
or not to provide technology infrastructure in classrooms, policy makers may be
assisted in formulation of appropriate policies and funding agency may be able to
take decision whether to fund or not to fund similar research.

1
 Aid in planning future research: Researchers are especially benefitted by the
evaluation of research report as it helps in selecting and defining research
problem and describing methodology of research.
 Identify competencies needed by researchers: The analysis of research
reports can provide insight into the type of researches undertaken and common
mistakes made by researchers in review of related literature, sampling, designing
of measuring tools or interpretation of results, and thus helps in identifying
competencies that are to be developed among researchers so as to enable them
undertake more relevant and quality research in technical education.

2
Practice Task

Explain the major purposes served by evaluation of research report.

3
Feedback

Compare your answer with the purposes of evaluation of research report on page number
1&2.

4
3. Parts of Research Report
The structure of any research report includes (Gay, Mills and Arisian, 2012):
 Preliminary pages
 Introduction
 Review of related literature
 Methods and procedure
 Analysis of data and results
 Summary and conclusion
 References

All these are important parts of research report and thus need to be evaluated.

4. Parameters for Evaluating Research Report

Table 1 provides the various parameters that need to be evaluated for the various
constituent parts of the research report.
Table 1: Aspects and parameters for evaluation of research report.
Sr. Part of research Aspect Parameter
No. report

1. Preliminary Title page Correctness as per the requirement

pages of University or sponsoring agency

Acknowledgement Concise

Table of contents Correctness of content

List of tables Correctness of content

List of illustrations Correctness of content

Abstract Concise, complete and correct

2. Introduction Rationale Adequacy, accuracy, coherence

Statement of the problem Clarity, researchability, size,

accessibility of data

Objectives of study Correct, significant

Significance of the Clarity, adequacy of explanation

problem

5
Sr. Part of research Aspect Parameter
No. report

3. Review of Related literature Complete, correct, clear, concise,

Relevant coherence
Literature
Conclusions Clarity, correct

Gaps in research Clarity, Correct

Formulation of Correct, testable, adequacy

hypotheses

4. Methods and Design Appropriate, feasible, accuracy in

Procedure description/ explanation

Sample Adequacy, appropriateness of

sampling technique, adequacy of
explanation

Measuring tools used Appropriate, reliable, valid, objective,

adequacy of explanation

Experimental procedure Adequacy of explanation, internal

and external validity

Collection of data Proper procedure followed

Statistical techniques Appropriateness

used

5. Analysis of Data Presentation of results Addressed major objectives /

and Results research questions / hypotheses

Accuracy and adequacy of

explanation

Tables / Illustrations Correct, summarise results, quality

Interpretation of results Correct, findings related to other

research studies presented in
Review of Related Literature

6
Sr. Part of research Aspect Parameter
No. report

6. Summary and Summary Inclusion of major elements of

Conclusions report, concise, correct

Conclusions Appropriate

Recommendations for Appropriate

further research

Implications of research Appropriate, for various stakeholders

References / As per APA style, complete

Bibliography

Annexure (if included) Relevant

A rubric can be designed on the basis of parameters for evaluating various parts of the
research report (Table 2).

Table 2: Rubric for evaluation of research report

S. Part of report Good Satisfactory Poor
No
1. Preliminary Correct title; concise Correct title; Correct title;
Pages acknowledgement, acknowledgement, acknowledgement,
correct Contents; correct Contents; incorrect Contents;
Tables & Illustrations;Tables & Tables &
concise, correct and Illustrations; concise Illustrations;
coherent abstract and correct incoherent abstract
abstract
2. Introduction Adequate some-what Inadequate
justification, problem adequate justification, problem
significant and justification, problem research ability but
researchable, clarity significant and not significant,
in objectives researchable, clarity objective not
in objectives properly stated
3. Review of Integrated review well Review well Gaps in review, lack
Related classified, correctly classified, correctly classification, gaps
literature identified gaps in identified gaps in in research not
research, correctly research, correctly identified,
formulated formulated hypotheses not
hypotheses hypotheses properly formulated

7
S. Part of report Good Satisfactory Poor
No
4. Methods & Appropriate design, Appropriate design, Inappropriate
Procedures sample size, inadequate sample design, inadequate
sampling technique, size, correct sample size,
tools and statistical sampling technique, inappropriate
techniques tools and statistical sampling techniques
techniques and inadequate
statistical technique
5. Analysis & Addressed major Addressed major Major
Results questions/objectives/ questions/objectives/ questions/objectives/
Hypotheses, Hypotheses, Hypotheses not
Accuracy and Explanation addressed,
Adequacy of accurate but inaccurate
Explanation; Correct inadequate; Tables explanation, Tables
tabulation of results, lack clarity, Correct lack clarity, incorrect
summarize results, interpretation but not interpretation, not
quality; Correct, related to other related to other
related to other studies reported in studies reported in
studies reported in RORL RORL
RORL
6. Summary and Iinclusion of major Iinclusion of major Iinclusion of major
conclusions components, components, components,
appropriate appropriate appropriate
conclusions conclusions but conclusions
implications and incomplete, implications and
suggestions for incomplete but suggestions for
further research correct implications further research
and suggestions for
further research
7. References/ As per APA and As per APA and Not as per APA and
Bibliography complete some incomplete incomplete

5. Who Should Evaluate Research Report?

The research report can be evaluated by be researcher himself / herself, supervisor or
guide, experts or funding agency.

8
Practice Task
Critically evaluate the rubric for evaluation of research report and design your own rubric for
the same. Upload the same on discussion forum.

9
Feedback
Discuss your rubric with the instructor and peers.

10
References

 CPSC (1984) Developing Skills in Technician Education: Research Module 11,

Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Edcation, Singapore.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational research: Competencies
for Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
 Johnson, R.B. and Christensen, L.B. (2008) Educational Research: Quantitative,
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. 3rd Edition, Los Angeles: Sage Publications,
Inc.,

Web links
 Checklist for Critiquing a Research Article
http://www.riverboathouse.com/dochayes/pdf/artguide2.pdf.http://wps.prenhall.com/c
het_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
 Committee for Evaluation of Research (CIVR): Guidelines for Research Evaluation.
http://vtr2006.cineca.it/documenti/linee_guida_EN.pdf
 Evaluating Educational Research.
http://www.indiana.edu/~educy520/readings/wandt65.pdf
 Evaluating Information Sources
http://ivy.mannlib.cornell.edu/newhelp/res_strategy/evaluating/analyze.html
 Evaluating Research Reports.
http://www.selu.edu/Academics/Education/EDF600/cw8c.htm.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
 Guidelines for Critiquing Research Articles
http://www.sonoma.edu/users/n/nolan/n400/critique.htm.http://wps.prenhall.com/chet
_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
 Guidelines for Critiquing Research Articles
http://www2.msstate.edu/~bsc2/guidelines.htm.
 Research Report Evaluation Form
http://www.irsst.qc.ca/media/documents/en/Evaluation-Criterias-report.pdf
 Litman, Todd (2012). Evaluating Research Quality: Guidelines for
Scholarship.http://vtpi.org/resqual.pdf
 Miron, Gary (2004). Evaluation report
checklist.https://www.wmich.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/u350/2014/evaluation
-reports.pdf
 Research Paper Rubric. https://www.cornellcollege.edu/library/faculty/focusing-on-
assignments/tools-for-assessment/research-paper-rubric.shtml
 Savory, Paul (2009). Rubric for Project Report Evaluation.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=imseteach
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html

11