International Journal of Pavement Engineering

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Effects of oil palm fibre ash on cement stabilised

lateritic soil used for highway construction

Joseph Ejelikwu Edeh , Manasseh Joel & Victor Owoicho Ogbodo

To cite this article: Joseph Ejelikwu Edeh , Manasseh Joel & Victor Owoicho Ogbodo (2020):
Effects of oil palm fibre ash on cement stabilised lateritic soil used for highway construction,
International Journal of Pavement Engineering, DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2020.1775230

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2020.1775230

Published online: 08 Jun 2020.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2020.1775230

Effects of oil palm fibre ash on cement stabilised lateritic soil used for highway
construction
Joseph Ejelikwu Edeh, Manasseh Joel and Victor Owoicho Ogbodo
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Increasing road construction activities in Nigeria has led to increased demand for lateritic soil (LS), whose Received 21 April 2019
properties vary from one location to another, and. The properties of some of this laterite deposits along Accepted 22 May 2020
road alignment can be improved to enable it withstand traffic loads. This paper presents results of the
KEYWORDS
laboratory evaluation of LS stabilised with oil palm fibre ash and cement blends, with a view to determine California bearing ratio;
its suitability as flexible pavement construction material. The mixtures were subjected to British Standard cement; lateritic soil; oil palm
heavy (modified Proctor) compaction energy to determine their strength characteristics. Test results show fibre ash; stabilisation
that the properties of LS improved with oil palm fibre ash and cement treatment. The maximum dry
density decreased with corresponding increase in optimum moisture content as the cement content
increased from 0% to 6% and the LS content of the mixtures decreased with increased oil palm fibre ash,
at a fixed per cent of cement. The peaked California bearing ratio of 190.09% (soaked) recorded for the
80% LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C mix proportion, with 14th day unconfined compressive strength of 785.75 kN/
m2, cohesion of 140 kN/m2 and angle of internal friction of 25°, can be used as a base material in road
construction. Further work may be encouraged to assess resilient modulus of this material under cyclic load.

1. Introduction weathering and leaching of soluble minerals. Because of its

ready availability and the cost of accessing them, it is used
Increasing populations and settlements have led to increased
as the most common materials for construction. Laterites
demand for good access roads that will ensure connectivity
are reddish brown, well-graded and sometimes extend to
between various settlements. This increased demand for roads
depth of several tens of metres (Badmus 2010). They are
requires a large volume of suitable pavement construction material
found almost everywhere in the tropics with wide applications
that is mostly aggregated, whose availability is limited in supply
in the construction industries. Thus assessing its index, geo-
and costly to acquire. Hence, the need for alternative materials
technical and engineering properties is of paramount impor-
that are readily available along the road alignments that will con-
tance. The significant features of the LS are their unique
tribute to improved performance of the highway system, be cost-
colour, poor fertility and high clay content and lower cation
effective and incorporate sustainable technologies (Shiraz et al.
exchange capacity (Ko 2014). In addition, LS possess a great
2010) and whose properties can withstand the traffic loads that
amount of iron and aluminium oxides. Some geotechnical
will use the highway (Edeh et al. 2018). It has been found that
properties of laterite show that the liquid limit ranged from
lateritic soils (LS) are generally good construction materials, easily
22.5% to 49.6%, plastic limits varied from 13.8% to 28%,
located along road alignments of new constructions and are there-
whereas plastic index is of the order of 8.7% to 21.6%. The
fore used by construction industries. They occur mostly in tropical
maximum dry density ranged from 1.78 to 2.33 g/cm3,
countries of the world which include Nigeria. Laterites have con-
whereas the optimum moisture content varied from 6.30%
tinued to remain the source of building more than 70% of dwelling
to 14.3%. The soaked California bearing ratio (CBR) varies
houses in the developing countries or nations of Asia, South Amer-
from 5.1% to 72.0%, whereas the unsoaked CBR varies from
ica, South Africa. In Nigeria, laterites are used in making bricks for
0 to 83.8%. The LS were classified as A-3, A-2-4 and A-2-6
building and as pavement materials. There are instances where a
(Amadi et al. 2015). In most locations, however, the properties
LS may contain a substantial amount of clay minerals such that
of these LS make it unsuitable for use as highway pavement
its strength and stability cannot be guaranteed under load,
material because of its poor bearing strength. Hence the
especially in the presence of moisture; hence, the need to improve
need to modify/stabilise the LS in order to improve its prop-
the properties of the available LS to satisfy the desired objective via
erties to carry traffic loads that may be plying on the road,
modification or stabilisation (Alhassan and Mustapha 2007).
without any alarming deformation. To achieve this, the use
of common additives, such as cement and lime has led to
increased road construction cost. To reduce this cost, however,
2. Literature review the use of Pozzolan as stabilisers is being encouraged.
LS occur naturally and in large quantities along most road Oil palm is grown in the lowland area of the south-south
alignments in the tropics where there is an intense chemical region of Nigeria, and because of the increasing demand for

CONTACT Joseph Ejelikwu Edeh edehjoe@yahoo.com

© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 J. E. EDEH ET AL.

edible palm oil, several waste products are generated from the 3. Materials and methods
oil palm, among which are palm kernel shell, palm kernel
3.1. Materials
cake, decanter cake, empty fruit bunch, palm press fibre,
palm oil fuel ash, palm oil mill sludge and palm oil mill 3.1.1. Lateritic soil
effluent (Liasu et al. 2015). These wastes are however dis- LS used for the test was obtained from Ikpayongo (latitude 7°
posed in landfills or on dumpsites, constituting an environ- 50′ 00′′ and 7°54′ 00′′ N and longitude 8°50′ 00′′ and 8°
mental menace to the society. Oil palm fibre ash (OPFA), a 54′ 00′′ W) located at 22 km along Makurdi – Otukpo road, at
waste by-product from oil palm, is incinerated ash obtained Makurdi in Benue state, north central of Nigeria. The deposits
from the combustion of oil palm fibres at a controlled temp- have a thickness ranging from 2 to 10 m and varying in its for-
erature of about 600°C. This ash has pozzolanic properties mation process from the primary to the secondary laterite. This
that enable it to be used as a partial replacement of cement location is selected because Ikpayongo laterite is found in com-
in concrete production (Tonnayopas et al. 2006), in fired mercial quantity and it is readily available for use. The sample
clay bricks production (Kadir et al. 2013) and also to improve was crushed using hand hammer and that passing through the
soil fertility and increased yield in the cultivation of mush- 20 mm sieve aperture in accordance with ASTM C702-98
room (Liasu et al. 2015). The chemical composition of (2003) was oven-dried and used for this research.
OPFA varies from one country to the other (Zarina et al.
2013). However, a typical chemical composition of POFA 3.1.2. Oil palm fibre ash
shows that it is composed of 66.64% of SiO2, 3.82% of The OPFA used for this research was generated from the
Al2O3, 3.70% of Fe2O3, 5.23% of CaO. 2.29% of MgO, combustion of oil palm fibres obtained from a locally produ-
0.43% of SO3 and a loss on ignition (LOI) of 2.32%, while cing palm oil plant, at a regulated temperature of 600°C in a
the physical properties give a bulk density of 0.74 Mg/m3, furnace, at Otukpa (latitude 7°02′ 00′′ N and longitude 8°04′
void ratio of 0.4, porosity of 28%, water content of 9%, 00′′ E) in Ogbadibo L.G.A. of Benue state, north central of
impact value of 4.5% and a specific gravity of 1.62 (Ndoke Nigeria. The OPFA passing through sieve 425 μm aperture
2006). in accordance with ASTM C702-98 (2003) was used for this
The objective of this study is to assess the suitability of study.
OPFA-treated cement (C) stabilised LS with a view to pre-
senting alternative highway construction material. The use 3.1.3. Cement
of this material will not only lead to an economic solution The cement (C) used for the study was bought locally from a
(Anouksak and Direk 2006) but will also offer a potential cement vendor at Makurdi, in Benue state, Nigeria.
use of OPFA waste in the treatment of cement stabilised
LS. This will reduce the amount of waste materials requiring
3.2. Methods
disposal and providing construction material with significant
savings over new materials (Schroeder 1994). These materials The various mixed samples of LS, OPFA and C were sub-
are chosen to withstand the various laboratory loadings that jected to particle-size distribution, Atterberg limits and
may replicate cyclic vehicular loadings on the highway pave- specific gravity tests to establish their index properties.
ment and water absorption and to minimise stress formation These properties are used to classify the various mixes,
in the soil. using the Unified Soil Classification System and the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) soil classifications methods, and also subjected
to compaction in order to establish the moisture–density
Table 1. LS + OPFA + C mix ratios. relationships of the mixes, in accordance with procedures
LS, % OPFA, % C, % Resulting combinations outlined in standard American Society for Testing and
100 0 0 100% LS Materials (ASTM) codes. The strength characteristics of the
80 20 0 80% LS + 20% OPFA
80 18 2 80% LS + 18% OPFA + 2% C
various LS + OPFA + C mixes were assessed from the results
80 16 4 80% LS + 16% OPFA + 4% C of CBR, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), triaxial and
80 14 6 80% LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C water absorption tests, carried out in accordance with the
60 40 0 60% LS + 40% OPFA
60 38 2 60% LS + 38% OPFA + 2% C
procedures outlined in their respective ASTM codes. The
60 36 4 60% LS + 36% OPFA + 4% C mix proportions are prepared such that lateritic soil decreased
60 34 6 60% LS + 34% OPFA + 6% C in stepped concentrations of 20% while retaining the 50%
50 50 0 50% LS + 50% OPFA
50 48 2 50% LS + 48% OPFA + 2% C
concentration in the mixes (i.e. 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 20, up
50 46 4 50% LS + 46% OPFA + 4% C to 0%), as the concentration of OPFA increased in the
50 44 6 50% LS + 44% OPFA + 6% C same order (i.e. 0, 20, 40, 50, 60, 80, down to 100%) while
40 60 0 40% LS + 60% OPFA
40 58 2 40% LS + 58% OPFA + 2% C
varying the addition of cement (additive) to the mixes to
40 56 4 40% LS + 56% OPFA + 4% C between 0% and 6%. A summary of the LS + OPFA + C
40 54 6 40% LS + 54% OPFA + 6% C mix ratios used in the study is given in Table 1 and the spe-
20 80 0 20% LS + 80% OPFA
20 78 2 20% LS + 78% OPFA + 2% C
cifications relating to the use of these indices for highway
20 76 4 20% LS + 76% OPFA + 4% C design and construction in Nigeria are given in the Federal
20 74 6 20% LS + 74% OPFA + 6% C Ministry of Works and Housings (1997). The LS + OPFA +
0 100 0 100% OPFA
C mix design was based on oven-dried weight.

3.2.1. Determination of oxide content
Twelve grams of the powdered sample was thoroughly mixed
with 3 g of binder (stearic acid or cellulose). The mixture was
made into a pressed powder pellet using a hydraulic pressure
press at a pressure of 20,000 kg. The pressed powdered pellet
was then analysed for oxide composition using the X-ray fluor-
escence (XRF) technique.
A Minipal 4 Energy dispersive XRF spectrometer (PANaly-
tical, Inc., Westborough, MA) was used for the analysis. LOI
was determined by weight loss due to heating, a gravimetric
method of analysis.
3.2.2. Particle-size distribution
About 200 g of the various LS + OPFA + C mixes were passed
through successively smaller sieve sizes. The weight of the soil
sample retained on each sieve was determined and the cumulat-
ive percentage by weight, passing each sieve was calculated
(Craig 1992) in accordance with specifications outlined in
ASTM D6913-04 (2009).
3.2.3. Atterberg limits and linear shrinkage
The Atterberg limits, comprising of liquid limit, plastic limit
and shrinkage limit, were determined for all the LS + OPFA
+ C mixes prepared on a per cent by dry weight basis using
the material passing the 0.425 mm sieve, in accordance with
ASTM D4318-17e1 (2017) and Head (1992), to assess the
measure of its affinity for water. Also, Approximately 150 g
of the various LS + OPFA + C mixes passing through a 425-
μm aperture sieve was used to determine the linear shrinkage,
using a corrosion-resistant half-cylindrical brass mould that
is 140 mm long with a radius of 12.5 mm, and the linear shrink-
age determined in accordance with procedures outlined in
ASTM D4943-18 (2018). This test gives the percentage of linear
shrinkage of a soil.
3.2.4. Specific gravity
Approximately, 50–100 g of the oven-dried samples of LS +
OPFA + C mixes were passed through sieve with a 2.0-mm
aperture, and the specific gravities of the various mixes deter-
mined in accordance with ASTM C127-15 (2015).
3.2.5. Compaction characteristics
The various LS + OPFA + C mixes were subjected to compac-
tion test to assess the moisture–density relationship of the soil,
using the British Standard Heavy, BSH (Modified Proctor, MP)
Table 2. Oxide composition of OPFA.
Compounds Concentration (%)
SiO2 65.18
P2O5 5.33
SO3 1.95
TiO2 1.98
K2O 5.45
CaO 10.78
V2O5 0.08
MnO 0.22
Fe2O3 5.28
CuO 0.13
ZnO – The oxide compositions of OPFA are presented in Table 2. The
LOI 3.51
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 3
compaction energy. This was achieved by subjecting each of the
five layers of the sample, in the compaction mould of 101.6-mm
diameter and a height of 116.43 mm, to 25 uniformly distribu-
ted blows of a rammer weight, 4.5 kg falling through a height of
450 mm, in accordance with ASTM D1557-12e1 (2012). In
general, the preselected soil proportion should have adequate
strength to withstand traffic loads (Edeh et al. 2018), be rela-
tively incompressible so that future settlement is not significant,
be stable against volume change as water content or other fac-
tors vary, be durable and safe against deterioration and possess
proper permeability (McCarthy 2007).
3.2.6. California bearing ratio
The CBR test was performed on the compacted samples of the
various LS + OPFA + C mixes, when subjected to strain-con-
trolled load in accordance with procedures outlined in ASTM
D1883-16 (2016). The measured resistance is expressed as a
per cent of that of a solid limestone rock, which is given the
value of 100. Samples were tested after a saturation period
(soaked – this produces a worst-case situation for mixtures
containing clays) and when unsoaked to yield a maximum
value under favourable conditions (AASHTO T193 2017).
The specifications relating to the use of these test values in
highway design and construction is given in the Federal Minis-
try of Works and Housings (FMW&H 1997). The CBR method
has been widely accepted as the procedure for determining a
soil or soil-aggregate mixture’s strength for use in pavement
design calculations in developing countries despite the criticism
of its empirical nature (Edeh et al. 2018). This procedure
measures the resistance exhibited by laboratory compacted
samples of the various LS + OPFA + C mixes to applied
traffic loads.
3.2.7. Unconfined compressive strength
The various samples of LS + OPFA + C mixes were compacted
using the BSH compaction energy, removed from the split UCS
mould, trimmed to a height of 76 mm with a knife-edge and
subjected to UCS test, for the first day while the other trimmed
compacted samples removed from the split UCS mould were
sealed with double wrapping in polyethylene bags and kept in
the humidity room to allow for uniform moisture distribution
and cured at a constant temperature of 25°C±2°C for a period
of 7 and 14 days before subjecting them to UCS tests in accord-
ance with ASTM D2166/2166M-16 (2016). The specifications
relating to the use of these indices for highway design and con-
struction are given by Gordon et al. (1994).
3.2.8. Tri-axial (shear strength) test
Tri-axial test was performed on the various LS + OPFA + C
mixes to determine the effective shear strength parameters of
cohesion (C’) and the angel of internal friction (w) in accord-
ance with procedures outlined in ASTM D7181-11 (2011).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Oxide composition of oil palm fibre ash
results show that the CaO content of the ash is 10.78%. The
4 J. E. EDEH ET AL.

Table 3. Variation of Atterberg limits and shear strength parameters (angle of

internal friction, ɸ and cohesion, Cu) of the various LS + OPFA + C Mixes.
Mix proportions LL (%) PL (%) PI(%) LS SG
100% LS 41.90 23.80 18.10 10.00 2.68
80% LS + 20% OPFA 67.77 26.92 40.85 12.88 2.50
80% LS + 18% OPFA + 2% C 44.70 25.22 19.48 12.88 2.58
80% LS + 16% OPFA + 4% C 45.05 37.51 7.54 10.00 2.35
80% LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C 30.16 33.10 7.54 9.29 2.58
60% LS + 40% OPFA 45.76 30.47 15.29 11.43 2.06
60% LS + 38% OPFA + 2% C 67.26 35.40 31.86 8.57 2.03
60% LS + 36% OPFA + 4% C 46.86 42.06 4.80 7.14 2.13
60% LS + 34% OPFA + 6% C 48.60 40.84 7.76 12.14 2.28
50% LS + 50% OPFA 47.07 35.04 12.03 12.86 2.19
50% LS + 48% OPFA + 2% C 68.72 39.12 29.60 11.43 2.13
50% LS + 46% OPFA + 4% C 51.47 34.02 17.45 11.43 2.13
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of 100% LS and various LS + OPFA + C mixes. 50% LS + 44% OPFA + 6% C 46.02 39.12 29.60 11.43 2.28
40% LS + 60% OPFA 43.95 30.58 13.37 12.80 1.97
40% LS + 58% OPFA + 2% C 40.56 28.13 12.43 12.43 2.10
SiO2 + Fe2O3 + Al2O3 content of the ash is 70.46%, whereas the 40% LS + 56% OPFA + 4% C 39.44 26.78 12.66 11,37 1.90
CaO/SiO2, which is indicative of the cementing potential, is 40% LS + 54% OPFA + 6% C 37.59 25,79 11.80 10.43 1.68
20% LS + 80% OPFA 36.72 25.35 11.37 9.64 1.89
0.165 and a LOI, which is the indication of the amount of 20% LS + 78% OPFA + 2% C 34.47 23.95 10.52 10,22 1.25
unburned carbon in the OPFA, is 3.51%. Hence, in accordance 20% LS + 76% OPFA + 4% C 35.55 22.14 13.41 9.87 1.30
with ASTM C618-12a (2012) specification for coal fly ash and 20% LS + 74% OPFA + 6% C 32.84 23.01 9.83 7.77 1.46
100% OPFA NP NP NP NP 2.12
raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete, OPFA
used for this study falls under class C and is self-cementing.
agglomeration of the particle of the LS, OPFA and C into larger
effective particle size in the mixtures (Edeh et al. 2018).
4.2. Particle size distribution
The particle size distribution of the various LS + OPFA + C
4.3. Atterberg and shrinkage limits
mixes is presented in Figures 1 and 2. A 100% LS contain
61.9% coarse aggregates (50.0% gravels and 11.9% sand) and The Atterberg limits and linear shrinkage values of the various
38.1% fines, with a coefficient of grading Cu = 1, coefficient LS + OPFA + C mixes are presented in Table 3. The results
of curvature, Cv = 0 and falls under AASHTO classification show that the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), linear shrin-
of A-7-6, described as poorly graded silty gravelly material kages (LS) and plasticity index (PI) for 100% LS to be; 41.90%,
with subgrade rating of fair to poor, while 100% OPFA contain 23.80%, 10.00% and 18.10%, respectively, while 100% OPFA is
37.7% coarse aggregates (0% gravels and 37.7% sand) and non-plastic and the Atterberg limits were taken as a minimum
62.3% fines, with a coefficient of grading Cu = 0, coefficient of from the classification chart (Das, 1998). The LL, PL, PI and LS
curvature, Cv = 0 and falls under AASHTO classification of of the various LS + OPFA + C mixes did not present any par-
A-4, described as poorly graded sandy silty material with sub- ticular trends but show variations of; 30.16–68.72%, 22.14–
grade rating of fair to poor. For the various LS + OPFA + C 42.06%, 4.80–40.85% and 7.14–12.88%, respectively. The mix-
mixes, the percentage of coarse aggregates in the mixture is tures with the highest values of 68.72%, 42.06%, 40.85% and
in the ranges of 98.6–99.8% (15.2–59.0% gravels and 40.0– 12.88% for LL, PL, PI and LS are 50% LS + 48% OPFA + 2%
84.6% sand) and 0.2–1.4% fines, with coefficient of grading C, 60% LS + 34% OPFA + 6% C, 80% LS + 20% OPFA and,
Cu, in the range of 1.64–14.52, coefficient of curvature, Cv, in both 80% LS + 20% OPFA and 80% LS + 18% OPFA + 2%
the range of 0.24–1.26 and falls under AASHTO classification C, respectively while the mixtures with the least values of
in the range of A-2-4 to A-2-7, described as poorly graded grav- 30.16, 22.14, 4.80 and 7.14% for LL, PL, PI and LS were
elly sand to silty sand material with subgrade rating of excellent recorded for 80% LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C, 20% LS + 76%
to good. The improved particle size distributions of the various OPFA + 4% C, 60% LS + 36% OPFA + 4% C and 60% LS +
LS + OPFA + C may be attributed to flocculation- 36% OPFA + 4% C mixes, respectively. The possible reasons
for these results are the complete chemical hydration of lime
in the mixes (Little 1999) and the aggregation and cementation
of particles into larger clusters due to the hydration reactions
between the LS and the OPFA and C blends (Chew et al.
2004; Osinubi et al. 2012).

4.4. Specific gravity

Figure 2. Particle size distribution of 100% OPFA and various LS + OPFA + C mixes.
The specific gravity values of 100% LS, 100% OPFA and the
various LS + OPFA + C are presented in Table 3. The specific
gravities for 100% LS and 100% OPFA are 2.68 and 2.12,
respectively, while that of the various LS + OPFA + C
mixes does not show any particular trend but show appreci-
able values with less contents of OPFA in the mixes. The

Figure 3. Variation of MDD of 100% LS, 100% OPFA and the various LS + OPFA + C
mixes.
values for the various mixes ranged from 1.25 for 20% LS +
78% OPFA + 2% C mix to 2.58 for 80% LS + 14% OPFA +
6% C and 80% LS + 18% OPFA + 2% C mixes (Table 3). The
improved specific gravities of the mixtures may be due to the
decrease in the void spaces attributed to the fine particles of
the cement and OPFA components of the LS + OPFA + C
mixes that fill the void spaces between the larger particles
of the LS, leading to improved density of the material matrix
(Edeh et al. 2018).
4.5. Compaction characteristics
The moisture–density relationships of the various LS + OPFA
+ C mixes were achieved using the BSH (MP) compaction
energy and presented in Figures 3 and 4. The results show
that for a fixed LS and decreasing OPFA contents of the LS
+ OPFA + C mixes, the maximum dry density (MDD)
decreased as their corresponding optimum moisture content
(OMC) increased, with increased cement content from 0%
to 6%. As the LS content of the mixtures decreased with
increased OPFA, at a fixed per cent of cement, the MDD
decreased with a corresponding increase of the OMC. The
MDD and the corresponding OMC for 100% LS and 100%
OPFA are given as; 1.95 Mg/m3 and 10.10% and, 1.30 Mg/
m3 and 22.53%, respectively, while that of the various LS +
OPFA + C mixes show a decreased in MDD from 1.94 to
1.331 Mg/m3 and a corresponding increase in OMC from
11.79 to 31.42%. The reason for the observed MDD/OMC
Figure 4. Variation of OMC of 100% LS, 100% OPFA and the various LS + OPFA + C
mixes.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 5
trends of the mixes may be due to the agglomeration of the
various components of the mixes, facilitated by hydration
action of the OPFA + C blends. While the OPFA and C
fines occupied the larger spaces between the LS particles,
increasing the volume of the mixes and consequently decreas-
ing their dry densities (Osinubi et al. 2012), the observed
OMC trend may be ascribed to the higher OPFA and C
fine contents of the mixes with an increased surface area of
the particles which will require more water to lubricate the
entire matrix of the mixes (Osinubi 1998).
4.6. California bearing ratio
The results of the unsoaked and soaked (24 h) CBR of 100%
LS, 100% OPFA and the various LS + OPFA + C mixes are
presented in Table 4. The results show an appreciable
improvement in the CBR values of the various mixes with
the addition of both OPFA and the C contents to LS. The
unsoaked and soaked CBR values for 100% LS are 10.40
and 15.89%, while that of 100% OPFA are 17.36% and
86.34%, respectively. The unsoaked and soaked (24 h) CBR
values of the various LS + OPFA + C mixes does not show
any defined pattern but most of the values for soaked CBR
are higher than the unsoaked. These values ranged from
9.17% to 83.85% and 23.04% to 160.14%, respectively, for
0% cement content; 2.76–26.72% and 19.56–161.36%,
respectively, for 2% cement content; 12.22–28.73% and
71.87–162.18%, respectively, for 4% cement content and,
the mixes with 6% cement content, have unsoaked and
soaked CBR values of 10.14–15.89% and 38.51–190.09%.
Almost all the soaked CBR values of the mixes show appreci-
able strength gain, above 80% (Federal Ministry of Works
and Housings 1997), when soaked in water for 24 h and
can be used as base material in highway construction, the
peak CBR value of 190.09% (soaked) recorded for the 80%
LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C mix proportion was adopted for
use as a base material for highway construction. Usually, a
minimum CBR value of 80% and above is required for
base materials, 30–80% for subbases, and 10–30% for sub-
grade (Federal Ministry of Works and Housings 1997). The
variation in the CBR is likely due to agglomeration of the
heterogeneous materials of the OPFA + C stabilised LS (Hati-
poglu et al. 2008) and the uniform distribution of the C and
OPFA in the mixtures (Li et al. 2009). These products bind
the LS, OPFA and C together (Edeh et al. 2013). The higher
soaked CBR values as compare to the unsoaked values may
be attributed to strength gain through pozzolanic actions
resulting from the complete chemical process of hydration
and cation exchange, which leads to the formation of calcium
silicate hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates (Little 1999)
while the few mixes with higher unsoaked CBR values as
compared to their soaked values may be attributed to the
reaction between the hydrated lime with tricalcium aluminate
and water to form tetracalcium aluminate hydrate, which
forms a protective coating on the surface of unhydrated
grains of tricalcium aluminate, thus slowing down the rate
of hydration of tricalcium aluminate to form the strength-
producing compound of tetracalcium aluminate hydrate (Osi-
nubi 1998).
6 J. E. EDEH ET AL.

Table 4. Variation of CBR with various proportions of LS + OPFA + C mixes.

Percentage of lateritic soil in the mix 0% Cement 2% Cement 4% Cement 6% Cement
UCBR SCBR UCBR SCBR UCBR SCBR UCBR SCBR
0 17.36 86.34 – – – – – –
20 15.66 139.97 12.9 133.86 14.74 126.52 15.89 128.97
40 12.84 152.96 13.45 141.90 12.22 140.58 10.14 51.95
50 28.56 160.14 26.72 120.41 28.73 108.73 12.84 102.28
60 83.85 27.51 12.9 161.36 22.00 71.87 15.89 38.51
80 9.17 23.04 2.76 19.56 13.82 162.18 13.45 190.09
100 10.4 15.89 – – – – – –

4.7. Unconfined compressive strength 4.8. Shear strength parameters

The results of UCS test of the various LS + OPFA + C mixes, The results of the shear strength parameters of the various LS +
except for few mixes, do not show any particular pattern with OPFA + C mixes subjected to BSH compaction energy
the contents but generally show an appreciable gain in strength (Modified Proctor) at their respective MDD and OMC are pre-
with the increased curing days, in the desiccator, from the first sented in Table 5. The results show that both cohesion (C) and
day to the 14th day (see Table 5). The 1st day, 7th day and 14th angle of internal friction (φ) does not present any trend for the
day UCS values for 100% LS are 101.75, 214.81 and 356.13 kN/ various LS + OPFA + C mixes. The C and φ value recorded for
m2, respectively, whereas the material with 100% OPFA is non- 100% LS are 190 kN/m2 and 8°, while 100% OPFA exhibited a
plastic in an unconfined state and thus assumed UCS values of non-plastic characteristic, with C of 0 kN/m2 and φ of 0°,
zeros. The UCS values for the various LS + OPFA + C mixes for respectively. The C and φ of the various LS + OPFA + C
1st day ranged from 39.57 to 542.68 kN/m2, 7-day cure ranged mixes are in ranges of 10–250 kN/m2 and 15–48°, respectively.
from 20.92 to 1006.21 kN/m2, while that of 14-day cure ranged The observed binding properties exhibited in the shear strength
from 180.89 to 1401.91 kN/m2. The peaked 14th day UCS value parameter may be due to pozzolanic and cementitious reactions
of 1401.91 kN/m2 was recorded for the 50% LS + 50% OPFA leading to the agglomeration of the heterogeneous materials of
mix proportion. The general increase in the UCS values with LS, OPFA and C in the mixes (Hatipoglu et al. 2008) and the
increased curing days may be attributed to effective combi- uniform distribution of the OPFA + C in the mixture (Li
nation of calcium ions with the reactive silica or aluminium, et al. 2009).
or both, to form insoluble calcium silicates or aluminates and
other pozzolanic products, and the agglomeration of the het-
erogeneous materials of the LS + OPFA + C mixes (Hatipoglu 5. Conclusions
et al. 2008) and the uniform distribution of the OPFA + C in The experimental approach was adopted to assess the suit-
the mixture (Li et al. 2009). These processes bind the LS, ability of stabilising LS with OPFA waste and C, as highway
OPFA and C particles together into a strong matrix (Edeh material. The particle size distributions of LS improved with
et al. 2013). the addition of OPFA and C that facilitate agglomeration of
the components in the mixtures. The soil AASHTO classifi-
cation improved from A-7-6, described as poorly graded silty
Table 5. Variation of UCS for 1, 7 and 14 days, shear strength parameters (angle of
internal friction, ɸ and cohesion, Cu), water absorption (WA), with the various LS +
gravelly material for 100% LS to between A-2-4 to A-2-7,
OPFA + C Mixes, described in the range of poorly graded silty sand to gravelly
UCS (kN/m2) sand material, with the addition of OPFA and C into the LS
Mix proportions 1d 7 days 14 days ɸ(o) Cu (kN/m2) + OPFA + C mixes. The compaction characteristics of LS
100% LS 101.75 214.81 356.13 8 190 was affected by the OPFA waste and C content in the mixes;
80% LS + 20% OPFA 237.42 361.78 180.89 33 10 as the MDD decreased with a corresponding increase in
80% LS + 18% OPFA + 2% C 39.57 378.74 407.01 27 60
80% LS + 16% OPFA + 4% C 62.18 491.80 938.38 31 70
OMC as the cement content increased from 0% to 6% and as
80% LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C 163.93 684.00 785.75 25 140 the LS content of the mixtures decreased with increased
60% LS + 40% OPFA 282.64 418.31 497.45 32 20 OPFA, at a fixed per cent of cement. The stabilised material
60% LS + 38% OPFA + 2% C 282.64 322.21 576.59 19 60
60% LS + 36% OPFA + 4% C 158.28 192.20 226.10 30 150
exhibit a high level of cohesion, leading to increased strength.
60% LS + 34% OPFA + 6% C 169.59 282.60 424.00 15 170 The peaked CBR of 190.09% (soaked) recorded for the 80%
50% LS + 50% OPFA 62.18 101.75 1401.91 48 10 LS + 14% OPFA + 6% C mix proportion, with 14th-day UCS
50% LS + 48% OPFA + 2% C 316.56 20.92 243.07 25 50
50% LS + 46% OPFA + 4% C 45.22 299.60 661.39 38 10
of 785.75 kN/m2, and with c and φ values of 140 kN/m2 and
50% LS + 44% OPFA + 6% C 260.03 1006.21 977.95 43 10 25°, can be used as a base material in road construction. How-
40% LS + 60% OPFA 277.00 808.36 1113.61 39 30 ever, the empirical strength parameter of CBR is still used as a
40% LS + 58% OPFA + 2% C 288.30 633.12 1102.31 42 30
40% LS + 56% OPFA + 4% C 322.21 695.30 1062.74 35 60
basis for characterising road construction materials in develop-
40% LS + 54% OPFA + 6% C 299.60 576.59 881.85 37 55 ing countries of the world. Further work may be encouraged to
20% LS + 80% OPFA 310.91 587.90 706.61 42 30 assess resilient modulus of this material under cyclic load.
20% LS + 78% OPFA + 2% C 542.68 825.32 1034.47 44 10
20% LS + 76% OPFA + 4% C 418.31 604.86 797.05 23 250
20% LS + 74% OPFA + 6% C 305.25 553.98 1113.61 42 60
100% OPFA NP NP NP NP NP Disclosure statement
NP, non-plastic. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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