History and Approaches ● Confound: error/ flaw in study ▪ Median: Middle # (use in skewed
(2-4%) ● Random Assignment: assigns
distribution) ▪ Mode: occurs most often ● Psychology is derived from physiology participants to either control or (biology) and philosophy experimental group at random – ● INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: ● EARLY APPROACHES minimizes bias, increase chance of equal establishes significance (meaningfulness) o Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION representation Significant results = NOT due to chance (act of looking inward to examine ● Random Sample: method for choosing ● ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA) mental experience) to determine the participants – minimizes bias o Confidentiality underlying STRUCTURES of the mind ● Validity: accurate results o Informed Consent o Functionalism – need to analyze the ● Reliability: same results every time o Debriefing PURPOSE of behavior ● NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: o Deception must be warranted ● APPROACHES KEY WORDS Adv: real world validity (observe people Biological Basis o Evolutionary – Genes o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, in their own setting) Disadv: No cause and effect (8-10%) actualization ● CORRELATION: Adv: identify ● NEURON: Basic cell of the NS o Biological – Brain, NTs relationship between two variables o Dendrites: Receive incoming signal o Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts Disadv: No cause and effect o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus) o Behavioral – learned, reinforced (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL o Axon: AP travels down this o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, CAUSATION) o Myelin Sheath: speeds up signal childhood o Positive Correlation – Variables vary down axon o Sociocultural – society in the same direction o Terminals: release NTs – send signal o Biopsychosocial – combo of above o Negative Correlation – variables vary ● PEOPLE: in opposite directions o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA o The stronger the # the stronger the o Charles Darwin: Natural selection & relationship REGARDLESS of the evolution pos/neg sign o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental ● CASE STUDY: Adv. Studies ONE institutions in U.S. person (usually) in great detail – lots of o Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA1 st journal info Disadv: No cause and effect o William James: Father of American ● DESCRIPTIVE STATS:shape of the data Psychology – functionalist o Measures of Central Tendency: o Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern ▪ Mean: Average (use in normal onto next neuron Psychology – structuralist distribution) o Synapse: gap b/w neurons o Margaret Floy Washburn–1st fem. PhD ● Action Potential: movement of sodium o Christine Ladd Franklin – 1st fem. and potassium ions across a membrane Research Methods sends an electrical charge down the axon (8-10%) o All or none law: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not ● EXPERIMENT : Adv: researcher increase the intensity of the response controls variables to establish cause and (flush the toilet) effect Disadv: difficult to generalize o Refractory period: neuron must rest o Independent Variable: manipulated by and reset before it can send another the researcher AP (toilet resets) ▪ Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV) ● Sensory neurons – receive signals ▪ Control Group: placebo, baseline ● Afferent neurons – Accept signals (part of the IV) ▪ Placebo Effect: show behaviors ● Motor neurons – send signals associated with the exp. group ● Efferent neurons – signal Exits when having received placebo ● CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord ▪ Double-Blind: Exp. where neither ● PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS the participant or the experimenter o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement are aware of which condition o Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, people are assigned to lungs, etc) o Dependent Variable: measured ▪ Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body variable (is DEPENDENT on the for fight/flight (generally activates) independent variable) ▪ Parasympathetic NS: established ● Operational Definition: clear, precise, homeostasis after a sympathetic typically quantifiable definition of your response (generally inhibits) variables – allows replication ● NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NTS): ▪ Lateralization: the brain has some ● Cocktail party effect: notice your name Chemicals released in synaptic gap, specialized features – language is across the room when its spoken, when received by neurons processed in the L Hemisphere you weren’t previously paying attention o GABA: Major inhibitory NT ▪ Split-brain experiments: done by ● VISUAL SYSTEM: o GlutamatE: Major Excitatory NT Sperry & Gazzanaga. o Pathway of vision: light → cornea o Dopamine: Reward & movement ▪ Images →pupil/iris → lens → retina → o Serotonin: Moods and emotion shown to the rods/cones → bipolar cells → ganglion o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory right hemisphere cells → optic nerve → optic chiasm → o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: will be processed occipital lobe sympathetic NS arousal in the left (& vice o Cornea – protects the eye o Endorphins: pain control, happiness versa), patient o Pupil/iris – controls amount of light o Oxytocin: love and bonding can verbally entering eye ● Agonist: drug that mimics a NT identify what o Lens – focuses light on retina ● Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT they saw o Fovea–area of best vision(cones here) ● Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up ● BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal” o Rods – black/white, dim light into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective itself o Cones – color, bright light serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block ● NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and reuptake – treatment for depression IS BOTH ganglion cells ● AREAS OF THE BRAIN: o Twin Studies: o Ganglion cells – opponent-processing ● Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain ▪ Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) occurs here o Cerebellum – movement (what does it ▪ Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ) o Blind spot – occurs where the optic take to ring a bell) o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher nerve leaves the eye o Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP) percentage of also developing a disease o Feature detectors – specialized cells o Pons – sleep/arousal (Ponzzzzzz) o Environment: MZ twins raised in that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. ● Midbrain different environments show differences (experiments by Hubel & Weisel) o Reticular formation: attention (if you ● ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends ● THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: can’t pay attention, You R F’d) hormones throughout the body o Trichromatic – three cones for ● Forebrain: higher thought processes o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by receiving color (blue, red, green) o Limbic System hypothalamus. release growth hormones ▪ Explains color blindness - they are ▪ Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic missing a cone type You’re so emotional!) NS: releases adrenaline o Opponent Process – complementary ▪ Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a Sensation & Perception colors are processed in ganglion cells – hippo on campus you’d remember it!) o Thalamus: relay center (6 – 8%) explains why we see an after image ● Visual Capture: Visual system o Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, ● ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of overwhelms all others (nauseous in an eating behaviors signal 50% of time (is it there) IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular) o Broca’s Area: Inability to produce ● DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also ● Constancies: recognize that objects do speech (Broca – Broken speech) called a just noticeable difference (JND) not physically change despite changes in o Wernicke’s Area: Inability to and follows WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli sensory input (size, shape, brightness) comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?) must differ by a constant minimum ● Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink o Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the proportion. (Can you tell a change?) on/off in succession – looks like brain – higher order thought processes movement (traffic signs with arrows) ▪ Occipital Lobe: located in the back of ● Stroboscopic movement: motion the head - vision produced by a rapid succession of slightly ▪ Frontal Lobe: decision making, varying images (animations) planning, judgment, movement, ● MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a personality 3D image from a 2D image) ▪ Parietal Lobe: located on the top of the o Interposition: overlapping images appear head - sensations closer ▪ Temporal Lobe: located on the sides of o Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually the head (temples) – hearing and face ● SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY similar in size, the smaller one is further recognition ● Sensory Adaptation: diminished away ▪ Somatosensory Cortex: map of our sensitivity as a result of constant o Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear sensory receptors –in parietal lobe stimulation (can you feel your further away ▪ Motor Cortex: map of our motor underwear?) o Texture Gradient: coarser objects are receptors – located in frontal lobe ● Perceptual Set: tendency to see closer o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that something as part of a group – speeds up o Relative Height: things higher in our connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes signal processing field of vision look further away severed in patients with severe seizures – ● Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice o Linear Perspective: parallel lines leads to “split-brain patients” something b/c you’re so focused on converge with distance (think railroad another task (gorilla video) tracks) ● BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes ▪ Continuity: tendency to mentally form o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due make up a 3D image) a continuous line to stress/anxiety) Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly o Sleep walking: (due to fatigue, drugs, different on each retinal, location of alcohol) image helps us determine depth o Night terrors: extreme nightmares – Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking NOT in REM sleep – typical in inward) as objects draw nearer children ● TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole → o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere smaller parts (due to deficiency in orexin) ● BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly Parts → Whole while asleep (due to obesity usually) ● AUDITORY SYSTEM: ● DREAM THEORIES: o Pathway of sound: sound → pinna → o Freud’s Unconscious Wish auditory canal →ear drum (tympanic ● Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification membrane) → hammer, anvil, stirrup of unconscious desires and needs (HAS) → oval window → cochlea → ▪ Latent Content: hidden meaning of auditory nerve → temporal lobes dreams o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal States of Consciousness ▪ Manifest Content: obvious storyline o Middle Ear: ear drum , HAS (bones vibrate to send signal) (2 – 4%) of dream ● Activation Synthesis: Brain produces o Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA ● STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS: random bursts of energy – stimulating (sounds 1st processed here) o Higher-Level: controlled processes – lodged memories. Dreams start random ● THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur totally aware then develop meaning in the cochlea o Lower-Level: automatic processing ● HYPNOSIS o Place theory – location where hair cells (daydreaming, phone numbers) o It Can: Reduce pain, help you relax bends determines sound (high pitches) o Altered States: produced through drugs, o It CANNOT: give you superhuman o Frequency theory – rate at which action fatigue, hypnosis strength, make you regress, make you potentials are sent determines sound o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming do things against your will (low pitches) o No awareness: Knocked out ● PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: ● OTHER SENSES: ● METACOGNITION: Thinking about o Triggers dopamine release in the brain o Touch: Mechanoreceptors → spinal cord thinking o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, → thalamus → somatosensory cortex ● SLEEP: tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics) o Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a Beta Waves: awake ▪ Decrease sympathetic NS activation, “gate” to control how much pain ix Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy highly addictive experienced Stage 1: light sleep o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, o Kinesthetic: Sense of body position Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine o Vestibular: Sense of balance Stage 3 (delta waves: Deep sleep ▪ Increase sympathetic NS activation, (semicircular canals in the inner ear Stage 4: extremely deep sleep highly addictive effect this) Rapid Eye Movement (REM): o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: dreaming ▪ Causes hallucinations, not very bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs addictive o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to NOT route through the thalamus 1st. throughout the night achieve the same effects Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala o Dependence: Become addicted to the ● GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal greater than the sum of its parts symptoms Gestalt Principles: o Withdrawal: Psychological and ▪ Figure/ground: organize information physiological symptoms associated into figures objects (figures) that stand with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – can apart from surrounds (back ground) kill you. ▪ Learning ● CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour (7-9 %) biological clock ● CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: o Body temp and awareness change due PAVLOV! to this o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings ▪ Closure: tendency to mentally fill in o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic about response w/o needing to be gaps nucleus (SCN) in the brain learned (food) ▪ Proximity: tendency to group things o Explains jet lag o Unconditioned Response (UR): together that appear near each other ● SLEEP DISORDERS response that naturally occurs w/o ▪ Similarity: tendency to group things training (salivate) together based off of looks o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that O Generalization: respond to similar O Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no normally doesn’t evoke a response stimulus for reward matter what you do you never get a (bell) O Discrimination: stimulus signals when positive outcome so you just give up o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once behavior will or will not be reinforced (word scrambles) neutral stimulus that now brings about a (light on means response are accepted) Cognition response (bell) o Conditioned Response (CR): response O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning (8 – 10%) that, after conditioning, follows a CS O Premack Principle: high probability ENCODING: Getting info into memory (salivate) activities reinforce low probability ● Automatic encoding – requires no effort o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, activities (get extra min at recess if you (what did you have for breakfast?) NS/CS must be presented immediately everyone turns in their HW) ● Effortful encoding – requires attention BEFORE the US O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing (school work) o Acquisition: process of learning the behaviors that are intrinsically ● Shallow, intermediate, deep processing: the response pairing motivating causes you to stop doing more emphasis on MEANING the deeper o Extinction: previously conditioned them (give a child 5$ for reading when the processing, and the better remembered response dies out over time they already like to read – they stop ● Imagery – attaching images to information o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period reading) makes it easier to remember (shoe w/ of time the CR comes back out of O Shaping: use successive approximations spaghetti laces) nowhere to train behavior (reward desired ● Self-referent encoding – we better o Generalization: CR to like stimuli behaviors to teach a response – rat remember what we’re interested in (you’d (similar sounding bell) basketball) remember someone’s phone number who o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS O Chaining: tie together several behaviors you found extremely attractive) ● CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & ● Dual encoding – combining different Wagner – classical conditioning involves types of encoding aids in memory cognitive processes O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: ● Chunking – break info into smaller units ● CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION Receive reward for every response to aid in memory (like a phone #) (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X ● Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow number of response (every 10 envelopes remember info easier classical conditioning to occur in one trial stuffed get $$) o Acronyms – using letter to remember (food poisoning) O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every something (PEMDAS) ● COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks o Method of loci – using locations to Albert and John Watson (father of get a paycheck) remember a list of items in order behaviorism) – conditioned a fear in a O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded ● Context dependent memory – where baby (only to countercondition – remove after a random number of responses (slot you learn the info you best remember it- later on) machine the info (scuba divers testing) ● OPERANT CONDITIONING: O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded ● State dependent memory – the SKINNER! after a random amount of time has physical state you were in when O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): passed (fishing) learning is the way you should be when Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes O Variable schedules are most resistant to testing (study high, test high) are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken extinction (how long will keep playing a STORAGE: Retaining info over time a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) slot machine before you think its ● Information Processing Model – ● PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: broken?) Sensory memory, short term memory, O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something ● SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) long term memory model nice to increase a behavior (gold star for LEARNING: BANDURA! ● Sensory Memory – stores all incoming turning in HW) ● Modeling Behaviors: Children model stimuli that you receive (first you have O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo to a pay attention) something bad/annoying to increase a dolls to demonstrate the following o Iconic Memory – visual memory, behavior (put on seatbelt to take away O Prosocial – helping behaviors lasts 0.3 seconds annoying car signal) O Antisocial – mean behaviors o Echoic Memory – auditory memory, O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to ● MISC LEARNING TYPES lasts 2-3 seconds decrease a behavior (spanking) O Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is ● Short Term Memory – info passes O Neg. Punishment: Take away something hidden until useful (rats in maze get from sensory memory to STM – lasts good to decrease a behavior (take away reinforced half way through, 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items car keys) performance improved o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets O Primary Reinforcers: innately ▪ Cognitive maps – mental the clock satisfying (food and water) representation of an area, allows ● Working Memory Model splits STM O Secondary Reinforcers: everything else navigation if blocked into 2 – visual spatial memory (from (stickers, high-fives) O Insight learning (Kohler!) – some iconic mem) and phonological loop ▪ Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- learning is through simple intuition (from echoic mem). A “central can be exchanged for other stuff (chimps with crates to get bananas) executive” puts it together before (game tokens or money) passing it to LTM ● Long term memory – lasts a life time ● Proactive interference: old info blocks ● Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious new thumb) recollection ● Retroactive interference: new info blocks o Representative Heuristic: make ▪ Episodic: events old inferences based on your experience ▪ Semantic: facts ● Misinformation effect: distortion of (like a stereotype) – assume someone o Implicit (Nondeclarative): memory by suggestion or misinformation must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet unconscious recollection (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land) o Availability heuristic: relying on ▪ Classical conditioning ● Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves availability to judge the frequency of ▪ Priming: info that is seen earlier forward (forget new info – 50 first dates) something (over estimating death due to “primes” you to remember ● Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves plane crashes due to recent events) something later on (octopus, backwards (forget old info) ● Functional Fixedness: keep using one assassin, climate, bogeyman) ● ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by strategy – cannot think outside of the box ▪ Procedural: skills destruction of acetylcholine in ● Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting ● Memory organization hippocampus beliefs to distort logical reasoning by o Hierarchies: memory is stored LANGUAGE making invalid conclusions according to a hierarchy ● Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch ● Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to o Semantic networks: linked sound in chat) our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence memories are stored together ● Morpheme: smallest unit that caries ● Inductive reasoning: data driven o Schemas: preexisting mental concept meaning (syllable) decisions, general → specific of how something should look (like a ● Grammar: rules in a language that enable ● Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, restaurant) us to communicate specific → general ● Memory storage ● Semantics: set of rules by which we ● Divergent thinking: ability to think about o Acetylcholine neurons in the derive meaning (adding –ed makes many different things at once hippocampus for most memories something past tense) o Cerebellum for procedural ● Syntax: rules for combining words into memories sentences (white house vs casa blanca) ● Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of speech memory – connections are strengthened ● One-word stage: duh over time with repeated stimulation (more ● Two-word stage: duh duh Motivation & Emotion firing of neurons) RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage ● Theories of language development: o Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – (6-8%) ● Serial Position Effect: tendency to but they don’t do it perfectly THEORIES OF MOTIVATION remember the beginning and the end of the ▪ Overregularization: grammar ● INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed list best mistake where children over use patterns and are not learned (explains ● Recall: remember what you’ve been told certain morphemes (I go-ed to the animal motivation) w/o cues (essays) park) ● DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need ● Recognition: remember what you’ve been o Operant conditioning: reinforced for creates aroused tension (drive) that told w/ cues (MC) language use motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by ● Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid o Inborn universal grammar: theory homeostasis: equilibrium) memories for highly important events comes from NOAM CHOMSKY – o Primary drive: unlearned drive based (9/11 attacks) says that language is innate and we are on survival (hunger, thirst) ● Repressed memories: unconsciously predisposed to learn it o Secondary drive: learned drive (wealth buried memories – are unreliable o Critical period: period of time where or success) ● Encoding failure: forget info b/c you something must be learned or else it ● OPTIMUM AROUSAL: humans aim to never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the cannot ever happen (language must be seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks first place (which is the real penny) learned young – Genie the Wild Child) requires more arousal, harder tasks need less ● Encoding specificity principle: the more o Linguistic determinism: language closely retrieval cues match the way we influences the way we think (Hopi learned the info, the better we remember people do not have words for the past, the info (like state dependent memory) thus cannot easily think about the past) ● Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly developed by WHORF at first, then reaches a plateau after which THINKING little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS) ● Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics ● Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of) ● HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived ● Algorithms: step by step strategies that by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid guarantee a solution (formula) have priority over needs higher in the ▪ Males – testosterone ● Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, pyramid ▪ Females - estrogen perfectionist. At risk for heart disease o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement ● Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed. ● Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL you do it b/c you like it (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again PSYCH ● Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain until you reset, guys only) ● Industrial / Organizational Psych: a reward (trophy) o Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct psychological of the workplace – focuses on studies in sex, suggested that people were employee recruitment, placement, training, very promiscuous. Studies lacked a satisfaction, productivity representative sample, created scale of ● Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection homosexuality of engineering and psych – focuses on o Homosexuality: biological roots: safety and efficiency of human-machine differences in the brain, identical twins interactions more likely to both be gay, later sons ● Hawthorne effect: productivity increases more likely to be (hormones from mom) when workers are made to feel important ● Theory X management: manager controls HUNGER employees, enforces rules. Good for lower ● Signals of hunger: level jobs o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry ● Theory Y management: manger gives o Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by THORIES OF EMOTIONS employees responsibility, looks for input. the pancreas (endocrine system). ● JAMES-LANGE: stimulus Good for high level jobs o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little →physiological arousal → emotion glucose makes us hungry. ● CANNON-BARD: stimulus → o Orexin is released by the hypothalamus physiological arousal & emotion ● Employee Commitment: – telling us to eat. simultaneously o Affective: emotional attachment (best o Other chemicals include ghrelin, ● SCHACTER TWO FACTOR: adds in type) obestatin, and PPY cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) o Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving o Lateral hypothalamus: when stimulated stimulus → arousal →interpret external o Normative: stay due to obligation (they makes you hungry, when lesioned you cues → label emotion paid for your school) will never eat again. (I’m LATE for ● Some stimuli are routed directly to the ● Meaning of Work: lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut o Job – no training, just do it for $$. No hypothalamus makes you hungry.) reaction to a cockroach) happiness o Ventromedial hypothalamus: when ● Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal o Career – work for advancement. Some stimulated you feel full, when destroyed emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, happiness you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake) surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL o Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa o Leptin: leptin signals the brain to reduce cultures happiness appetite ● Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile Development ● Obesity: o Increased risk of heart attack, (you can tell a real smile from a fake one) ● Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced (7-9%) hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes to smile will make you happier (facial ● Prenatal Development: o Can be genetic – adopted children expressions influence emotion) o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing resemble their biological parents STRESS AND HEALTH o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital o Set point: there is a control system that ● GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME organs being formed dictates how much fat you should carry – (GAS): three phases of a stress response o Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall every person is different (SELYE came up w/ this) development ● Eating Disorders: o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to o Teratogens: external agents that can o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% stress cause abnormal prenatal development ideal weight, distorted body image o Resistance: body/you are dealing with (alcohol, drugs, etc) ▪ Causes: overly critical parents, ▪ Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go deformities, mental retardation, death through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat ● Physical Development: massive amounts, then throw up) o Maturation: natural course of ▪ Causes: same as anorexia development, occurs no matter what SEXUALITY (walking) ● Biology of sex: o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases stress with sexual behavior, destruction leads to o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any ▪ Rooting, sucking, swallowing, sexual inhibition more, give up grasping, stepping o Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and restricts hormones o Habituation: after continual exposure ● HARRY HARLOW: discovered that o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): you pay less attention – used to test contact comfort is more important than discover sense of contributing to the babies feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth world, thru family & work o Eyes have the most limited mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): development, takes till 1 year couldn’t socialize reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or ▪ Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth ● MARY AINSWORTH: developed the failure perception, so they will cross a “cliff” strange situation paradigm (children left ● PUBERTY! (rapid skeletal and sexual o Other senses are fairly developed alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited maturation) o Brain development continues for a few w/ mom – determines your attachment style o Primary sex characteristics: necessary years o Secure attachment (60% of infants): structures for reproduction (ovaries, ● JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. upset when mom leaves, easily calmed testicles, vagina, penis) ● Schemas – concepts or frameworks that on return. Tend to be more stable adults o Secondary sex characteristics: organize info o Avoidant attachment (20% infants): nonreproductive characteristics that dev ● Assimilation: incorporate new info into actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff) she leaves of voice, body hair) ● Accommodation: adjust existing schemas o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully to incorporate new information actively avoids mom, freaks out when developed till 25) (ACcommodation - All Change) she leaves ● GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex = ● Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: o Disorganized attachment (5%): chromosomes, gender = what you identify focused on exploring the world around confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse yourself as them ● BAUMRIND: parenting styles o Gender roles: expected behaviors o Lack Object Permanence: Objects when o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my (norms) for men/women removed from field of view are thought to way or the highway” – kids lack o Social learning theory: we learn gender disappear (peek-a-boo) initiative in college roles and identity from those around us o Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can recognize o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules ● AGING: themselves in the mirror – kids lack initiative in college o Cellular clock theory: cells have a o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – maximum # of divisions before they ● Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use kids become socially competent and can’t divide anymore pretend play, developing language, using reliable o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen intuitive reasoning ● KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV molecules w/in cells damage DNA o Lack Conservation: recognize that o Preconventional morality: Children: o Over time skills decrease (reaction substances remain the same despite they follow rules to avoid punishment time, memory) changes in shape, length, or position (girls o Conventional morality: adolescents: ● CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: studies with juice in glasses) follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order ppl of different ages at the same point in o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse o Postconventional morality: adults: they time operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) do what they believe is right (even if it o Adv: inexpensive & quick o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish goes against society) o Disadv: can be differences due to one’s own perspective from another’s – ● Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and generational gap think everyone sees what they see moral behaviors are two different things ● LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same ● Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use (what you say isn’t always what you do) ppl over time operational thinking, classification, and ● ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : o Adv: eliminates groups differences, lots can think logical in concrete context 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that of detail ● Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use must be resolved, results in competence or o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high abstract and idealist thoughts, weakness drop out rates hypothetical-deductive reasoning o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if ● Stages of Grief (crap btw) ● Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages to needs are dependably met infants dev o Denial: “this can’t be happening” discrete, dev. differs b/w kids basic trust o Anger: “why me?” ● VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): o Bargaining: “just let me live to see my development is a social process too, need to toddlers learn to exercise their will and kids graduate” interact w/ others think for themselves o Depression: “why bother” o Zone of Proximal Development: gap o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to o Acceptance: “its going to okay” b/w what a child can do on their own and initiate tasks and carry out plans ● Problem-focused coping: solving or doing w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to something to alter the course of stress SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT puberty): learn the pleasure of applying (planning, acceptance) ● Temperament: patterns of emotional themselves to tasks ● Emotion-focused coping: reducing the reactions and babies (precursor to o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence emotional distress (denial, disengagement) personality) thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing Personality ● Imprinting: baby geese believe the first thing they see after hatching is their mom – roles and forming an identity o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form (5-7%) happens during a critical period (from close relationships and gain capacity for PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION LORENZ) love SIGMUND FREUD said personality was o Electra complex: young girls learn to o Conscientiousness: organized, careful, largely unconscious. Came up w/ the identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot disciplined following: with their father (penis envy) o Extraversion: sociable, fun-loving, ● Conscious: immediate awareness of current ● Latency stage (6 yrs to puberty): psychic affectionate (opoosite it introversion: environment time out – personality is set shy, timid, reserved) ● Preconscious: available to awareness ● Genital State (adulthood): sexual o Agreeableness: soft hearted, trusting, (phone #s) reawakening – oedipal and electra helpful ● Unconscious: unavailable to awareness “feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants o Neuroticism (emotional stability): calm, ● id: our hidden true animalistic wants and onto an appropriate person secure desires – operates on the pleasure principle, ● FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil earlier stage – influences personality (oral the role of the situation in behavior on your shoulder – entirely unconscious) stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal What’s good about it? - identifying traits ● superego: our moral conscious (angel on retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) gives us perspectives about careers, your shoulder, all 3 consciousness) What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? – relationships, health ● ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society, unverifiable, descriptive not predictive How do we test this approach? stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its What’s good about it? – 1st theory about ● MMPI – helpful for mental health and job you! – conscious and preconscious) personality, sparked psychoanalysis placement When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and How do we test this approach? ● Myer’s Briggs – gave you 4 letter combo superego, we use defense mechanisms ● Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s What’s wrong w/ these tests? ● Repression: push memories back into the unconscious motives thru the use of: ● They’re long, social desirability can be an unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too o Free Association: say aloud everythying influence, and they’re too broad traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) that comes to mind w/o hesitation HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE ● Projection: attribute personal shortcomings o Transference: looks for feelings to ● Emphasized personal growth and free will. & faults on to others (man who wants to transferred to psychoanalyst You don’t like yourself? So change! have an affair accuses his wife of having o Dream interpretation: analyze the ● CARL ROGERS: talked about our one) manifest (seen message) and latent self-concept (idea of who we are). Your ● Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality (hidden messages) content self-concept is the center of your personality (refuse to believe you have cancer) o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli o Actual (social) self: what others see Displacement; shift feelings from an shown to look at your unconscious o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be unacceptable object to a more acceptable motives (THESE SUCK B/C THEY o A positive self-concept makes us perceive one (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) the world positively (optimist) at the dog) ▪ Thematic apperception test (TAT) : o A negative self-concept makes us feel tell a story about a picture (when dissatisfied and unhappy someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask What wrong with humanistic theory? - ● Reaction formation: transform what it means too optimistic about human nature, abstract unacceptable motive into his opposite ▪ Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot concepts are difficult to test (woman who fears sexual urges becomes a What’s good about it? – emphasizes religious zealot) conscious experiences and change ● Regression: transform into an earlier NEO-FREUDIANS development period in the face of stress ● CARL JUNG: believed in the collective ● Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to (during exam week you start to suck your unconconcious (shared inherited reservoir own goals over group goals. Define your thumb) of memory – explains common myths identify in terms of you (American society) ● Rationalization: replace a less acceptable across civilizations & time) ● Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t ● KAREN HORNEY: said personality goals of the group, your identity is part of get into your college – justify it was a sucky develops in context of social relationships, that group (China) college anyway) NOT sexual urges (security not sex is SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE ● Sublimination: replace unacceptable motivation, men get womb envy) ● Behavior is a complex interaction of inner impulse w/ a socially acceptable one (man TRAIT PERSPECTIVE process and environmental influence – w/ strong sexual urges paints nudes. Dexter) ● Traits are enduring personality which influences personality FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES characteristics, people can be described by ● Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, ● Oral stage (0-18 months): pleasure focuses these – have strong or weak tendencies. expectations, and goals on the mouth (id) They are stable, genetic, and predict other ● BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL ● Anal stage (18 – 36 months): pleasure attributes. DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior, involves eliminative functions (ego forms) ● Use factor analysis to find these: statistical cognitions, ● Phallic stage (3 – 6 yrs): pleasure focuses procedure used to identify similar and on genitals (superego forms) components environment o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to ● TRAIT THEORIES: make up you. identify w/ their father out of fear of ● Big Five: (by Costa & McCrae) (acronym ● retribution (castration anxiety) OCEAN) You vary on each of these m outgoing o Openness : imaginative, independent, like (behavior), I variety choose to teach b/c it lets me be outgoing o 100 is average ● Standard deviation measures how much (environment), and I have thought this ● WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and the scores vary from the mean. The through which is why I teach despite WISC – most commonly used today percentages stay the same in every curve making less money (cognitive)} ● FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over ● Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, the past 80 years – probably due to Abnormal Behavior so you ensure you do ● Internal locus of control: you control your education standards and better IQ tests ● Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above (7 – 9%) own fate 135; mentally retarded = below 70 ● Defining abnormal behavior: ● External locus of control: chance / outside ● Causes of mild retardation: o Must be deviant, distressful, and forces control your fate o PKU – liver fails to produce an ezyme dysfunctional What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too needed to breakdown chemicals – leads ● Historical causes: biology, psychological specific, cannot generalize to brain damage issues, supernatural issues (demons) What’s good about it? – Highlights o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21st ● Medical model: emphasizes treatment of situations, and cognitive explanations of chromosome disorders, as they have a biological origin. personality o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to Came through the reformation of How do we test it? – Observations & ONE X chromosome institutions in U.S. (DORTHEA DIX) interviews (time consuming) ● Influence on IQ: ● Biopsychosocial model: currently used Testing & o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, model – stress biological, psychological,
Individual Differences adopted kids more similar to biological
parents and social causes ● Diagnosing abnormal behavior: (5-7%) o Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ o DSM: manual listing all currently accepted psychological disorders. Individual Theories about Intelligence st ● GALTON: 1 to suggest intelligence was ● Types of Tests: Classifies them based on criteria – inherited. Intelligence based on muscle o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn provides no explanation of causes or strength, size of head, reaction time, etc. a new skill (ASVAB) treatments ● CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT) ANXIETY DISORDERS o Crystalized intelligence: reasoning and ● TEST CREATION: Most common disorders in the U.S. verbal skills - what you learn in school – o Standardization: administer a test to a ● Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): the cold hard (like crystals!) facts representative sample of future test takers person is generally anxious, all the time, for o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities, rote to establish a basis for meaningful NO REASON memory, things that come natural to you – comparison (test it out 1st) ● Panic Disorder: person is prone to frequent can’t learn in school. Also decrease over o Should be reliable: same results over panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a time time heart attack). Can come w/ agoraphobia: ● SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a ▪ Split-half reliability: compare two anxiety about being in places you cannot general intelligence (g) underlies all mental halves of the test escape (fear of public spaces / people) abilities (typical IQ of today) ▪ Test-retest reliability: use the same test ● Phobias: irrational fear that disrupts your ● GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8): on 2 different occasions life linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, o Should be valid: test is accurate – ● Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD): spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal measures what it is intended to person if overwhelmed with both: (self), interpersonal (social), naturalist ▪ Content validity: test measures what o Obsessions: persistent unwanted thoughts you want it to (an IQ test actually (did I leave the stove on?) measures IQ) o Compulsions: senseless rituals (hand ● STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY ▪ Predictive validity: test is able to washing) o Analytical: mental components to solve accurately predict a trait (high math ● Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): problems, what IQ tests assess (book scores predicts good engineer) characterized by flashbacks, problems w/ smarts) ● Standardized tests establish a normal concentration, and anxiety following a o Practical: ability to size up new distribution traumatic event (war, natural disasters) situations and adapt to real-life demands ● Standard deviations are used to compare CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS: (street smarts) scores. ● Psychodynamic: repressed thoughts & o Creative: intellectual and motivational feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals processes that lead to novel solutions, ● Behaviorist: fear conditioning leads to idea, products anxiety, which is then reinforced. ● BINET: developed 1st intelligence test, Phobias might be learned through combined with TERMAN – developed the observational learning STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST ● Biological: natural selection favored those with certain phobias (heights). Twins often share disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain o Chronological age = actual age SOMATOFORM DISORDERS o Mental age = tested age compared to ● Psychological disorders w/ no apparent other of that age physical cause o Conversion disorder: loss of feeling or ▪ Disorganized thinking ● COGNITIVE APPROACH: usage of a limb or body part (sight) – ▪ Disorganized speech o Rational-emotive therapy: (developed absolutely no physiological cause though o Negative Symptoms (something taken by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing o Hypochondriasis: person interprets away) self-defeating behaviors to change normal symptoms as a major disease – ▪ Flat affect: lack ability to show thought patterns – and then change must disrupt their life emotions behaviors associated w/ said patterns DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS ▪ Impaired decision making, inability ▪ Best for anxiety disorders ● Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly to pay attention ▪ Very confrontational multiple personalities – person fractures into o Catatonia: become frozen over periods o Cognitive therapy: (developed by several distinct personalities who normally of time (exhibit waxy flexibility: can BECK) illogical thoughts → have no awareness of each other. NOT move them into new positions) psychological problems, challenges SCHIZOPHRENIA! ● CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA those thoughts o Usually caused by traumatic childhood o Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles ▪ Best for depression abuse (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex ▪ Self-directed – you figure out your o Legitimacy is doubted by some, more o Genetics: runs in families, MZ twins at errors common in those w/ good health higher risk ● BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically insurance o Dopamine hypothesis: too much used for anxiety disorders / phobias) o Treatment involves integration of the dopamine in the brain o Classical Conditioning: personalities o Diathesis – Stress: individual has a ▪ Counterconditioning Little Albert & ● Dissociative Fugue: following a traumatic genetic predisposition, disease must be Watson event a person leaves, taking on a whole “turned-on” by environmental stimuli ● Aversive conditioning: associate an new life & personality w/ no memory of the (like stress) – explains why it is most unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea) previous one commonly developed during college w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g. MOOD DISORDERS years drinking alcohol) ● Major depressive disorder: extreme PERSONALITY DISORDERS ▪ Exposure therapy: slowly expose sadness and despair, apathy towards life, w/ ● Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring people to whatever it is that makes no known cause behavior patterns – makes this very them anxious ● Dysthymia: milder form of depression, difficult to treat! ● Systematic desensitization: lasts for years (Eeyore!) o Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of associate a pleasant relaxed state w/ ● Bipolar disorder: bouts of severe socialization” – more like “anti-society” – gradually increasing anxiety depression & manic episodes disregard for others, manipulative, breaks triggering stimuli (create a o Mania: heightened mood, characterized laws desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of o Borderline: instable interpersonal things about flying that makes you ideas relationships & self-image, “I hate you, nervous – step through each one till ● Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): form don’t leave me” you can do it) of depression that occurs typically winter – o Histrionic: excessive emotionality & ● Intensive exposure therapy found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska, attention seeking (slut disorder) (Flooding): force someone to Ireland) UNIQUE TREATMENT = o Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack experience the fear (afraid of LIGHT THERAPY of empathy (who cares about everyone drowning, throw you in a pool) CAUSES OF MOOD DISORDERS else – look at me!) o Operant Conditioning: use behavior ● Biology: lower levels of serotonin & modification (reward good behaviors w/ norepinephrine linked to depression, higher token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/ levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. autistic children, etc. Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin ● OTHER THERPAIES: studies also support this. o Family therapy: treats the family as a ● Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads system, individual behaviors are to depression influenced by family dynamics o Group therapy: therapy through a group – lets patients see “they’re not alone” SCHIZOPHRENIA Treatment of NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! THEY HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! Psychological Disorders ● BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: CALLED ● SYMPTOMS o Positive Symptoms (not good – means (5-7%) BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology): ● PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: SEE something added)) PERSONALITY SECTION ▪ Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine: ▪ Hallucinations: sensory experiences ● HUMANISTIC APPROACH: treats schizophrenia w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or o Client-centered therapy: (developed by ● Side effects: TARDIVE DYSKINESIA: hearing things) CARL ROGERS) techniques include hand tremors (similar to Parkinson’s- ▪ Delusions: fixed, false beliefs (people active listening, accepting environment, due to lack of dopamine), worsening are out to get them, grandiose thoughts focuses on patient growth (you figure of negative symptoms, extreme (I am God) out what needs to change and do it) sedation ● Drug names: thorazine, clozapine prisoners. w/in days they took on their roles AGGRESION ▪ Anti-depressants: increase serotonin and went too far. Highly unethical ● Genetic influence: runs in families, can through REUPTAKE inhibition ● Cognitive dissonance (FESTINGER): two breed for in animals ● Side effects: drowsiness, anxiety, can opposing thoughts conflict w/ each other, ● Lower serotonin, higher testosterone increase suicide risk in teens causing discomfort (dissonance), which ● Environmental influence: social ● Drug names: SSRIs (selective makes us find ways to justify the situation learning theory (BANDURA) – observing serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like (cult that was going to be abducted by violence in others makes us more violent Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil. SNRIs (selective aliens, smokers) for a time norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) SOCIAL INFLUENCE o Also: pollution, crowding, heat, humidity Cymbalta, Effexor ● Conformity: classic experiment done by ● Frustration-aggression hypothesis: ▪ Mood stabilizers: used in the treatment ASCH – showed lines of different lengths, frustration creates anger, which leads to of BIPOLAR disorder : LITHIUM confederates gave wrong answers to see if aggression ▪ Anti-anxiety drugs: depress the central others would go along w/ it ATTRACTION nervous system (dangerous in combo o Normative social influence: we ● Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure w/ alcohol) Xanax, Ativan conform to gain approval or to not stand to novel stimuli increases liking of them o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send out from the group (be part of the norm (the more time you spend around electricity into the brain to induce minor o Informational social influence: we something the more you like it) seizures. Used (rarely) to treat depression conform to others b/c we think their ● Physical attractiveness: pretty ppl are (when nothing else works). Thought to opinions must be right thought to be more credible, less likely to “reboot” the brain ● Obedience: classic experiment done by do bad things o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): MILGRAM: participants were to “teach” ● Similarity: we prefer ppl similar to us frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used another individual using shocks. 60% of ALTRUISM to treat depression or violent individuals – participants would administer lethal shocks ● Altruism: unselfish regard for the almost never used anymore to another person simply b/c they were told welfare of others Social to ● Bystander effect: the more ppl around
(8-10%) GROUP INFLUENCE
● Social facilitation: perform better on the less likely we are to help someone in need SOCIAL THINKING simple or well learned tasks in the presence ● Social exchange theory: social behavior ● Attribution theory: we explain others of others (helping) is an exchange process – aim is behaviors by crediting the situation or the ● Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group to maximize benefits and minimize cost person’s disposition (they only passed b/c to exert less effort when pooling their effort ● Reciprocity norm: we give so we can get they cheated) together (tug of war) CONFLICT ● Fundamental attribution error (very ● Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness ● Social trap: conflicting parties pursue similar to Actor-observer bias): and self-restraint occurring in group their own best interests, which can result tendency for observers to underestimate situations that foster arousal and anonymity in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma the importance of the situation and (mob mentality) – game theory) overestimate the impact of personal ● Group polarization: the more time spent disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a w/ a group the more similar (polarized) their jerk – not that his wife could be in labor) thoughts / opinions will become ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS ● Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a ● Central route to persuasion: change group leads to everyone going along w/ the people’s attitudes through logical same thinking, ignoring other possibilities arguments and explanations. Leads to or bad ideas long term behavior change ● Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions ● Peripheral route to persuasion: change together rather than alone people’s attitudes through incidental cues PREJUDICE (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to ● Ingroup: “US” – ppl w/ whom we share a temporary behavior changes common identity ● Foot in the door phenomenon: ● Outgroup: “them” – ppl perceived as complying w/ a small request then leads different or not part of the group to going along w/ a larger request (can I ● Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own ● have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?) group ● ● Door in the face phenomenon: a large ● Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an ● Approach approach conflict: win – win request is turned down, when then leads you outlet for anger by providing someone situation; conflict is which win you have to be more likely to comply w/ a small else to blame to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your request (can I have $100? Heck no! How ● Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your two favorite restaurants – you can only about $20? Okay) own group as more important than others choose one though) ● STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT ● Just-world phenomenon: tendency for ● Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” where ppl to believe that the world is just and situation; outcome has positive and individuals were assigned to be guards / therefore ppl get what they deserve negative aspects (marriage) (homeless ppl) ● Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose – lose; both outcomes are bad but you have to choose one (clean your room or do your homework) ● Multiple approach avoidance conflict: two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict is which to choose (College A is good for your major but no scholarship, College B is bad for your major but has a scholarship) SOCIAL SELF ● Self-concept bias: what we consider important in ourselves is what we consider important in others ● False-consensus effect: we overestimate the degree to which everyone else thinks / acts the way we do ● Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you all to pass, you know this, you study – fulfilling my prophecy) ● Self-serving bias: readiness to perceive ourselves as favorably ● Spotlight effect (self-objectification) : tendency of an individual to overestimate the extent to which others are paying attention to them
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