M o d e ll i n g of Excitation Systems 357

sec. 8 . 6

The output limits of sorne amplifiers having power supplies from generator or

uxiliary bus voltage vary with generator terminal voltage. In such cases, VRMAX and

� vary directly with generator terminal voltage s;

F,MIN The transfer function of an amplidyne is derived in reference 1 2 and has the

general form shown in Figure 8.32.

v; ---il (1 +sT �l +sT

1 2)

Figure 8.32 Amplidyne model

(e) Excitation system stabilizing circuit

There are severa! ways of physically realizing the stabilizing function identified

in Figure 8.15. Sorne excitation systems use series transformers as shown in Figure

8 .3 3 .
The transformer equations in Laplace notation are

(8.32)

where subscripts 1 and 2 denote primary and secondary quantities; R, L, and M denote

resistance, leakage inductance and mutual inductance, respectively.

Exciter

Field Armature

V¡

_ Stabilizing
Amplifier
-;;_- transformer
+ 2

�--o+
+

r:

Figure 8.33 Excitation system stabilizing transformer

358 Excitation Systems Chap a.

The secondary of the transformer is connected to a high impedance circuit

Therefore, neglecting i we have

2,

(8.33)

Thus

V¡ sM
=

Vz R +sL
1 1

(8.34)

sKF
=

I+sTF

(/) Windup and non-windup limits

In the modelling of excitation systems, it is necessary to distinguish between

windup and non-windup limits. Such limits are encountered with integrator blocks,

single time constant blocks, and lead-lag blocks.

Figures 8.34(a) and (b) show the differences between the two types of limits

when applied to an integrator block.

1
Representation: U--.i i----+---Y
s

dv
System equation: = u
dt

Limiting action:

If L N < v < L x , then y = v

If v � L x , then y = Lx

then y = LN

Figure 8.34 (a) Integrator with windup limits

 M o d e ll i n g of Excitation Systems 359
sec. 8 . 6

1
Representation:
u y
s

LN

dy
System equation: = u
dt

Limiting action:

then dy = u
If LN<y<Lx,
dt

dy
If y :?.Lx and dy > O , then set = o y = t.,
'
dt dt

dy
If y � L N and dy < O , then set = o, y = LN
dt dt

Figure 8.34 (b) Integrator with non-windup limits

With windup limits the variable v is not limited. Therefore, the output variable

y cannot come off a limit until v comes withín the limit. Wíth non-windup límits, the

output variable y is limited; it comes off the límit as soon as the input u changes sign.

Figures 8.35(a) and (b) show the difference between the two types of limits

when applied to a single time constant block. The significance of the two types of

limits is similar to that for an integrator. With á windup limit, the output y cannot

come off a Iimit until v comes within the limit. With a non-windup limit, however,

the output y comes off the limit as soon as the input u re-enters the range within

limits.

Lx

1 V
Representation: u y
l+sT

LN

dv u-v
System equatíon: - =

dt T

Limiting action:

If LN<v<Lx, then y = v

If v :?. L x , then y = Lx

If v � L N , then y = LN

Figure 8.35 (a) Single time constant block with windup limits
360 Excitation Systems Chap. 8

1
Representation: U--i
l+sT

u-y
System equation: / =
T

Limiting action:

then dy = j
dt

If y c. Lx and f > O , then set dy = O, y = Lx

dt

If y ó. LN and f < O , then set dy = O, y = LN

dt

Figure 8.35 (b) Single time constant block with non-windup limits

Lx

l+sTA
Representation: u y
l+sTB

LN TA<TB

Physical realization:

Lx

TA
+
u y
TB

sTA

Figure 8.36 Lead-lag function with non-windup limits

(Continued on next page)

 M o d e ll i n g of Excitation Systems 361
sec. 8 . 6

Limiting action:

If L N � v � L x , then y = v

If v > L x , then y = Lx

If v < L N , then y = LN

Figure 8.36 (Continued) Lead-lag function with non-windup limits

With a lead-lag block, the interpretation of the action of a windup limit is

straightforward and is similar to that of a single time constant block. However, the

way in which a non-windup limit can be realized is not unique; the interpretation of

the limiting action should therefore be based on the physical device represented by

the block. Figure 8.36 illustrates such limiting action associated with electronic

iroplementation of lead-lag functions.

(g) Gating functions

Gating or auctioneering circuits are used when it is required to give control to

one of two input signals, depending on their relative size with respect to each other.

Figure 8 .37 illustrates the functions of a low value (LV) gate and a high value (HV)

gate, and the symbols used to represent them in block diagrams.

u LV y u HV y

V gate V gate

If u �v, y=u If u �V, y=u

If u > v , y=v If u < v , y=v

Figure 8.37 Low- and high-value gating functions

(h) Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator [8]

The block diagram representation of these elements is shown in Figure 8 . 3 8 .

The time constant TR represents rectification and filtering ofthe synchronous machine

terminal voltage. The parameters ofthe load compensator (described in Section 8.5 .4 )

are Re and Xe. The input variables E and / are in phasor form. When load
1 1

compensation is not used, Re and Xe are set to zero.

The voltage transducer output Ve forms the principal control signa! to the

excitation system. If a load compensator is not used and TR is negligible, Ve=E

1•
362 Excitation Systems Chap.
8

1 V
VCJ e
VCJ= I E r + ( R c + J X c ) ( I

l+TR

Load compensator Voltage transducer

Figure 8.38 Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator model

8 . 6 . 3 M o d e lli n g of Complete Excitation Systems

Figure 8 . 3 9 depicts the general structure of a detailed excitation system modei

having a one-to-one correspondence with the physical equipment. While this modei

structure has the advantage of retaining a direct relationship between modei

parameters and physical parameters, such detail is considered too great for general

system studies. Therefore, model reduction techniques are used to simplify and obtain

a practica! model appropriate for the type of study for which it is intended.

The parameters of the reduced model are selected such that the gain and phase

characteristics of the reduced model match those of the detailed model over the

frequency range of O to 3 Hz. In addition, ali significant nonlinearities that impact on

system stability are accounted for. With a reduced model, however, direct

correspondence between the model parameters and the actual system parameters is

generally lost.

The appropriate structure for the reduced model depends on the type of

excitation system. The IEEE has standardized 12 model structures in block diagram

form for representing the wide variety of excitation systems currently in use [8].

v,,1
Amplifying stages Exciter

Other
signals \ /
Minor loop

stabilization

Major loop stabilization

Figure 8.39 Structure of a detailed excitation system model

 M o d e l l i n g of Excitation Systems 363
sec. 8 . 6

These are intended for use in transient stability and small-signal stability studies. For

urposes of illustration, we will consider five of these models. These are shown in

rgures 8.40 to 8.44, with slight modification of the block diagram conventions to

�nfonn to the recommendations made in reference 35. The figures include a brief

�escription º! the key features an� samp)e _data. The suffix "A" acco�panying the

designations 1s for the purpose of differentiating these models developed m 1992 from

imilar models developed previously in 1 9 8 1 [4].

5
The principal input signal to each of the excitation systems is the output Ve

ofthe voltage transducer shown in Figure 8 . 3 8 . At the first surnming point, the signa!

V. is subtracted from the voltage regulator reference V,ef and the output V
8
of the

p;wer system stabilizer, if used, is added to produce the actuating signal which

controls the excitation system. Additional signals, such as the underexcitation limiter

output (VuEr), come into play only during extreme or unusual conditions. Under

steady state, V =0 and V,ef takes on a value unique to the synchronous machine
8

loading condition so that the error signal results in the required field voltage Efd· This

is illustrated in Example 8.3.

J. Type DCJA exciter model

V=
Vs VUEL v;EL

l+sTc HV KA 1
Ve
l+sTB gate 1 +sTA sTE

V,..¡
VRMIN

* Altemate input point

Figure 8.40 IEEE type D C l A excitation system model. ® IEEE 1992 [8]

The type DClA exciter model represents field-controlled de commutator

exciters, with continuously acting voltage regulators. The exciter may be separately

excited or self-excited, the latter type being more common. When self-excited, KE is

selected so that initially VR =0, representing operator action of tracking the voltage

regulator by periodically trimming the shunt field rheostat setpoint.

 364 Excitation Systems Chap. 8

Sample data

Self-excited de exciter:

KA=187 TA=0.89 TE= 1. 1 5 AEx=0.014 BEx=l.55

KF=0.058 TF=0.62 TB=0.06 Tc=0.173 TR=0.05

VRMAX=l.7 VRMIN=-1.7

KE is computed so that initially VR=0, and the load compensator is not used.

2. Type ACIA exciter model

VRMAX
Vs

+
l+sTc KA 1
Vc í:
+ l+sTB l+sTA sTE

V,.,¡ Vp

¼MJN VoEL VRMIN

Vx

Figure 8.41 IEEE type A C l A excitation system model. @ IEEE 1992 [8]

The type AClA exciter model represents a field-controlled altemator excitation

system with non-controlled rectifiers, and is applicable to brushless excitation systems.

The diode rectifier characteristic imposes a lower limit of zero on the exciter output

voltage. The exciter field is supplied by a pilot exciter, and the voltage regulator

power supply is not affected by external transients.

Sample data

Exciter and regulator:

KA=400.0 TA=0.02 T =0 T =0 KF=0.03

B e

TF=l.0 KE=l.0 TE=0.8 Kn=0.38 Kc=0.2

VRMAx=7.3 VRMIN=-6.6 VAMAX=15.0 VAMIN=-15.0 AEx=0.1

BEx=0.03

The load compensator is not used, and TR is negligible.

 M o d e ll i n g of Excitation Systems 365
sec. 8 . 6

Type A C4A exciter model

3,

Vs VuEL

VÍMAX

+
½ l+sTc HV
L
Ve
l+sTs gate l+sTA
+

VÍMIN
VRMJN
v,ef

Figure 8.42 IEEE type AC4A excitation system model. @ IEEE 1992 [8]

The type AC4A exciter model represents an alternator-supplied controlled­

rectifier excitation system - a high initial-response excitation system utilizing a full­

wave thyristor bridge circuit. Excitation system stabilization is usually provided in the

form of a series lag-lead network (transient gain reduction). The time constant

associated with the regulator and firing of thyristors is represented by TA. The overall

gain is represented by KA. The rectifier operation is confined to mode 1 region.

Rectifier regulation effects on exciter output limits are accounted for by constant Kc.

Sample data

Exciter and regulator:

KA=200.0 TA=0.04 Tc=l.0 TB=l2.0

VJMAX=l.O VIMIN=-1.0

4. Type STJA exciter model

The type S T l A exciter model represents a potential-source controlled-rectifier

system. The excitation power is supplied through a transformer from generator

terminals; therefore, the exciter ceiling voltage is directly proportional to the generator

terminal voltage. The effect of rectifier regulation on ceiling voltage is represented by

Kc. The model provides flexibility to represent series lag-lead or rate feedback

stabilization. Because of the very high field-forcing capability of the system, a field­

current limiter is sometimes employed; the limit is defined by ILR and the gain by KLR·
366 Excitation Systems Chap. 8

*
½ *
VuEL
VuEL

½ HV (1 +sTJ(l +sTc1) HV LV
>-------+-------
gate (1 +sT,.)(1 +sT81) gate gate

E,VRMIN

VoEL

sKp

l+sTp

* Altemate input points

Figure 8.43 IEEE type STlA excitation system model. ©> IEEE 1992 [8]

Sample data

Exciter and regulator:

KA=200.0 VRMAx=7.0

KLR=4.54 T Te, T Tc KF, TF not used

8, 81, 1,

are not represented.

VIMAX' VIMIN' VAMAX' VAMIN

Voltage transducer and load compensator:

R =O X =O
e e

5. Type ST2A exciter model

The type ST2A exciter model represents a compound-source rectifier excitation

system. The exciter power source is formed by phasor combination of main generator

armature voltage and current. The regulator controls the exciter output through

controlled saturation of the power transformer. Toe parameter TE represents the

integration rate associated with the control windings; EFDMAX represents the limit on

exciter output due to magnetic saturation.

Sample data

KA=120.0 TA =0.15 KE=l.0 TE=0.5 Kc=0.65

KF=0.02 TF=0.56 VRMAX=l.2 VRMIN= -1. 2 EFDMAx=355

Kp=l.19 K =1.62
1
 M o d e ll i n g of Excitation Systems 367
sec. 8 . 6

*EL
Vu
VRMAN EFDMAX

VuEL

+ +
HV 1
f---..i 7t
Ve gate l+s'.Z;¡ + sTE
+
Vn
V,.,¡ o
VRMIN

* Alternate input point

Figure 8.44 IEEE type ST2A excitation system model. <D IEEE 1992 [8]

Example 8.3

A generator is operating under steady-state conditions with an E¡d of 2.598 pu and

E =l.0 pu.
1

(a) If it is equipped with a type AC4A excitation system represented by the block

diagram of Figure 8.42, determine the value of v,,¡-

(b) If it is equipped with a self-excited de excitation system represented by the

block diagram of Figure 8.40, determine the values of KE and Vr,f

Toe parameters ofthe excitation systems are the same as for the sample data provided

with the figures.

Solution

(a) Type AC4A excitation system o

f Figure 8.42

When E¡d is 2.598 pu, we have

 368 Excitation Systems Chap, 8

VR=E¡a!KA

2·598
= =0.013 pu
200.0

Since a load compensator is not used,

Ve =E,= 1.0 pu

Under steady-state operation, V1= VR and V8=0. Since the generator is operating under

normal conditions, VuEL =0. Therefore, from Figure 8.42 we see that

v,ef = Ve+ VI

= 1.0 + 0 . 0 1 3 = 1.013 pu

(b) Self-excited de exciter o

f Figure 8.40

In this case, KE takes a value such that VR=0. With E¡a at a steady-state value and

VR=0, VFE=0. Hence,

KEEfd = -vx

= -AExeBExEfd = -0.014e I.55x2.S9B

= -0.7852

Therefore,

0.7852

2.598

= -0.3022

Under steady-state normal operation, VF=0 and V =0. With VR=0,

8

Vref = Ve = E, = 1.0 pu 1

Modelling o
f limiters

The standard models shown in Figures 8.40 to 8.44 do not include

representation of limiting circuits, namely, the underexcitation limiter, V/Hz limiter,

and maximum excitation limiter. These circuits do not come into play under normal

conditions and are not usually modelled in transient and small-signal stability studies.

They may, however, be important for long-term stability and voltage stability studies.
 M o d e ll i n g of Excitation Systems 369
sec. 8 . 6

The actual implementation of these limiting functions varíes widely depending

n the manufacturer, the vintage of the equipment, and the requirements specified by

�e utility. Therefore, models for these circuits have to be established on a case by

case basis. Here we will illustrate how such devices are modelled by considering

specific examples.

(a) Underexcitation limiter:

Figure 8.45 shows the model of an underexcitation limiter used in conjunction

wíth a type STlA (static) exciter. The parameters Kc and KR determine the

characterístícs of the limiter on the P-Q plane. The output VuEL of the limiter is

applied to the HV gate of the exciter model of Figure 8.43.

VKMX

VcuMx
+

K¡ VuMX

l+sT
1 Vu
KP VuEL
(1 +sT (1 +sT
2) 3)
1
VuMN
s

JLIM

Sample data:

QfE/
Kp = 0.015 K = 10.0 T = 6.4 s T = 0.8 s
1 1 2

T3 = 0.64 s VKMX = 4.0 VcuMX = 4.0

Kc
VUMX = 0.2 VUMN = -0.2 JLIM = -0.012

KR = Radius of UEL characteristic

Kc = Centre of UEL characteristic

P/E}

Figure 8.45 An example of UEL model [26]

 370 Excitation Systems Chap. 8

(b) V/Hz limiter:

An example ofthe V/Hz limiter model is shown in Figure 8 .4 6 . The operation

of the limiter is quite straightforward. When the per unit V/Hz value exceeds the

limiting value of VzLM• a strong negative signal drives the excitation down. The VZL

limit is set typically at 1.07 to 1.09 pu. M

AVR surnming

function

1.0 Ve

1
Kz2 Vz - L >---
s
+

o
v,ej

Sample data:

VzLM = 1.07 KZI = 1000 K22 = 0.007

Figure 8.46 V/Hz limiter model

(e) Field-current or overexcitation limiter:

Figure 8.47 shows the model of a field-current limiter circuit. It is designed

to have a limiting action as shown in Figure 8.47(b). A high setting provides almost

instantaneous limiting at 1.6 times full-load current (FLC). A low setting of l.05xFLC

in conjunction with a ramp timing function provides a limiting action with time delay

dependent on the level of field current. For example, a field curren! level of

l.325xFLC will be allowed for 15 s, followed by a reduction in current level to

1.05xFLC over the next 1 5 s.

Referring to the block diagram of Figure 8.47(a), when 1/d exceeds the high

setting IFLMJ, signal VFJ of control loop CD acts to reduce excitation instantaneously.

When the field current is below IFLMJ, the limiting action is through the control loop

(I) . The magnitude of the control signal VF and the value of gain K determine the
2 2

time delay and ramping action. Once the field current reaches the low setting IFLM2'

the select switch changes to the low select position; this ensures that the field current,

in the event of a second disturbance, <loes not exceed the low setting for a mínimum

period to allow cooling of the machine. When the field current is below IFLMl• the

signal VF4 helps to reset rapidly the integrator output to zero.

 M o d e ll i n g of Excitation. Systems 371
sec. 8 . 6

IFLM2 JFLMI
o
o AVR summing

1 function
VF4
K¡ ®_¿ E
l¡d - s +

LMI @ V F2 VFI Hígh-low

LM2
select switch ....______,

@ VF3 O
K4 l----=--------1'------=-=-

CD Normally at Vr,f

high settíng

(a) Block diagram representation

Sample data:

IFLMI = l.6xfull load I¡d IFLMl = l.05xfull load I¡d

K = 1 50 K = 0.248 K = 12.6
1 2 3

K = 140 LMI = -0.085 LM2 = -3.85

4

IFLMJ = 1.6 FLC

FLC = full load current

JFLMl = 1.05 FLC

•
º T 30 s Time

(b) Limiting characteristics

Figure 8.47 Field-current limiter model

372 Excitation Systems Chap. 8

8 . 6 . 4 Field Testing for Model Development and Verification

Although most of the data related to excitation system models can be obtainect

from factory tests, such data can only be considered as typical. The actual settings are

usually determined on site during installation and commissioning of the equipment,

It is therefore desirable to determine the model parameters by performing tests on the

actual equipment on site.

The nature of the tests required will depend on the type of excitation systern

being tested. A general procedure for model verification and development is as

follows:

1. Obtain circuit diagrams, block diagrams, nominal settings and setting ranges.

Construct a detailed block diagram of the complete excitation systern ,

identifying gains, time constants, and non-linearities,

2. With the generator (synchronous machine) shut down, perform frequency

response tests and/or transient response tests on the individual elements

comprising the excitation system. Identify their transfer functions, non­

linearities, saturation characteristics, and ceiling limits. Using these data,

validate as much of the detailed block diagram of the excitation system as

possible and modify the diagram as necessary.

3. Perform frequency response and time-response tests with the generator running

at rated speed and producing rated voltage on open-circuit, Measure the overall

linear response and responses at various points of the system to a step change

in terminal voltage. Perform additional tests with the generator operating near

rated load. Validate the detailed model of the complete system by comparison

with the measured responses.

4. Reduce the detailed model to fit the standard model applicable to the specific

type of excitation system using techniques of classical control theory. Validate

the responses of the reduced model against the measured responses.

The above procedure is quite involved and time-consuming for the older slow­

response exciter. For a high-response excitation system, frequency response tests are

usually not required as the number of time constants within the major feedback loop

is small. For static excitation systems, model parameters can usually be obtained from

design data; field tests are required only for verification.

Techniques for field testing, performance verification and model development

of excitation systems are described in references 3 , 7, and 3 6 .

 References 373

REFERENCES

IEEE Committee Report, "Computer Representation of Excitation Systems,"

[ ll
IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-87, pp. 1460-1464, June 1968.

IEEE Committee Report, "Proposed Excitation System Definitions for

[2]

Synchronous Machines," IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-88, pp. 1248-1258, August

1969.

IEEE Committee Report, "Excitation System Dynamic Characteristics," IEEE

[3]

Trans., Vol. PAS-92, pp. 64-75, January/February 1973.

IEEE Committee Report, "Excitation System Models for Power System

[4]

Stability Studies," IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-100, pp. 494-509, February 1 9 8 1.

[5]
IEEE Standard Definitions for Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines,

IEEE Standard 4 2 1. 1 - 1 9 8 6 .

[6] IEEE Guide for the Preparation of Excitation System Specifications, IEEE

Standard 4 2 1 .4 - 1 9 8 7 .

[7] IEEE Guide for Identification, Testing and Evaluation of the Dynamic

Performance of Excitation Control Systems, IEEE Standard 4 2 1. 2 - 1 9 9 0

(revision to IEEE Standard 421A-1978).

[8] IEEE Recommended Practice for Excitation System Models for Power System

Stability Studies, IEEE Standard 4 2 1. 5 - 1 9 9 2 .

[9] Guide to the Characteristics, Performance, and Hardware Requirements in the

Specification of Excitation Systems, Report of the Governor and Excitation

Control System Committee of the Canadian Electrical Association, 1982.

[10] Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Electric Transmission and Distribution

Reference Book, East Pittsburgh, Pa., 1964.

[11] E.W. Kimbark, Power System Stability, Vol. III: Synchronous Machines, John

Wiley & Sons, 1956.

[12] A.E. Fitzgerald and C. Kingsley, Electric Machinery, Second Edition,

McGraw-Hill, 1 9 6 1.

[13] T. L. Dillman, J.W. Skooglund, F.W. Keay, W. H . South, and C. Raczkowski,

"A High Initial Response Brushless Excitation System," IEEE Trans., Vol.
 374 Excitation Systems Chap. 8

PAS-90, pp. 2089-2094, September/October 1 9 7 1.

[14] J. S . Bishop, D.H. Miller, and A.C. Shartrand, "Experience with ALTERREX

Excitation for Large Turbine-Generators," Paper presented at the Joint

IEEE/ASME Power Conference, Miami Beach, September 15-19, 1974.

[15] R.K. Gerlitz, R.E. Gorman, and M. Temoshok, "The GENERREX Excitation

System for Large Steam Turbine-Generators," Paper GE3-3003, Pacific Coast

Electric Association Engineering and Operation Conference, Culver City,

Calif., March 20-21, 1975.

[16] P.H. Beagles, K. Carlsen, M.L. Crenshaw, and M. Temoshok, "Generator and

Power System Performance with the GENERREX Excitation System," IEEE

Trans., Vol. PAS-95, pp. 489-493, March/April 1976.

[17] H.M. Rustebakke (editor), Electric Utility Systems and Practices, John Wiley

& Sons, 1983.

[18] F. Peneder and R. Bertschi, "Static Excitation Systems with and without a

Compounding Ancillary," Brown Boveri Review 7-85, pp. 343-348.

[19] D.C. Lee and P. Kundur, "Advanced Excitation Controls for Power System

Stability Enhancement," CIGRE Paper 3 8 - 0 1 , Paris, France, 1986.

[20] IEEE Standard Dictionary o

f Electrical and Electronics Terms (ANSI), IEEE

Standard 100-1988.

[21] P. Kundur, M. Klein, G.J. Rogers, and M.S. Zywno, "Application of Power

System Stabilizers for Enhancement ofüverall System Stability," IEEE Trans.,

Vol. PWRS-4, No. 2, pp. 614-626, May 1989.

[22] A . S . Rubenstein and W.W. Walkley, "Control of Reactive kVA with Modern

Amplidyne Voltage Regulators," AJEE Trans., Part III, pp. 961-970, December

1957.

[23] A.S. Rubenstein and M. Temoshok, "Underexcited Reactive Ampere Limit for

Modern Amplidyne Voltage Regulator," AJEE Trans., Vol. PAS- 73, pp.

1433-1438, December 1954.

[24] J.T. Carleton, P.O. Bobo, and D.A. Burt, "Minimum Excitation Limit for

Magnetic Amplifier Regulating System," AJEE Trans., Vol. PAS-73, pp.

869-874, August 1954.

[25] l. Nagy, "Analysis of Minimum Excitation Limits of Synchronous Machines,"

 References 375

IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-89, No. 6, pp. 1 0 0 1 - 1 0 0 8 , July/August 1970.

J.R. Ribeiro, "Minimum Excitation Limiter Effects on Generator Response to

[26]
System Disturbances," IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol. 6, No. 1 , pp.

29-38, March 1 9 9 1.

Discussion of reference 26 by D.C. Lee, R.E. Beaulieu, P. Kundur, and G.J.

[27]
Rogers.

M .S. Baldwin and D.P. McFadden, "Power Systems Performance as Affected

[28]
by Turbine-Generator Controls Response during Frequency Disturbances,"

IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-100, pp. 2486-2494, May 1 9 8 1.

General Electric Instructions GEK-15014C, Inverse Time Maximum Excitation

[29]
Limit.

[30]
P. Kundur and P.L. Dandeno, "Implementation of Synchronous Machine

Models into Power System Stability Programs," IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS- 1 0 2 ,

pp. 2047-2054, July 1983.

[31] IEEE Guide: Test Procedures far Synchronous Machines, IEEE Standard 1 1 5 -

1983.

[32] R.W. Ferguson, H. Herbst, and R.W. Miller, "Analytical Studies of the

Brushless Excitation System," AJEE Trans., Part III, pp. 961-970, 1957.

[33] R.L. Witzke, J.V. Kresser, and J.K. Dillard, "Influence of AC Reactance on

Voltage Regulation of6-Phase Rectifiers," AJEE Trans., Vol. 72, pp. 244-253,

July 1953.

[34] L.L. Freris, "Analysis of a Hybrid Bridge Rectifier," Direct Current, pp.

22-23, February 1966.

[35] IEEE Task Force, "Conventions for Block Diagram Representations," IEEE

Trans., Vol. PWRS-1, No. 3, pp. 95-100, August 1986.

[36] IEEE Tutoría! Course Text, "Power System Stabilization via Excitation

Control - Chapter IV: Field Testing Techniques," Publication 8 1 EHO 175-0

PWR.
 Chapter 9

Prime Movers a n d

Energy S u p p l y Systems

The prime sources of electrical energy supplied by utilities are the kinetic

energy of water and the thermal energy derived from fossil fuels and nuclear fission.

The prime movers convert these sources of energy into mechanical energy that is, in

turn, converted to electrical energy by synchronous generators. The prime mover

governing systems provide a means of controlling power and frequency, a function

commonly referred to as load-frequency control or automatic generation control

(AGC). Figure 9.1 portrays the functional relationship between the basic elements

associated with power generation and control.

This chapter examines the characteristics of prime movers and energy supply

systems and develops appropriate models suitable for their representation in power

system dynamic studies. The principies and implementation of automatic generation

control are described in Chapter 11.

The focus here is on those characteristics of the power plants that impact on

the overall performance of the power system, and not on a detailed study of the

associated processes.

9.1 HYDRAULIC T U R B I N E S ANO GOVERNING SYST EMS

Hydraulic turbines are of two basic types: impulse turbines and reaction

turbines. They are briefly described here; the reader may refer to reference 1 for a

more detailed description.

The impulse-type turbine (also known as Pelton wheel) is used for high heads -

300 metres or more. The runner is at atrnospheric pressure, and the whole of the

377
 378 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap,
9

Electrical system
Tie line power
- Loads
AGC
Frequency - Transmission system

- Other generators

Energy supply system:

Steam or water

* !

Valves
Speed Speed

changer - govemor
f.-,+ or

gate
- Turbine
-- Generator

Speed

* AGC applied only to selected units

Figure 9.1 Functional block diagram of power generation and control system

pressure drop takes place in stationary nozzles that convert potential energy to kinetic

energy. The high-velocity jets of water impinge on spoon-shaped buckets on the

runner, which deflect the water axially through about 160º; the change in momenturn

provides the torque to drive the runner, the energy supplied being entirely kinetic.

In a reaction turbine the pressure within the turbine is above atmospheric; the

energy is supplied by the water in both kinetic and potential (pressure head) forms.

The water first passes from a spiral casing through stationary radial guide vanes and

gates around its entire periphery. The gates control water flow. There are two

subcategories of reaction turbines: Francis and propeller.

The Francis turbine is used for heads up to 360 metres. In this type of turbine,

water flows through guide vanes impacting on the runner tangentially and exiting

axially.

The propeller turbine, as the name implies, uses propeller-type wheels. It is

for use on low heads - up to 45 metres. Either fixed blades or variable-pitch blades

may be used. The variable-pitch blade propeller turbine, commonly known as the

Kaplan wheel, has high efficiency at ali loads.

The performance of a hydraulic turbine is influenced by the characteristics of

the water colurnn feeding the turbine; these include the effects of water inertia, water

compressibility, and pipe wall elasticity in the penstock. The effect of water inertia

is to cause changes in turbine flow to lag behind changes in turbine gate opening. The

effect of elasticity is to cause travelling waves of pressure and flow in the pipe; this

phenomenon is commonly referred to as "water harnmer." For a detailed analysis of

hydraulic transients the reader may refer to references 2 and 3 .

 H y d r a u l i c Turbines and G o v e r n i n g Systems 379
sec. 9 . 1

Precise modelling of hydraulic turbines requires inclusion of transmission-line­

tike reflections which occur in the elastic-walled pipe carrying compressible fluid.

yypically, the speed of propagation of such travelling waves is about 1200 metres per

eond Therefore, travelling wave models may be required only if penstocks are long.

se In what follows, we will first develop models of the hydraulic turbine and

penstock system without travelling wave effects and assuming that there is no surge

tank- We will then identify special governing requirements of hydraulic turbines.

Finally, we will extend the model to include the effects of water hammer and surge

tank-

9.1. 1 Hydraulic Turbine Transfer Function [ 4-9]

The representation of the hydraulic turbine and water column m stability

studies is usually based on the following assumptions:

J. The hydraulic resistance is negligible.

z. The penstock pipe is inelastic and the water is incompressible.

3. The velocity of the water varies directly with the gate opening and with the

square root of the net head.

4. The turbine output power is proportional to the product of head and volume

flow.

The essential elements of the hydraulic plant are depicted in Figure 9.2.

Forebay

Turbine

Wicket gate

Figure 9.2 Schematic of a hydroelectric plant

380 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap,
9

The turbine and penstock characteristics are determined by three basic

equations relating to the following:

(a) Velocity of water in the penstock

(b) Turbine mechanical power

(e) Acceleration of water column

The velocity of the water in the penstock is given by

(9.i)

where

U = water velocity

G = gate position

H = hydraulic head at gate

Ku = a constant of proportionality

For small displacements about an operating point,

Substituting the appropriate expressions for the partial derivatives and dividing

through by U0 =KuGo,/Ho yields

su sn so
= �-+-

o; 2H
0
G
0

or

- 1 - -
llU = -tili + llG (9.2)
2

where the subscript o denotes initial steady-state values, the prefix ll denotes small

deviations, and the super bar " - " indicates normalized values based on steady-state

operating values.

The turbine mechanical power is proportional to the product of pressure and

flow; hence,

(9.3)
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n a s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 381
5ec, 9 . 1

LÍilearizing by considering small displacements, and normalizing by dividing both

sides by pmo=KJloUo, we have

sn su
= - + -

n; U
0

or

- - -
Mm = !l.H + !l.U (9.4)

-
Substituting for !l.U from Equation 9.2 yields

- - -
(9.5A)
Mm = 1.5 M + !l.G

Altematively, by substituting for M from Equation 9.2, we may write

- - -
!l.Pm = 31:l.U-21:l.G (9.5B)

The acceleration of water column due to a change in head at the turbine, characterized

by Newton's second law of motion, may be expressed as

(pLA) d!l.U = -A(pa )1:l.H (9.6)

8
dt

where

L = length of conduit

A = pipe area

p = mass density

a8 = acceleration due to gravity

pLA = mass of water in the conduit

pag!l.H = incremental change in pressure at turbine gate

t = time in seconds

By dividing both sides by Apa H U the acceleration equation in normalized form

8 0 0,
becomes
 382 Prime Movers a n d Energy S u p p l y Systems Chap
9

or

-
- !J. H (9.7)

where by definition,

(9.8)

Here T¿ is referred to as the water starting time. It represents the time required for

a head H to accelerate the water in the penstock from standstill to the velocity U
0 0.

It should be noted that T'¿ varíes with load. Typically, T'; at full load líes between

0.5 s and 4.0 s.

Equation 9.7 represents an important characteristíc of the hydraulic plant. A

descriptíve explanation of the equation is that if back pressure is applied at the end

of the penstock by closing the gate, then the water in the penstock will decelerate.

That is, if there is a positive pressure change, there will be a negative acceleration

change.

From Equations 9.2 and 9.7, we can express the relationship between change

in velocity and change in gate position as

T d!J.U = 2 (ÁG - !J.Ü) (9.9)

w dt

Replacing d/dt with the Laplace operator s, we may write

- - -
Tws!J.U = 2 ( !J. G - !J. U )

or

1
!J.Ü = -- --!J.G
(9.10)
1+lr s
2 w

-
Substituting for !J.U from Equatíon 9.5B and rearranging, we obtain
 H y d r a u l i c Turbines and G o v e r n i n g Systems 383
sec, 9.1

1-T s
w

( 9 .1 1 )
t..G 1+lr s
2 w

Equation 9.11 represents the "classical" transfer function of a hydraulic turbine. It

shows how the turbine power output changes in response to a change in gate opening

for an ideal lossless turbine.

Non-ideal turbine

The transfer function of a non-ideal turbine may be obtained by considering

the following general expression for perturbed values of water velocity (flow) and

turbine power:

- - - (9.12)
t..U = a t..H +a t..w +a t..G
11 12 13

- - - (9.13)
t..Pm = a21W +a22 t..w +a23t..G

where Aw is the per unit speed deviation. The speed deviations are small, especially

when the unit is synchronized to a large system; therefore, the terms related to Aw
may be neglected. Consequently,

- - -
(9.14)
AU = a ll w +a13AG

- - -
(9.15)
t..Pm = a21W+a23t..G

The coefficients a and a are partial derivatives of flow with respect to head and
11 13

gate opening, and the coefficients a21 and a23 are partial derivatives of turbine power

output with respect to head and gate opening. These a coefficients depend on machine

loading and may be evaluated from the turbine characteristics at the operating point.

With Equatio�s 9 .1 4 an� 9 . 1 5 replacing Equations 9.2 and 9.5A, the transfer

function between AP m and A G becomes

1 + (all -a13ª21fa23)Tw s
= ª23 _ (9.16)

AG l+a Tws
11
 384 P r i m e Movers and Energy S u p p l y Systems Chap,
9

The a coefficients vary considerably from one turbine type to another. Por an

ideal lossless Francis type turbine:

ª11 = 0 .5 , ª13 = 1.0, ª21 = 1. 5 , ª23 = l.O

Typical measured values of the a coefficients for a 40 MW unit with Francis turbine

are as follows [6]:

Load level
ª11

100% of rated 0.58 1. 1 1.40 1.5

No load 0.57 1. 1 1. 1 8 1.5

Special characteristics o
f hydraulic turbine

The transfer function given by Equation 9. 1 1 or 9. 1 6 represents a "non­

1
minimum phase" system. The special characteristic of the transfer function may be

íllustrated by considering the response to a step change in gate position.

For a step change in G , for the ideal turbine, the initial value theorem gives

. 1 1-Tws
= 1im s-----
s-» s 1 + 0 .5 T w s

= -2.0

and the final value theorem gives

. 1 1-Tws
= hms----­
s-O s 1 + 0.5Tw s

= 1.0

1
Systems with poles or zeros in the right half of the s-plane are referred to as non­

rninirnum phase systems; they do not have the rninimum amount of phase shift for a given

magnitude plot. Such systems cannot be uniquely identified by a knowledge of magnitude

versus frequency plot alone.

 H y d r a u l i c Turbines and G o v e r n i n g Systems 385
sec, 9· 1

2
1 ----------- -------------------------------------

6 8 10 12
o f---+---Y''-----------'-----'----_L__-------'-----'---

t in seconds

-1

Tw = 4.0 s

-2

Figure 9.3 Change in turbine mechanical power following

a unit step change in gate position

The complete time response is given by

Figure 9.3 shows a plot of the response of an ideal turbine model with Tw=4.0.

Immediately following a unit increase in gate position, the mechanical power actually

decreases by 2.0 per unit. It then increases exponentially with a time constant of Tw/2

to a steady-state value of 1.0 per unit above the initial steady-state value.

The initial power surge is opposite to that of the direction of change in gate

position. This is because, when the gate is suddenly opened, the flow <loes not change

immediately dueto water inertia; however, the pressure across the turbine is reduced,

causing the power to reduce. With a response determined by Tw, the water accelerates

until the flow reaches the new steady value which establishes the new steady-power

output.

Figure 9.4 shows the responses of power, head, and water velocity of a

hydraulic turbine with T¿ = 1.0 s when the gate opening is reduced by 0 . 1 pu by

(a) A step change

(b) A 1-second ramp.

386 Prime Movers a n d E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap.
9

1.2

1. 1
'
\ Head
1
1
1

1
'
1

1. 0 1
'
\

Gate

Time in seconds

(a) Step reduction in gate opening

1. 1

Head

0.9
o.o 1.0 2.0 3.0

Time in seconds

(b) 1-second ramp reduction in gate opening

Figure 9.4 Hydraulic turbine response to a step change and a ramp

change in gate position, with initial values of head power,

velocity, and gate position equal to 1 . 0 pu

 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 387
sec- 9 . 1

Electrical analog

In understanding the performance of a hydraulic turbine system, it is useful to

. ualize a lumped-parameter electrical analog as shown in Figure 9 . 5 . The hydraulic

vi� electrical systems are near1y equivalent, with the water velocity u, gate opening

� and head H, corresponding to the current 1, load conductance G, and voltage V,

respectively.

l=GV

r dl = _!_ ( E - V )
V G dt L o

P=Vl

Figure 9.5 Electrical analog of a hydraulic turbine

When the load is suddenly decreased by a step reduction in conductance G, the

current 1 <loes not change instantly; however, the voltage across the load suddenly

increases because of the reduction in conductance (or increase in resistance). This

causes the output power to suddenly increase initially. With arate deterrnined by the

inductance L, the current I decreases exponentially until a new steady value is reached

establishing the new steady output power. The responses of 1, V, and P are very

similar to those of velocity, head, and power shown in Figure 9.4(a) for a step

reduction in gate position.

9 . 1 . 2 Nonlinear Turbine Model Assuming lnelastic Water Column

The linear model given by Equation 9 .1 6 represents the small-signal

performance ofthe turbine. It is useful for control system tuning using linear analysis

techniques (frequency response, root locus, etc.). Because of the simplicity of its

structure, this model provides insight into the basic characteristics of the hydraulic

system.

In the past, the hydraulic turbine representation in system stability studies was

largely based on the transfer function of Equation 9. 1 1 or Equation 9.16 [ 1 O].

However, such a model is inadequate for studies involving large variations in power

output and frequency [ 1 1 ] . In this section, we describe a nonlinear model which is

more appropriate for large-signal time-domain simulations.

Once again we consider a simple hydraulic system configuration with

unrestricted head and tail race, and with either a very large or no surge tank.
388 Prime Movers a n d E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap.
9

Assuming a rigid conduit and incompressible fluid, the basic hydrodynamic equations

are

(9. 17)

(9.18)

dU = - ag(H-H) (9.19)
0
dt L

Q = AU (9.20)

where

U = water velocity

G = ideal gate opening

H = hydraulic head at gate

H = initial steady-state value of H

0

P = turbine power

Q = water-flow rate

A = pipe area

L = length of conduit

ag = acceleration due to gravity

t = time in seconds

Since we are interested in the large-signal performance, we normalize the above

equations based on rated values. Equations 9 . 1 7 and 9 . 1 8 in normalized form become

U G H -
- 2 (9.21)
- - - --

u, G, ( H, ) 1

P U H
(9.22)
P, U, H,

where the subscript r denotes rated values. In per unit notation, the above equations

may be written as

(9.23)
ü = G(H)112

- (9.24)
P = UH
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 389
sec, 9· 1

froi11 Equation 9.23,

(9.25)

Similarly, the per unit form of Equation 9 . 1 9 is

!!_ (_!!_J = _ ª
8 H, (..!!__ _ H0)

dt u, L u, l H, H,

or
-
dU 1 - -
= --(H-H) (9.26A)
0
dt T
w

or in Laplace notation

-
U -1
= (9.26B)

1
where Tw is the water starting time at rated load. It has a fixed value for a given

turbine-penstock unit and is given by

= (9.27)

The mechanical power output Pm is

(9.28)

where PL represents the fixed power loss of the turbine given by

(9.29)

1
From Equations 9 . 8 and 9.27, the water starting time Tw at any load is related to its value

Tw at rated load by

U H,
0
T = --T
w w
U H
r O
390 Prime Movers a n d Energy S u p p l y Systems Chap. 9

with UNL representing the no-load water velocity. In normalized forro, we have

or

(9.30)

The above equation gives the per unit value of the turbine power output on a base

equal to the turbine MW rating. In system stability studies, solution of the machine

swing equation requires turbine mechanical torque on a base equal to either the

generator MVA rating or a common MVA base. Hence,

T
-
=
( W0
-
JP
- (---
P, ) =
1
-(U-U )HP
- - - - (9.31)
m m MV A - NL r
W base W

where

w = per unit speed

MV Abase = base MVA on which turbine torque is to be made per unit

- turbine MW rating
P, = per unit turbine rating =
MVAbas,

In the above equations, G is the ideal gafe opening based on the change from no load

to full load being equal to 1 per unit. This is related to the real gate opening g as

shown in Figure 9.6. The real gafe opening is based on the change from the fully

closed to the fully open position being equal to 1 per unit [12].

-
S.. G
'

.s '

'

r 1

.g q i

'"
eo
- '
: Maximum
- ' .

� A gNL ¡ gate openmg

1

-
"O '
'
'
'
'
'

No-load losses : : :
1 1 1 -

o ' ' ' g

- - 1.0
gNL gFL

Real gate opening in pu

Figure 9.6 Relationship between ideal and real gate openings

 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 391
sec, 9.1

The ideal gate opening is related to real gate opening as follows

(9.32)

where A is the turbine gain given by

1

(9.33)

Equations 9.25 to 9.27 and 9 . 3 1 to 9 . 3 3 completely describe the water column

and turbine characteristics. These may be represented in block diagram form as shown

in Figure 9.7.

- ��-
H - 1 U + -
- A,
g P,
Tws

p = turbine MW rating

' base MVA

LU
T =--'
w agH,

Sample data:

gFL =0.96 pu gNL =0.16 pu

Figure 9.7 Hydraulic turbine block diagram assuming inelastic water column

The turbine and penstock model may be rearranged and expressed in terms of

two equations, one representing the water column and the other the turbine.

Water column equation:

(9.34)
392 Prime Movers and Energy S u p p l y Systems Chap. a

Turbine equation:

(9.35)

From Equation 9.34, by considering the steady-state condition corresponding to no

load, we have

U = A g
- (
H - )112 (9.36)
NL t NL O

Usually H =1.0.
0

Example 9.1

The data related to the turbine, penstock, and generator of a hydraulic power plant are

as follows:

Generator rating = 140 MVA Turbine rating = 127.4 MW

2
Penstock length = 300 m Piping area = 1 1. 1 5 m
3
Rated hydraulic head = 165 m Water-flow rate at rated load = 85 m /s

Gate opening at rated load = 0.94 pu Gate opening at no load = 0.06 pu

(a) Calculate (i) the velocíty ofwater in the penstock, and (ii) water starting time,

at ful] load.

(b) Determine the classical transfer function of the turbine relating the change in

power output to change in gate position at rated load.

(e) Determine the nonlinear model of the turbine, assuming an inelastic water

column. Identify the values of the parameters and variables of the model at

rated output. The turbine mechanical power/torque is to be expressed on a

common MVA base of 100.

Solution

(a) (i) Velocity of water in the penstock at rated load is

U, = flow rate at rated load/piping area

3
= 85 m /s
2
1 1. 1 5 m

= 7.62 m/s
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n a s a n d G o v e r n i n g Systems 393
sec- 9. 1

(ii) Water starting time Tw at full load, from Equation 9.27, is

LU,
T =
w
-».
300x7.62
= = 1.41 s
9.81 X 165

(b) From Equation 9 .1 1 , the classical transfer function of the turbine at rated load is

pu sr; 1-T s
w
=

pu so 1+0.5Tws

1 - 1. 4 1 s
=

1 +0.705s

(e) Referring to Figure 9.7, the parameters of the nonlinear turbine model are as

follows:

Turbine gain

1
A =
t
gFL-gNL

1
= = 1. 1 3 6
0.94-0.06

No-load velocity

= 1. 1 3 6 x 0 . 0 6 x l. 0

= 0.068 pu

The per unit conversion factor is

p = turbine MW rating
r
MVA1,as,

= 127.4 = 1.274

100

Figure E9 . 1 shows the turbine model. The values of the variables corresponding to

rated output are identified on the model.

394 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap. 9

-
H = l. 0
,=.--=--'-------�------ -

U = l. 0 6 8 P m = l. 0 Tm=l.274

g=0.94 �1
� + ¿ 1t �
l. 13 6 --.-- 1--'---+\

1.41s T L__J

- -
G = l. 0 6 8 H
0
= 1.0 UNL =0.068 w = 1.0

Figure E9.1

9 . 1 . 3 Governors for Hydraulic Turbines

The basic function of a governor is to control speed and/or load. The general

principles of load/frequency control will be described in Chapter 1 1 . Here, we discuss

the special requirements of goveming hydraulic turbines, their physical realization and

modelling in system studies.

The primary speed/load control function involves feeding back speed error to

control the gate position. In order to ensure satisfactory and stable parallel operation

of multiple units, the speed governor is provided with a droop characteristic. Toe

purpose ofthe droop is to ensure equitable load sharing between generating units (see

Chapter 11 , Section 1 1. 1. 1 ). Typically, the steady-state droop is set at about 5%, such

that a speed deviation of 5% causes 100% change in gate position or power output;

this corresponds to a gain of 20. For a hydro turbine, however, such a govemor with

a simple steady-state droop characteristic would be unsatisfactory. This is illustrated ·

in the following example.

Example 9.2

A simplified block diagram representation of the speed control of a hydraulic

generating unit feeding an isolated load is shown in Figure E9.2. The turbine is

represented by the classical model and the speed govemor by pure gain f<a=I/R. Toe
generator is represented in terms of the combined inertia of the generator and turbine

rotors. (For derivation of the transfer function used see Chapter 3, Section 3 . 9 . )

If Tw=2.0 s, TM = 1 0 . 0 s, and KD=0.0, determine (i) the lowest value ofthe droop R for

which the speed goveming is stable, and (ii) the value of R for which the speed

control action is critically damped.

gec, 9. 1 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 395

Turbine Generator

Speed 1 1-T s !).pm

w 1 !). w,
ref +©-- -

R 1 + Tw/2s TMs+Kv
-

Tw=2.0 s Tifl0.0 s

Figure E9.2

Solution

The characteristic equation (of the form 1 +GH=0) of the closed-loop system is

l + 1-2s_l_.!_ = O

1 +s 10s R

or

2
10Rs +(10R-2)s+l = O

(i) For stability, the roots ofthe characteristic equation have to be in the left side of

the complex s-plane. In case of a quadratic, a sufficient and necessary condition is

that ali quadratic coefficients are positive. Hence,

I0R>O, i.e., R>0

and

lOR-2>0, i.e., R>0.2

The smallest value of R resulting in stable response is thus 0.2 or 20%. In other

words, the speed govemor gain Ka has to be less than 5. With the standard 5% droop

(or gain of 20), the speed control would be unstable.

(ii) For critica! damping

(IOR-2)2-4(10R) = O

Solving yields

R
1
= 0.746 Rz = 0.0536

with R =0.746 corresponding to the critica! damping (damping ratio i;; = l ) and stable
1

response. And R =0.0536 is less than the limiting value of 0.2; it corresponds to i;; =-
2

1.0 and represents unstable operation. Therefore, R = 0 . 746 or gain Ka= 1.34 is required

for critica! damping. ■

396 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap.
9

Requirement for a transient droop

As discussed in Section 9 . 1. 1 , hydro turbines have a peculiar response due

1
water inertia: a change in gate position produces an initial turbine power change whic�

is opposite to that sought. For stable control performance, a large transient (temporary)

droop with a long resetting time is therefore required. This is accomplished by the

provision of a rate feedback or transient gain reduction compensation as shown in

Figure 9 . 8 . The rate feedback retards or limits the gate movement until the water flow

and power output have time to catch up. The result is a governor which exhibits a high

droop (low gain) for fast speed deviations, and the normal low droop (high gain) in

the steady state. Example 9 .3 illustrates the effect of the transient droop compensation

on the stability characteristics of the governing system.

Speed
+
- ... Servomotor
ref.

w, RP = permanent droop

Rr = temporary droop
+
Compensation TR = reset time

sTR
'-----1 RT--­
l+sTR

Figure 9.8 Governor with transient droop compensation

Mechanical-hydraulic governor

On older units the governing function is realized using mechanical and

hydraulic components. Figure 9.9 shows a simplified schematic of a mechanical­

hydraulic govemor. Speed sensing, permanent droop feedback, and computing

functions are achieved through mechanical components; functions involving higher

power are achieved through hydraulic components. A dashpot is used to provide

transient droop compensation. A bypass arrangement is usually provided to disable

the dashpot if so desired.

The transfer function of the relay valve and gate servomotor is

g (9.37)
=
a s

The transfer function of the pilot valve and pilot servo is

a K1
(9.38)
= ---

b l+sTP
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 397
sec, 9.1

Transient droop
Speeder rod
adjuster Needle valve
� dt..,_ _____::;¡.e:... __

Compensating
�+-----1t----"l'c__;dashpot -------+------

Pilot servo \ b
��
Fast Slow
Speed droop I

""'""����=�
Speed adjustment
¡ a Pilot valve

Relay valve

��� Gate servomotor

g

Figure 9.9 Schematic of a mechanical-hydraulic governor for a hydro turbine

where K is determined by the feedback lever ratio, and TP by port areas of the pilot
2

valve and K [9]. Combining Equations 9 . 3 7 and 9 . 3 8 yields

2

g Ks
= = ---- (9.39)
b s ( l +sTp)

where K$ is the servo gain and Tp is the pilot valve/servomotor time constant. The
servo gam K, is determined by the pilot valve feedback lever ratio.

Assuming that the dashpot fluid flow through the needle valve is proportional

to the dashpot pressure, the dashpot transfer function is

(9.40)

The temporary droop Rr is determined by the lever ratio, and the reset or washout

time TR is determined by the needle valve setting.

Water is not a very compressible fluid; if the gate is closed too rapidly, the

resulting pressure could burst the penstock. Consequently, the gate movement is rate

limited. Often, the rate of gate movement is limited even further in the buffer region

near full closure to provide cushioning.

A block diagram representation of the governing system suitable for system

stability studies is shown in Figure 9 . 1 O. This diagram together with the diagram of
398 Prime Movers and Energy S u p p l y Systems Chap,
9

Max. gate
Pilot valve
Rmaxopen position = 1
Dead and
band servomotor

Sp l+sTp '--r-!___.�-B-g
ref.
Gate

Min. gate servomotor

Rmaxclose

position = 0

+ �-� Permanent

droop

�-----------i R sTR
T l+sTR
Transient

droop

Parameters: Sample data

TP = pilot valve and 0.05 s

servomotor time constant

Ks = servo gam 5.0

TG = main servo time constant 0.2 s

RP = permanent droop 0.04

R = temporary droop 0.4

7

TR = reset time 5.0 s

Constraints:

Maximum gate position limit = 1.0

Minimum gate position limit = O

Rmax open = maximum gate opening rate 0 .1 6 pu/s

Rmax close = maximum gate closing rate 0 .1 6 pu/s

Rmax buff = maximum gate closing rate 0.04 pu/s

in buffered region

gbuff = buffered region in pu of 0.08 pu

servomotor stroke

Figure 9.10 Model of governors for hydraulic turbines

 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s a n d G o v e r n i n g Systems 399
sec, 9· 1

figure 9.7 provides a complete model of the hydraulic turbine and speed-governing

5Y5tern.The
govemor model shown in Figure 9 . 1 0 has provision for representing the

ffects of dead bands. However, it is usually difficult to get data that identify their

e agnitudes and locations. Consequently, dead-band effects are not usually modelled
rn d'
in systern stu ies.

E/ectrohydraulic governor

Modern speed govemors for hydraulic turbines use electrohydraulic systems.

functionally, their operation is very similar to that of'rnechanical-hydraulic governors.

Speed sensing, _permanent droop, tempo:ary droop, =. other measuring �d

computing functions are performed electncally. The electnc components provide

greater flexibility and improved performance with regard to dead bands and time lags.

The dynamic characteristics of electric governors are usually adjusted to be essentially

similar to those of the mechanical-hydraulic governors.

Tuning o
f speed-governing systems

The basis for selection of hydraulic turbine govemor settings is covered in

references 7, 1 3 , and 14. We will review this briefly here and discuss it in detail in

Chapter 16.

There are two important considerations in the selection of governor settings:

J. Stable operation during system-islanding conditions or isolated operation; and

2. Acceptable speed of response for loading and unloading under normal

synchronous operation.

For stable operation under islanding conditions, the optimum choice of the

temporary droop Rr and reset time TR is related to the water starting time Tw and

mechanical starting time TM=2H (see Chapter 3, Section 3 . 9 . 3 ) as follows [14]:

R = ( 9 .4 1 )
T

(9.42)

In addition, the servosystem gain K should be set as high as is practically possible.

5

The above settings ensure good stable performance when the unit is at full load

supplying an isolated load. This represents the most severe requirement and ensures

stable operation for all situations involving system islanding.

For loading and unloading during normal interconnected system operation, the

above settings result in too slow a response. For satisfactory loading rates, the reset

time TR should be less than 1.0 s, preferably close to 0 . 5 s.

400 Prime Movers a n d E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap_
9

The above conflicting requirements may be met by using the dashpot bYpass_

arrangement as follows:

• With the dashpot not bypassed, the settings satisfy the requirements for

system-islanding conditions or isolated operation.

• With the dashpot bypassed, the reset time TR has a reduced value, resulting in

acceptable loading rates.

The dashpot is normally not bypassed, so that in the event of a disturbance leadi1tg

to an islanding operation, the speed control would be stable. The dashpot is bypassed'

for brief periods during loading and unloading.

Example 9.3

Figure E9.3 shows the block diagram of the speed-goveming system of a hydraulic

unit supplying an isolated load. The speed govemor representation includes a transient

droop compensation G/s) and a govemor time constant TG of 0.5 s. (Such a

representation may be readily shown to be a linear approximation to the govemor

model shown in Figure 9 . 1 0 , with Tp=0.) The generator is represented by its equation

of motion with a mechanical starting time TM of 10.0 s and a system-damping

coefficient of 1 . 0 per unit.

Examine the stability of the speed-goveming system, by considering its open-loop

frequency response with

(a) No transient droop compensation, i.e., Gc(s) = 1

(b) A transient droop compensation having the transfer function

where TR and Rr are determined by Equations 9 .4 1 and 9.42.

r-----------------------------------------�
' '

'
'

Speed + '
1 1 1
1-Tws 1 !iw
�
ref. - ·
©+
Rp
G,(s)
l+Tas '
1
'

1+0.5Tws TMs+Kv
--
'
'

'
'

' ------------------------------------------ ' Turbine Gen/Load

Speed govemor

Rp=0.05

Figure E9.3 Block diagram of speed-goveming system

 Hydraulic Turbines and G o v e r n i n g Systems 401
sec, 9· 1

Solution

(a) Without transient droop compensation [GJs) =l. O]

The feedback control system of Figure E9.3 has the standard form

G(s) >--
� y_(
_ s
)

�-_,, H(s)

The open-loop transfer function of the system is

GH(s) = 20(1 - 2s)

(E 9 . 1 )
(1 +0.5s) (1 +s) (1 + 10s)

This system has a zero corresponding to

s = 0.5

and three pales corresponding to

s = -0.1, - 1. 0 , -2.0

The frequency response function for the system is obtained by setting s=jci so that

GH(jw) = 20(1-j2w)
(E9.2)
(1 +j0.5w)(l +j w ) ( l +jl0w)

The frequency response may be computed using the linear approximation (Bode plot).

The corresponding comer frequencies are

w = 0 . 1 , 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 rad/s

The linear approximation, particularly for the phase plot, tends to be very approximate

in this case. We will therefore compute the frequency response accurately, with the

magnitude characteristic given by

2
20J1 +4w
M(w) =

2 2 2
J1 +0.25w J1 + w J 1 + 100w

and the phase characteristic given by

402 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems
Chap.
9

The magnitude and phase as a function of frequency are plotted in Figure E9.4. We:

see from the figure that the crossover frequency ro c1, which is the val ue of oi t

which the magnitude is unity (O dB), is 2.5 rad/s (0.4 Hz). The phase angle :

crossover is -290°. The gain and phase margins are

G = -12 dB
ml

"' = -110º
'1-'mJ

The uncompensated system is hence unstable.

(b) With transient droop compensation

From Equations 9 .4 1 and 9.42

TR = [ 5 . 0 - ( 2 . 0 - 1. 0 ) 0 . 5 ] 2 . 0 = 9.0 s

and

RT = [ 2 . 3 - ( 2 . 0 - 1. 0 ) 0 . 1 5 )( 2 . 0 / 1 0 . 0 ) = 0.43

Hence the transfer function of the compensation is

1+9.0s
GcCs) =
1 + (0.43 /0.05) 9.0s

1 +9.0s
=---
1 + 77.4s

This adds a pole at s=-0.0129 an d a zero at s = - 0 . 1 1 1. The open-loop frequency

response function of the overall system is

GH(jw) = 2 0 ( 1 - j2w) (1 +j9w)

(1 +j 0 .5 w ) ( l +jw)(l +j l 0 w )( l +j77.4w)

The corresponding magnitude and phase plots are shown in Figure E9.4. The

crossover frequency roc is 0.25 rad/s and the phase at crossover is - 1 3 8 º . The gain
2

and phase margins are

Gm2 = 6 dB

"'
'1-'m2
= 42º

The compensated system is thus stable and the above values of gain and phase

margins are considered good values from the viewpoint of compensator design. A

lower value ofreset time TR would increase the crossover frequency, and decrease the

gain and phase margins. Toe net effect would be a more oscillatory but faster control

system.
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 403
sec- 9. 1

30�--------------------�

20 Without compensation

10

fg
e o
·-
e
·;;

c.?
-10

Frequency in rad/s

o�------------------------�

Without compensation

--->�- With compensation

-100

180°

�mi =-110°

__ _¡ _

10 1

Frequency in rad/s

Figure E9.4 Open-loop frequency response characteristics

with and without fransient droop compensation ■

404 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems
Chap, g

PID governor [11,15}

Sorne electrohydraulic governors are provided with three-term controllers With;

proporti�n�)-integr�-derivative (PID) action, as s?�wn in Figure_ 9 . 1 1. !hese alio\lb

the possibility of higher response speeds by providing both transient gain reductio •

and transient gain increase. The derivative action is beneficial for isolated operatio:

particularly for plants with large water starting time (Tw=3 s o r more). Typical value�

are Kp=3.0, K =0.7, and KD=0.5. However, the use of a high derivative gain
1 0�

transient gain increase will result in excessive oscillations and possibly instability,

when the generating unit is strongly connected t o an interconnected system. Therefore,

the derivative gain is usually set to zero; without the derivative action, the transfet

function of a PID (now PI) governor is equivalent to that of the mechanical-hydrauJic;

governor. The proportional and integral gains may be selected to result in the desired

temporary droop and reset time.

Speed K¡ Pilot Gate Gate

ref. s servo servo

+

w,
sKD

Figure 9.11 PID governor

9. 1 . 4 Detailed Hydraulic System Model

The conventional hydraulic system models developed in Sections 9 . 1. 1 and

9 . 1. 2 neglect the effects of water compressibility and pipe elasticity. In addition, the

surge tank, if present, was assumed to be ideal and to isolate the tunnel from the

penstock. While these assumptions are valid for a wide range of system studies, there

are many applications where a detailed hydraulic system model is necessary to

accurately account for the dynamic interaction between the hydraulic system and the

power system.

We will first develop the pressure-flow wave equations in a closed conduit and

then apply them to derive a detailed model of a hydraulic plant.

 Hydraulic Turbines and G o v e r n i n g Systems 405
sec, 9· 1

ff'ave equation f flow in a conduit [2,6]

o

Consider the flow ofwater through the conduit shown in Figure 9 . 1 2 ( a ) . When

th gate is partially closed suddenly, a pressure wave is set up which moves upstream.

A eshort section o� the cond�it i�lustrating the effect of _the p:ess�e �ave �n stretching

rhe conduit walls 1s shown m Figure 9 . 1 2 (b ) . The relationships identified m the figure

rrespond to the instant when the wave front is at a section of the conduit distance
co .
[roro the reservoir.

X Let the pressure p in the slice Ax increase by Í'1p. The equation of motion

(Newton's second law) of the water in the pipe section is

dU
(AAx p )- = -Adp (9.43)
dt

where p = mass density. The change in pressure in terms of change in head is given

by

Reservoir

�---- L ----.........i

-a -u

Gate X

(a) Hydraulic system configuration

H = total head (static plus

water hammer)

U = water velocity

A = area of conduit
2
= rrD /4

f = thickness of conduit wall

a = wave velocity

(b) Stretching of the conduit wall at the wave front

Figure 9.12 Water flow through an elastic conduit

406 Prime Movers a n d Energy S u p p l y Systems Chap, 9

where ag=acceleration due to gravity. By taking infinitesimally small values of &,

/';.U, and /';.t, Equation 9.43 may be written as

au an
= -a - (9.44)
at g ax

The increase in volume due to stretching of the conduit walls is

= AD.u dp
(9.45)
Ef

where

E = Young's modulus of elasticity of pipe material

f = thickness of pipe wall

The change in volume of water in the section due to compressibility of water is

= A.u !J.p (9.46)

K

where

K = bulk modulus of compression of water

The increase in mass of water in the pipe section due to the combined effects of pipe

elasticity and water compressibility is

Sm = p(dVE+ dVc)

(9.47)

= pA.ix [l + _Q_ ]!J.p

K Ef

This should be equal to the change in mass of water within the pipe section during

the period !J.t given by the difference in flow into the section and out of the section

as follows:

!J.m = pAUS t > p ( U + !J.U)Adt

(9.48)

= -pA!J.Udt

Equating the expressions for /';.m given by Equations 9.47 and 9.48, we have
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 407
sec. 9 . 1

(9.49)

BY taking infinitesimally small incremental values, the above equation may be written

as

au aH
= -a- (9.50)
ax at

where

a = pa
g
(1-
K
+ R)
Ef
(9.51)

Equations 9.44 and 9.50 are the basic hydraulic equations which determine the flow

of a compressible fluid through a uniform elastic pipe, with friction neglected. These

equations are similar to the electrical transmission line equations; the fluid velocity

U and head H are analogous to the transmission line current and voltage, respectively.

These equations may be conveniently solved using Laplace transforms. As shown in

reference 6, the solution is given by

H = H sech(T,s) - Z Q tanh(T,s) (9.52)

2 1 0 2

Q cosh(T s) + _!__H sinh(T s) (9.53)

2 e z 2 e
o

where

T, = elastic time

= conduit length L = L
(9.54)
wave velocity a Jagfa

Z = hydraulic surge impedance of the conduit

0

= wave velocity a = 1
(9.55)

Aag -s»
Q = water flow = AU

and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the conditions at the upstream and downstream

ends of the conduit, respectively.

408 Prime M o v e r s and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap. 9

Typical values of wave velocity ( a = Jag / a ) for water are 1220 mis for steeJ

conduit and 1420 mis for rock tunnels.

Expressing Equations 9.52 and 9.53 in per unit form with rated head H, anct

rated flow Qr as base values, we obtain

- - -
H = H sech(T,s)-ZnQ tanh(T,s) (9.56)
2 1 2

- - 1 -
Q
1
= Q cosh(T,s)
2
+ZH 2 sinh(T,s) (9.57)
n

where Z; is the normalized value of the hydraulic surge impedance of the conduit

given by

zn = zo (Q') (9.58)
H
r

In per unit, water flow is equal to velocity, since

Q AU

Q, AU,

-
Therefore:.. Equation 9.57 is valid with the per unit flow Q replaced by per unit

velocity U.

In the above formulation, friction has been assumed to be negligible. Following

the approach used in reference 6, the effect of head loss due to friction may be

approximated by modifying Equation 9.56 as follows:

- - -
H = H sech(T,s) -ZnU tanh(T,s)-k I U I
(9.59)
2 1 2 1U2 2

where k
¡ is the head loss constant due to friction.

Writing Equations 9.57 and 9 . 5 9 in terms of deviations of head and velocity

from steady-state values, we obtain

(9.60)

u
1
= u cosh(T,s)
2
+; h sinh(T,s)
2
(9.61)

where

h = deviation of head (H-H in pu

0)
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n a s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 409
sec. 9 . 1

u = deviation of velocity (U-U in pu

0)

4> = friction coefficient = 2k1 1 U 1

20

U = initial steady-state value of downstream velocity U

20 2

Model o
f hydraulic plant with no surge tank

Referring to Figure 9.13, for a large reservoir, the deviation in head at the

upstream end of the penstock is zero; that is, hw = O. Therefore, based on Equation

9.60, the expression for turbine head deviation is

(9.62)

Consequently the transfer function relating head and flow at the turbine end of the

penstock may be written as

(9.63)

where

ZP = normalized hydraulic impedance of penstock

<!>P = friction coefficient of the penstock

= 2kP I U

10
1

T,p = elastic time of penstock

Reservoir

h = turbine head deviation

1

hw = reservoir head deviation

u = turbine velocity deviation

1

uP = upper penstock velocity

deviation

Figure 9.13 Hydraulic plant with no surge tank

410 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap. 9

The transfer function F(s) of Equation 9 . 6 3 represents a distributed-parameter

system, with

2•
00

sT,p nII
=
1 +
(ST
_____!P_
J
1 - e -2T,Ps
n=l n1t
= ---��-��
(9.64)
1 + e -2T,ps 2]
00 [

II
n= 1+ ( 2sTep J
n=l (2n-1)1t

The infinite product expansions of Equation 9.64 are required to preserve ali the

characteristic roots of F(s). However, the transfer function may be approximated by

a lumped-parameter equivalent by retaining an appropriate number of terms of the

expansions, depending on the purpose of the study and the accuracy required [16].

Lumped-parameter approximations

With n =O, tanh(T,Ps) = T,Ps and

(9.65)

From Equations 9.54, 9 . 5 5 , 9 . 5 8 , and 9.27, we see that

Q, L
(9.66)

Thus, ZpTep is equal to the water starting time TWp of the penstock at rated load. With

friction neglected, F(s) given by Equation 9.65 is the same as Equation 9.26B for u/h
derived in Section 9 . 1. 2 . The approximation n = O is therefore equivalent to assuming

the water column to be inelastic.

With n = I, the first pole and zero of the tanh function (representing the

fundamental harmonic of the water column) are preserved. The corresponding

expression for the transfer function F(s) is

-1
F(s) = (9.67)
 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 4 1 1
sec. 9. 1

where

(9.68)

For most power system stability studies the above approximation should be adequate.

Example 9.4

The parameters of a penstock are as follows:

Water starting time TWp = 1.0 s (at full load)

Elastic time Tep = 0.5 s

The head loss due to friction may be neglected. Examine the accuracy of lumped­

parameter approximations to the water hammer effects by considering the frequency

response characteristics of the M,jl'lG transfer function at full load.

Solution

The normalized hydraulic impedance of the penstock is

z = TWp = 1.0 = 2.0

P T 0.5
ep

From Equation 9.63, with �p=O, the water column transfer function is

h,(s)

u,(s)
(E9.3)

= -2.0tanh(0.5s)

Combining the above with Equations 9.2 and 9.SB gives

l:iP m(s) 1 - ZP tanh(T,ps)

=

1:iG(s) 1
1 + -Z tanh(T s)
2 p ep
(E9.4)

1.0-2.0tanh(0.5s)
=

1 +tanh(0.5s)
412 Prime Movers a n d E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap,
9

where

tanh(0.5s) =

With n = 0 (inelastic water column)

1. 0 - s

1. 0 + 0 . S s

This represents the classical transfer function.

Figure E9.5(a) shows the magnitude versus frequency plots of the transfer functi0n

Mm!AG given by Equation E9.4, when tanh(0.5s) is represented exactly and by

approximations corresponding to n=0, n=l, and n=2. The corresponding phase

characteristics are shown in Figure E9.5(b). It is seen that the classical model is valid

up to about 0.1 Hz. With n= 1 (i.e., with the fundamental component of the water

column represented), the lumped-parameter approximation is valid up to about 1.0 Hz.

2.0 -------
� -------

\ ,,-✓
-✓----
,

,/
1,

1 I
i
L
i
1.8 ' I

/ '

'
1 I
/ I

(.J '
'
I

/ ' '
1
,
,
1 / '
'

'
,

/ '

1.6 '
1

� i
I
'
, '
<l.)
,
.

' '
/ ·I 1
. ,
"O
'
' '
.€

e: L
Í
I
, '
1

'
1.4
'
bD
!
'
'
'
'
"'
1 1

¡'
::8 '
'
'
'
'1
,
1
'

,Í '

' '
1.2
L '

'
'
/ '

,/
'

'
' '

,
'
' 1

,
'
1
'
1

'
' 1

'
' '
\ !

\
1.0
10-2 1
10-l 10º J0

Frequency in Hz

Exact n=I

n =O (inelastic) n=2

Figure E9.S(a)
 H y d r a u l i c Turbines and G o v e r n i n g Systems 413
sec. 9. 1

----------------------

-------------------------.j

-200

-400
(.)

<I
---.
� -600
'
<V '
u, '1
ro
,.e::
o.. \

-800 '
'---- .... _
--- ----

-1000

Frequency in Hz

--- Exact n=l

--- n = 0 (inelastic) n=2

Figure E9.5(b) ■

Model o
f hydraulic plant with surge tank

A surge tank is sometimes installed near the turbine to reduce the pressure

increase which accompanies rapid closure of turbine gates. The kinetic energy of the

flowing water in the penstock is converted to potential energy in the surge tank, thus

relieving the pressure. A differential surge tank, shown in Figure 9.14, has two

compartments: a small area riser connected by orifices to a large area tank. The riser

helps suppress water hammer and the tank provides the water storage/supply function.

The following are the equations of the various components of the hydraulic

system: tunnel, surge tank, penstock, and the reservoir. All equations are in per unit

forro. Water velocities and heads are in terms of deviations from steady-state values.

Equation 9.60 applied to the tunnel yields

(9.69)
 414 Prime Movers and E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap,
9

Riser

h,
Surge hs Reservoir

tank

l'_ Tunnel

u+u,
-----uc

hw = reservoir head

Turbine __1J"T'"r"TT"TTT"T'T'I
h, = riser head

h, = surge tank head

h = turbine head
1

uc = tunnel water velocity near surge tan]¡

u, = riser water velocity

us = surge tank water velocity

uP = upper penstock water velocity

u, = turbine water velocity

Figure 9.14 Hydraulic plant with surge tank

For a large reservoir, the deviation in head at the upstream end of the tunnel is zero;

hence, hw=O. In addition, the wave effects in the tunnel are insignificant and the T,;

term may be approximated by setting n =O in the infinite product expansion form of

Equation 9.64. Therefore, Equation 9.69 simplifies to

h = - s T u - "' u (9.70)
r Wc e 'Ye e

where

Twc = water starting time of the tunnel = ZcT,c

<f>c = friction coefficient of the tunnel = 2kc / Uco /

The flow rates and velocities at the surge tank are related by the continuity equation

(9.71)

The water velocities in the surge tank and the riser are related to the riser head by the

equation

u +u = sT h (9.72)
s r s r

where T, is the surge tank riser time.

 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems
sec- 9.1 415

The surge tank and riser heads are related by the equation

h = h + ,1,. ( u + u ) (9.73)
r s '-Vs s r

where

<l>s = surge tank friction coefficient = 2k1 Uso+ U,

1 1

Under steady-state conditions, the time derivatives of all variables are zero. Hence,

from Equation 9.72, using total values rather than incremental values, we have

dH
uso+ ti¿ = T--' = o
s dt

Therefore, <l>s = 0 and Equation 9.73 reduces to

h = h (9.74)
r s

Application of Equations 9.60 and 9 . 6 1 to the penstock yields

(9.75)

"» = u1cosh(1;,Ps) +; h1sinh(1;,Ps) (9.76)

where

ZP = hydraulic impedance of penstock

<l>P = friction coefficient of penstock = 2kP I U 1

10

T,p = penstock elastic time

From Equations 9.70 to 9.74, the tunnel and surge tank transfer function may be

written as

= ------- (9.77)

The overall transfer function relating the water velocity to head at the turbine, formed

by using Equations 9.74 to 9.77, is

416 Prime Movers a n d E n e r g y S u p p l y Systems Chap.
9

ut _ 1 +[F1(s)/ZP]tanhCI;,Ps)
F(s) = =
ht <l>P + F (s) + ZP tanh(1;,Ps)
1

(9.78)

_ I+[F1(s)/Z:]Fz(s)
=
<l>P + F (s)+ Fz(s)
1

where

Fz(s) = ZPtanh(1;,Ps) (9.79)

As noted earlier, F(s) represents a distributed-parameter system and an infinite

product expansion is required to accurately represent the function Fz(s). A lumped­

parameter approximation to Fz(s), with n = 1 in the expression for tanh(1;,Ps), is given

by Equation 9.68.

The complete hydraulic system is represented by the transfer function F(s)

relating turbine velocity (flow) to the turbine head. Figure 9 .1 5 shows the block

diagram of the hydraulic turbine with F(s) representing the hydraulic system. The

diagram is based on Figure 9. 7 and has been modified to allow representation of water

hammer and surge tank effects.

The following are sample values of parameters associated with the

representation of F(s) [6]:

T,c = 13 s Z =4 <l>c =0.009

e

T,p =0.25 s Z =4 <l>p =0.001

p

- -
- H u
g

Figure 9.15 Hydraulic turbine block diagram including

water harnmer and surge tank effects

 H y d r a u l i c T u r b i n e s and G o v e r n i n g Systems 417
sec. 9. 1

If there is no surge tank, Twc and �e are zero, and the transfer function F (s)
1

anishes in Equation 9.78. The transfer function F(s) reduces to that given by

� uation 9.67. If in addition the water hammer and friction effects in the penstock are

;g1ected, F(s) simplifies to the conventional form

0

1
F(s) = (9.80)
sTwp

If water hammer effects in the penstock are to be neglected and surge tank is to be

modelled, Fi(s) in Equation 9 . 7 8 is set equal to sT Wp·

9 . 1 . 5 Guidelines for Modelling Hydraulic Turbines

The modelling detail required for any given study depends on the scope of the

. study and the system characteristics. The following are general guidelines for the

selection of appropriate models.

Governor tuning studies

From the results of Example 9.4, we see that there could be significant

differences between frequency response characteristics of the exact elastic model and

the simplified inelastic model of the water column, beyond 0 . 1 Hz. These differences

have negligible effect on the conventional govemor with transient droop compensation

or the equivalent PI controller. The larger bandwidth of PID controllers requires a

more accurate representation of the penstock water column. Usually a lumped­

parameter approximation (with n = 1 or 2) should be acceptable.

The surge tank natural period is on the order of severa! minutes. Its

representation in governor tuning studies is usually not necessary.

Transient stability studies

The hydraulic turbine govemors have a very slow response from the viewpoint

oftransient stability. Their effects are likely to be more significant in studies of small

isolated systems. A nonlinear turbine model assuming inelastic water column (Figure

9.7) would be adequate for such studies. The speed governor model should account

for gate position and rate limits (Figure 9.1 O).

Small-signal stability studies

The speed governors have negligible effect on local plant mode oscillations of

frequencies on the order of 1.0 Hz. However, the effect on low frequency interarea

oscillations of frequencies below 0.5 Hz may be significant. These effects can be

modelled adequately by linearizing the nonlinear turbine-penstock model ofFigure 9.7