SUMMARY

STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS CHARACTERIZATION OF CLAYS USING

ATTERBERG LIMITS

OBJECTIVE OF PAPER

1. In order to relate the index properties such as Atterberg Limits to the

mechanical properties of fine grained soil there exists a need for further study of
correlations between them as existing one’s exhibit discrepancies with available data
related to well-studied clays and silts. Keeping this aspect in view an endeavor has
been made in this paper to correlate the undrained rigidity index with the plasticity
indices using a comprehensive worldwide clay database. Strength parameters such
as the effective friction angle has been determined using an expression of the rigidity
index derived from the Critical State Soil Mechanics. New correlations are developed
for the undrained shear strength and validated using the results of the geotechnical
investigations for well-reported sites. A new empirical I R – PI correlation is instigated
based on a global database for fine-grained soils and is used with an analytical
formulation for the rigidity index to derive the strength and stiffness parameters of
fine-grained soils

METHODOLOGY APPLIED

2. The proposed approach in the paper includes following

a. Revisiting the rigidity index-plasticity index correlation A new
correlation of rigidity index as a function of PI has been formulated by
analyzing 42 well documented worldwide fine grained soil sites. The
obtained new correlation is shown to be a better representative of I R as
compared to previous expressions. It has been concluded that the
proposed and previous relationships are reasonably approximate and
not exact as anticipated for different correlations that depend on
Atterberg limits.

b. Determination of shear strength parameters

(1) Effective Friction Angle
(2) Undrained Shear Strength
c. Determination of the stiffness parameters
(1) Maximum shear modulus
(2) Young’s and constrained moduli
d. Determination of at-rest earth pressure coefficient
c. Validation of case studies

Summary of the proposed approach is shown and explained in the flowchart below.

Input Parameters are Atterberg
Limits (L.L, PL, natural water
content, Specific gravity)
The undrained shearing strength obtained
from triaxial compression (TC) and the
undrained strength of the direct simple
shear (DSS) test adopted for
determination of modulus of rigidity.
These strength values are related to
effective friction angle, OCR and effective
vertical stress by following formulas
The undrained secant Young’s
modulus at stress equal to 50 % of
undrained strength is required in
the deformation analysis in many
finite element packages and
determined from G assuming
Poisson ratio value 0.5

Over Consolidation Ratio

The critical state strength

Sample Estimation of effective pre- parameter M & effective critical
discrimination consolidation pressure (Ϭ’p) using LL, PL, state friction angle estimation
(DS) natural water content (wn) and effective formulas
vertical stress (Ϭ’vo) based on DS value

RESULTS/VALIDATION CASE STUDIES

3. The proposed approach has been validated by using data of different well-
reported case studies for sites comprising fine-grained soils. The statistical
performance of the proposed formulation is evaluated using the predicted and
measured shear wave velocity and corrected vane shear undrained strength for the
six validation case studies. For the presented case studies, these two parameters
have the most data points making them suitable for statistical analysis. Fig. 1 and
table summarizes the comparison between the predicted and the measured data.
 Table 1

Location Soil Shear wave Undrained Effective Lateral earth Small strain
velocity Shear Friction pressure shear
Strength Angle modulus
Comparison of predicted and measured values

Scotland , Bothkennar Excellent Excellent Good Reasonable

U.K Clay agreement agreement Agreement agreement
Japan Ariake Clay Fair Agreement Excellent
agreement
South Korea Pusan Clay Good Reasonable Reasonable
Agreement Agreement Agreement
Thailand Bangkok Clay Good Reasonably
Agreement Good
Agreement
Canada Saint Alban Good Fair Agreement
Clay Agreement
Norway Onsoy Clay Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
agreement agreement agreement agreement

Figure 1

SPECIFIC TAKEAWAYS FROM STUDY

4. Following points can be concluded from the study:
a. Correlations depending on index parameters are to more suited to be
calibrated using the results of the related field and laboratory tests in
case of highly over consolidated and fissured clays exhibiting behavior
such as very high friction angles, high or low stiffness and strength
b. The substantial variability of Atterberg limits, especially in association
with their reproducibility and operator dependency is an important
aspect that should be considered while evaluating the correlations of
index parameters with the mechanical properties of fine-grained soils.
c. Pervious approaches for utilizing the measured water contents and
Atterberg limits at different depths to determine the stiffness and
strength parameters of soft to firm natural clays can be applied only if
the water content decreases with increase of mean stress which is is
not a limitation in the proposed approach discussed in this paper
 d. Proposed approach utilizes Atterberg limits as inputs and not capable
of recognizing small rate of strain increase during testing of clay due to
low reproducibility and strong operator dependence.

SUMMARY

USE OF FALL CONES TO DETERMINE ATTERBERG LIMITS: A REVIEW

OBJECTIVE OF PAPER
1. The review article under discussion analyzes various consistency limit
parameters including percussion-cup liquid limit, thread-rolling plastic limit
along with various fall-cone and other approaches employed for consistency limit
determinations on fine grained soils. The paper reviews the significance of
differences in the strain rate dependency on the mobilized fall cone shear
strength and recommends standardization of international codes. Use of fall
cone approach has also been appropriated for soft to medium-stiff clays in
establishing variability of shear strength with changing water content and further
index parameters.

METHODOLOGY APPLIED
2. STRAIN RATE EFFECTS From review of previous studies it has been
explained that the value of cone factor depends on the strain rate (strain rate
dependence) as well as the cone’s physical characteristics. It has generally been
taken that LLFC corresponds to a fixed undrained strength value; for example, from
theory su FC = 2.66 kPa for the 30º-80 g fall cone at LL FC (Koumoto & Houlsby 2001)
although this undrained strength value seems rather high with the Casagrande LL
value normally taken on average as 1.7 kPa (Worth & Wood 1978). However, the
Plot of ζ (ratio of static suFC to fall cone dynamic sud undrained strength values)
against the rate dependence parameter determined from numerical analysis of
the fall-cone test (smooth 30º cone) demonstrates that even for a given fall-cone
set-up, the su FC (LL) value mobilized for different soils can vary relatively significantly
and will also vary between set-ups having different cone characteristics and
penetration depths used in defining the LL FC. Moreover, displacement controlled
devices offer a more reliable approach in determining undrained strength and
PL100 values because adjustments for strain-rate effects are not necessary.
GEOTECHNICAL CORRELATIONS
3. It has been demonstrated that the precise LL and PL values obtained for any
given soil depend substantially on the techniques used to measure them. Analysis of
correlation between LLFC and LL cup values has been carried out in order to account
for the discrepancies between the different LL measures when these are substantial.
The analysis yields following info:
a. Comparison of the Fall-Cone LL and Casagrande
(1) Higher LL values being obtained for the Casagrande cup device
compared to the fall cone for high-LL materials as in order to
measure a specific strength (i.e undrained strength divided by
soil density) whereas LLFC corresponds to fixed reference
undrained strength value independent of soil density,
(2) For soil having low LL, the LL cup deduced for hard base cu and
the LLFC deduced for the 30º - 80g fall cone produce broadly
comparable results
(3) For low to medium LL soils commonly used in engineering
works, LLcup is generally slightly lower than LLFC
(4) Inconsistencies may also arise for fall-cone LL testing of fine-
grained soils having high silt and sand contents which may be
taken into account when changing the standard method of
testing

b. Correlating Fall-Cone LL with Casagrande LL Using a large

database assembled from the literature, correlations are established
relating LLFC with LLCUP determined for different standards. For each
dataset considered, LL results determined for the British and ASTM
standards’ soft- and hard-base percussion cups, respectively, were
reported along with the corresponding British standard (BS) (30°–80 g
cone) LL cup test results. Following aspects merit importance:
(1) Compared to the hard Micarta base of the ASTM cup device, the
softer rubber base of the BS cup device consistently gives
higher LL values because more energy is absorbed by it during
the repeated impacts of the cup holding the soil test specimen
(2) The BS LL is slightly greater than LL cup (i.e. LL BS cup and/or LL
FC) for low- and intermediate-LL soils. For soils having higher LL,
strong divergence between LL cup and LL FC is evident for the
combination of BS LL FC with both LL BS cup and LL ASTM CUP

RECOMMENDATIONS/SPECIFIC TAKEAWAYS FROM STUDY

4. Following points merit importance
a. A standardized fall-cone device is a more appropriate means for
measuring LL in such a way as to get the same result independent of
place and time of test because the lack of consistency between
different cup apparatus makes Casagrande cup apparatus non-ideal
for such a widely used test.
b. A 30º cone is in much wider use and more obvious choice for
international standardization as compared to 60º cone.
c. An internationally standardized fall-cone LL setup will not incorporate
variations in mobilized su FC(LL) arising from differences in the strain rate
dependency of undrained strength between different soils.
d. Appropriate reference to the test methodologies employed in deducing
index values is required to be reported both for the test results and
when reporting allowable ranges in design codes
e. The authors recommend PL 25 (to replace PL) as defining the fall-cone
upper strength parameter, which can be readily determined along with
the LL FC 100 parameter value using the standard 30°–80 g fall cone
in order to overcome the need for significant extrapolations on cone
penetration depth against water content plots and significantly different
strain-rate dependence expected for the brittle and plastic soil. From
these two measurements, a methodology has been presented for the
determination of the undrained strength corresponding to any water
content within the plastic range, allowing substantially better strength
predictions than existing correlations based on liquidity index.