MIN586: Metal Forming

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Dr. Shamik Basak

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Dr
Assistant Professor

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Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
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Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
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IIT
pt

Email id: shamik.basak@me.iitr.ac.in

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Metal Forming
1
 Reference books

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1. “Plasticity of Mechanical Engineers” by W.Jhonson and

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P.B.Meller, Van Nostrand.

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2. “Manufacturing Science” by A.Ghosh and A.K.Mallik.

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3. “Metal Forming Mechanics and Metallurgy” by W.F.Hosford

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and R.M.Caddll.
Dr

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4. “The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity” by R.Hill.

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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Deformation

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Forming is a manufacturing process which can be defined as a process in

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which desired shape and size are obtained through plastic deformation

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of a material.

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Deformation

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Elastic / Temporary Plastic / Permanent

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Truly Elastic Anelastic
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deformation deformation
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
3
 Stress-strain response

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Elastic deformation: An applied stress
Plastic region

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Elastic produces an instantaneous elastic strain

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region that remains constant over the period of

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time the stress is maintained. It has also

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been assumed that upon release of the

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A’
load the strain is totally recovered: that

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the strain immediately returns to zero.

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Elastic material strictly follows Hooke’s

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Law (i.e. Stress and strain are

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proportional)
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Typical stress-strain curve for mild steel
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
4
 g.
Anelastic deformation: It is time-dependent elastic deformation will

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continue after the stress application, and upon load release some finite

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time is required for complete recovery.

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Plastic deformation: As the material is deformed beyond elastic limit,

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the stress is no longer proportional to strain (Hooke’s law, ceases to be

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valid), and permanent, non-recoverable, or plastic deformation
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occurs.

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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Tensile test

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Specimen

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nomenclature

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IIT
pt

Typical specimens
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Metal Forming
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 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
Tensile test

IIT nd
Ro In
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e ri al
E ng
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Metal Forming
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
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ha Ba
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ca k
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Tensile test

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Metal Forming
 Stress-strain response

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Plastic region OA: Proportionality limit

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Elastic

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Linear, Elastic region, Hooke’s law is valid

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region

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AA’: Non-Linear Elastic region

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A’ B: Upper yield point

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Stress at pt. B known as Yield Stress (YS)

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C: Lower yield point

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After Pt. B withdrawal of loading the

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deformation exists in the specimen

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D: Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

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Typical stress-strain curve for mild steel

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E: Failure point
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Plastic deformation

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Elastic deformation Plastic deformation

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Reversible Not revisable

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Depends on initial and final states of Depends on loading path

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stress and strain

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Stress is proportional to strain Stress and strain are non proportional

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No strain hardening effects Strain hardening exists

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Elastic region <<< Plastic region

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Plastic Zone I : Uniform deformation
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region
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Zone II + Zone III : Non-uniform deformation
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Stress-strain response

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Typical stress-strain curves for different

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materials
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Stress-strain response
Difference in calculation of yield strength of the material

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Ductile material Brittle material
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Stress-strain calculations

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A0

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F

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L0 ΔL

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F

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Engineering stress = S =
.S
A0

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ΔL

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Engineering strain = e =

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L0
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But in Engineering stress/strain calculation length of the specimen is constant which is
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not true case.
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IIT
pt

Length of the specimen is continuously changing with the applied load

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Metal Forming
13
 Concept of True Stress-strain

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Considering no material loss (constant volume before and after deformation)

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A . L = A0 . L0 A0 L L0 + ΔL

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= = = 1+e

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A L0 L0

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F F A0

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= σ = S (1 + e)

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True stress = σ =

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A A0 A

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.S dL

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True strain at an instant = dε =

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L

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Lf

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Upon integrating ε = ln
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L0
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True strain ε = ln(1+e)
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Comparison

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ε = ln(1+e)= e - e2/2! + e3/3! …..

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If e value is very small then, ε
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Why True Stress-strain diagram is needed?

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• Engineering stress and strain are useful for many engineering design applications.

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• Computation of stress and strain is based on initial area or gauge length and therefore

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engineering stress and strain represent only approximations of the real stress and strain

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in plastic zone.

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• In elastic deformation region (where dimensional changes are small and negligible) the

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initial and instantaneous areas are approximately same and hence true stress

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equals engineering stress. Therefore, in design problems where large dimensional

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changes do not occur, the use of engineering stress is sufficiently accurate and

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used extensively as it is easier to measure.

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• However, for metal working where large plastic deformations occur and are
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necessary, the approximations inherent in engineering stress and strain values are
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unacceptable. For this reason, the true stress and true strains are used.
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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 De Dr
pt .S
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fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
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Comparison

IIT nd
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Metal Forming
 De Dr
pt .S
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Comparison

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Metal Forming
 Flow stress

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• Metal forming operations involve plastic deformation of materials.

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• The stress required to sustain a given amount of plastic deformation (plastic strain) is called flow

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stress.

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• Flow stress is an important parameter in forming.

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• It depends on type of material, temperature of working, conditions of friction at work piece–tool

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interface, tool and work piece geometry etc.

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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Flow stress

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• True stress-strain curve does not indicate any yield

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point.

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• It also does not show in any elastic region

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• The total area under the true stress strain curve is

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known as toughness

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.S • The true stress-strain relation in the plastic region is

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given by power law relationship which is known as

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Hollomon power hardening law

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σ = K εn
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Here K is the strength coefficient and n is the power hardening exponent.
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IIT
• Stress required, σ in plastic range to maintain plastic deformation at a certain strain, ε is
pt

called flow stress. K, the strength coefficient is the value of stress σ, under ε=1.
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Metal Forming
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 Incompressibility

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Initial volume of the billet

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Volume change during metal forming

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ln(V/V0) = ln(L w t / L0 w0 t0)

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= ln(L/L0) + ln(w/w0) + ln(t/t0)

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= εl + εw + εt

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Volume remain constant during metal forming ln(V/V0)= 0

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εl + εw + εt = 0
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IIT
pt

It is also known as volume constancy condition

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Metal Forming
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 Anisotropy

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Mechanical properties are different along different directions

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εl = ln(L / L0) εw = ln(w / w0) εt = ln(t / t0)

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εw = εt

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For isotropic material,

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t εl + 2εw = 0 εw = -0.5 εl = εt

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Anisotropy of the material is defined by the ratio R which is known as

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Lankford anisotropy parameter (R)

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R = εw / εt
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IIT
pt

For isotropic material, R = 1.

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Metal Forming
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 Anisotropy

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900 R0 , R45 and R90 are the anisotropy value along
450

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three different directions.

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R0 ≠ R45 ≠ R90 for a rolled sheet

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00

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.S Average normal anisotropy

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Planar anisotropy ΔR = (R0 - 2 R45 + R90) / 2

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For isotropic material, R0 = R45 = R90 = 1. ΔR = 0

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High ΔR indicates more anisotropy exists in the sheet metal

IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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Q. A bar of 10 cm length is elongated to 20 cm by rolling in three steps.

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10 cm to 12 cm, 12 cm to 15 cm and 15 cm to 20 cm

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a) Calculate Engg. Strain for each step and compare the sum of thi with

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the overall engg. strain

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b) Repeat the same for true strain and NOTE the DIFFERENCES

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a) Engg. Strain = e1 = 2/10 = 0.2
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e2 = 3/12 = 0.25, e3= 5/15 = 0.3

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eoverall = 10/10 = 1.0

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eoverall ≠ e1 + e2 + e3
IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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Q. A bar of 10 cm length is elongated to 20 cm by rolling in three steps.

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10 cm to 12 cm, 12 cm to 15 cm and 15 cm to 20 cm

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a) Calculate Engg. Strain for each step and compare the sum of thi with

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the overall engg. strain

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b) Repeat the same for true strain and NOTE the DIFFERENCES

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b) True Strain = ε1 = ln(12/10) = 0.182
εoverall = 20/10= 0.693

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ε2 = ln(15/12) = 0.223,

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eoverall ≠ e1 + e2 + e3

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ε3 = ln(20/15) = 0.288

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εoverall = ε1 + ε2 + ε3
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0.693

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IIT
pt

True Strain are ADDITIVE in nature

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Metal Forming
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 Strain hardening

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• The test piece is loaded beyond point 2

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(yield pt) up to pt 3 and then unloaded.

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Work

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• Elastic deformation recovers via the
hardening

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unloading line 3-4 which is parallel to

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1-2.

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4 • 4-5 is the elastic recovery

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• 1-4 permanent deformation

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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Strain hardening

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Work

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hardening

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4

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5
Dr

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• Now if we reload the same test piece so it will follow the line 4-3.

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• Now NEW YIELDING POINT is 3. So material got strain-hardened / work-
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hardened
IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Strain hardening (Cont.)

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Zone I Zone II

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Zone I : Uniform deformation
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IIT
pt

Zone II : Non-uniform / Post-uniform deformation

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Metal Forming
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 Strain hardening (Cont.)

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During uniaxial deformation of a metal two simultaneous phenomenon takes place

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1. Increase in load bearing capacity due to strain hardening

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2. Decrease in load bearing capacity due to decrease in cross-sectional area

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Zone I : Phenomenon (1) is dominating over (2). Load bearing capacity increases

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nd
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Zone II : Phenomenon (2) is dominating over (1). Load bearing capacity decreases

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It is observed that in zone I stress-strain follow the non-linear hardening law

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σ = K εn (Hollomon Power hardening law)

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K : Strength coefficient, n : Strain hardening exponent

IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Bauschinger effect

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2 • The specimen in loaded in tension up to pt 2

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1
which is beyond the yield pt 1

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• Subsequently unloaded to pt 3

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st
3

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• Again loaded in the reverse direction i.e. the

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specimen is now compressed

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nd
4 .S • In compression, the specimen yields at pt 4.

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So the stress at pt 4 is the yield strength under

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compression

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• ha
It can be observed that the yield strength in compression has decreased due to

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previous plastic strain in tension.

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• Similarly the yield strength in tension would decrease with previous compressive
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plastic strain
IIT
pt
De

• This effect is called as Bauschinger Effect (BE)

Metal Forming
30
 Experimental determination of n

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lnσ = lnK + n lnε

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σ = K εn

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lnσ

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nd
.S lnε

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• Typical value of n is 0-0.5 for conventional materials

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• For metal forming we required uniform deformation as longer as possible
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• IIT
True strain in the uniform deformation zone εu
pt
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Metal Forming
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 Typical strain hardening behavior

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ng
A σ Rigid perfectly plastic, figure A – has infinite value of Y, Once stress level

E
Y reaches yielding Y, it continues to deform at same stress level.

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Rigid (E =infinity, perfectly plastically = no work hardening

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ε

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m

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Perfectly elastic: Figure – B, Brittle materials such as glass, ceramics, cast

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B σ irons etc. show only perfectly elastic behavior. There is very negligible yielding.
.S
Hooke’s law governs the stress-strain relation. Stiffness of such material is

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indicated by E.

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ε

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Rigid linear hardening, figure C – has linear hardening value of Y, Once
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𝜃 stress level reaches yielding Y, it continues to deform at same stress level.
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C σ

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Y Rigid (E =infinity, linear hardening, is the tangent modulus )
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IIT
pt

ε
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Metal Forming
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 Typical strain hardening behavior

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D σ Elastic, perfectly plastic-figure D - is combination of perfectly elastic and

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Y rigid plastic. This material will undergo elastic recovery upon unloading. Metals

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heated to high temperature behave this way. Lead has elastic, perfectly plastic

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ε at room temperature.

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m

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nd
E σ Elastic, linearly strain hardening material, figure E – It approximates many of
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engineering materials. Such material has linear elastic behavior and linear

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plastic behavior. Due to strain hardening, the flow stress increases with

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ε increasing strain.

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ec

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𝜃 Rigid non-linear hardening, figure F –
σ
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Rigid (E =infinity, hardening is non-linear)

Y
IIT
pt
De

ε
Metal Forming
33
 Instability

g.
Necking or localized deformation begins at maximum load

ng
where decrease in cross sectional area which hears the load is

E
compensated by increase in strength due in load

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al
dF=0

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st
ik

du
m
We know, F=σA

In
ha

nd
Differentiating .SdF/F = dσ/ σ + dA/A

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Dr

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At the instability point, dF = 0 dσ/ σ = - dA/A 1

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e
Again, V= Al = constant ha dV/V = dA/ A + dl/l = 0

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ec

or
dA/ A = - dl/l = -dε
fM

Ro
Rearranging dσ/ dε = σ
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IIT
pt

This is also known as Instability condition

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Metal Forming
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 Instability

g.
Prove that uniform strain is equal strain hardening

ng
exponent (n)

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
From instability condition we know, dσ/ dε = σ

st
ik

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m

In
ha
Putting Hollomon equation i.e. σ = K εn

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.S

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Dr

ca
d(K εn)/ dε = σ = K εn

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ha
n K εn-1 = σ = K εn

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Differentiating
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or
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Calculating n=ε εu = n

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IIT
pt

This is also known as Considere’s maximum force criterion

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Metal Forming
35
 Measurement of instability point

g.
First method: Directly from engineering stress strain curve

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k

E
sa

al
Ba

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st
ik

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m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr
Second method: From true stress strain curve

ca
ni
From instability condition we know,

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ha

ke
dσ/dε
ec

or
dσ/ dε = σ
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IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
36
 Measurement of instability point

g.
Third method: From true stress vs engineering strain curve

ng
k

E
sa

al
From instability condition we know, dσ/ dε = σ

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st
ik

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m

In
ha

nd
.S
Instability criterion can be rewritten as

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Dr

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ec

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IIT
pt
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Metal Forming
37
 Effect of temperature

g.
New strain-free crystals forms at the recrystallization temperature

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba
Tre-crystallization= 1/3 rd to ½ Tmelting

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st
ik

du
m

In
ha
Cold forming: Forming at a temperature below the re-crystalline temperature of the

nd
.S
metal. The strain hardening during this process improves the mechanical properties

la
Dr
of the product. Also, the dimensional tolerances can be achieved during this process.

ca
ni

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ha

ke
Hot forming: Forming at a temperature above the re-crystalline temperature of the
ec

or
metal. High temperatures reduce the flow stress of the materials, which results low
fM

Ro
forming forces.
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IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
38
 Effect of temperature
New strain-free crystals forms at the recrystallization temperature

g.
ng
Tre-crystallization= 1/3 rd to ½ Tmelting

E
sa

al
Ba

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st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S
With increase in temperature the YS

la
Dr
and UTS decreases and ductility

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increases

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ha

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ec

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fM

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.o

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
39
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
Advantages of Cold forming

E
sa

al
•Good surface finish of the product.

Ba

ri
st
•High dimensional accuracy

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du
m

In
•Superior mechanical properties

ha

nd
.S
•Material develops anisotropy during cold forming process which helps to increase

la
Dr
formability sometimes. Such as during drawing.

ca
ni
Disadvantages of Cold forming

e
ha

ke
•High forming load. High end capacity equipment are required which increases the cost
ec

or
of the machine
fM

Ro
.o

•Ductility of the material reduces with strain hardening

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
40
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
Advantages of Hot forming

E
sa
•Material becomes softer therefore the yield strength decreases. This reduces the cot of

al
Ba

ri
the equipment.

st
ik

du
•Ductility of the material increases which help to induce large deformations

In
ha
•Structure becomes more homogeneous resulting better mechanical properties.

nd
.S

la
•Flow strength got lower which help to prepare large components by plastic deformation.
Dr

ca
Disadvantages of Hot forming

ni

e
ha
•Low surface quality due to oxidation of the surface layer

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ec

or
•Low dimensional accuracy
fM

Ro
.o

•Forming tools also heated up which increases the rapid wear of the tools.
IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
41
 Effect of temperature

g.
ng
k
Warm forming: It has been introduced to take the advantage of both the hot and cold

E
sa

al
forming

Ba

ri
st
Forming at a temperature above the room temperature but below the re-crystalline

ik

du
m
temperature of the metal.

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr
•Since yield strength decreases the load on the equipment also lessen. Adv. Of CF

ca
•Since temperature not high much, surface finish is better. Adv. Of HF

ni

e
ha

ke
•Tool wear is less for reduced temperature. Adv. Of CF
ec

or
fM

•Equipment cost less expensive due to softness of the material. Adv. Of HF

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
42
 Effect of strain rate

g.
Forming load / stress-strain diagram is affected by the deformation rate

ng
k

E
v = crosshead speed

sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

If crosshead velocity increases then strain rate of the material increases

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
43
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
With increase in strain rate the YS and UTS increases and ductility decreases

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
Power Law

st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
m: strain rate sensitivity index

ni

e
ha

ke
C : Strength constant
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
44
 Combined power law

g.
Hollomon Power hardening law σ = K εn

ng
k

E
sa
Power law

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m
Combined power law

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
If the material has no strain rate sensitivity then m=0, so the combined power

ni

e
law reduces to Hollomon hardening law
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
.o

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
45
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
m: strain rate sensitivity index
fM

Ro
.o

C : Strength constant
IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
46
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
If m is less, material is not sensitive

In
ha
If m is more, material is sensitive to strain rates

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
Strain rate at uniform region
fM

Ro
.o

Strain rate at necking region

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
47
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
𝑨𝒏
Let us consider two scenario, m1=0.02, m2=0.5 for a constant ratio

ik

du
𝑨𝒖

In
ha

nd
First case, .S

la
Dr

ca
Second case,

ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

First case indicates that uniform region gets less strain rate. Hence neck region gets more strain

Ro
.o

and ultimately fracture

IIT
pt

Second case indicates that strain rate in the neck region gets transfer to the uniform region
De

Metal Forming
48
 Effect of strain rate

g.
ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
• If m is high, the elongation is also more before fracture because strain is
fM

Ro
transmitting to uniform region from neck region.
.o

IIT
pt

• m value is also depends upon the temperature.

De

Metal Forming
49
 Work done during plastic deformation

g.
A bar of cross-section area ‘a’ and length l0, and elongated to l.

ng
k

E
sa

al
Ba

ri
st
ik

du
m

In
ha

nd
.S

la
Dr

ca
ni

e
ha

ke
ec

or
fM

Ro
Work done
.o

IIT
pt
De

Metal Forming
50
 De Dr
pt .S
.o ha
fM m
ec ik
ha Ba
ni sa
ca k
la
IIT nd
Thank you!

Ro In
or du
ke st
e ri al
E ng
g.
Metal Forming
51