Book 43 Module 13

CATEGORY B2
ICE & RAIN PROTECTION
SYSTEMS

Licence By Post

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issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B2 EASA 66 13.15 ISSUE 01 0412

© Licence By Post

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Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the
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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
BAE SYSTEMS

for permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

Page

Ice formation on aircraft 1

Ice detection 4
Ice formation spot lights 4
Black rod ice detector 5
Vibrating rod ice detector 6
Pressure operated ice detector 9
Rotary ice detector 11
Inferential method 12
Beta particle ice detector 13
Methods of ice protection 14
Electrical airframe ice protection systems 17
Windscreen ice protection 20
Windscreen wash & rain repellent systems 24
Windscreen wipers 26
Fluid airframe de-icing systems 29
Propellers 32
Pneumatic airframe de-icing systems 36
Hot air de-icing systems 40
Other anti-iced areas 45
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Written to knowledge level of the EASA Part 66 syllabus for the B2 licensed
engineer as follows (1 = lowest level, 3 = highest level):

SUBJECT KNOWLEDGE LEVEL

Ice formation 2
Anti icing systems 2
De-icing systems 3
Rain repellent 1
Probe and drain heating 3
Wiper systems 1

Note that for hot air anti-icing systems there is some overlap between
Pneumatics and cabin air-conditioning and pressurisation. So you are referred
to the books on these subjects in this series if you require more details on
engine pneumatic tapings, airflow control etc.

In general the terms anti-icing and de-icing are used interchangeably in this
book (for convenience more than anything else), however, it is important that
you understand the strict definition of the terms:

Anti-icing = The prevention of ice formation.

De-icing = The removal of ice once formed.

Note that ground de-icing of aircraft is in module 7 of the EASA Part 66

syllabus.
 ICE FORMATION ON AIRCRAFT

Icing on aircraft is caused by a combination of freezing conditions and

moisture in the atmosphere. If moisture impinges on the forward facing
surfaces of an aircraft and those surfaces are at or below 0ºC, then a build up
of ice will be caused which may seriously alter the aerodynamic qualities and
increase the weight. This applies particularly to small objects, which have a
higher catch rate efficiency than large ones, as small amounts of ice will
produce relatively bigger changes in shape.

The actual amount and shape of the ice build-up depends on surface
temperature, which results from an energy balance arising from heat input
from viscous or kinetic air heating, kinetic heating by water droplets and the
latent heat of fusion, and losses from evaporation or sublimation, convection
and by warming the impinging droplets.

When the temperature is less than 0ºC all the impinging water droplets are
frozen, and when it is above 0ºC none are frozen. However, for a particular set
of atmospheric conditions and altitude it is found that there is quite a wide
aircraft speed range over which the energy balance gives a skin temperature of
0ºC and this energy balance occurs at one end of the speed range by all the
droplets freezing and at the other by none freezing. The potential ‘catch rate’
or ‘impingement rate’ and the actual icing rate are thus not simply related in
this region.

The ‘no icing hazard’ speed depends, therefore, on the free water content of the
atmosphere as well as the temperature and altitude. For severe conditions it is
about the maximum speed of subsonic aircraft. The final influencing factor of
note is that icing does not occur above about 12,000m (40,000ft) since the
droplets are all frozen and in the form of ice crystals and will not adhere to the
aircraft's surface. Relative humidity is also very low.

It is interesting to note that icing can occur within the temperature ambient
range +25ºC to -15ºC depending on the energy balances stated above. Outside
this range ice will not form.

Hoar Frost

Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the freezing

point of the adjacent air and, of course, below freezing point itself. It is formed
in clear air when water vapour is converted directly to ice and builds up into a
white semi-crystalline coating.

Hoar frost is feathery and is the white crystalline deposits that can be seen on
trees and hedgerows after a frost. It is easily removed by scraping with a flat
plastic scraper (it scrapes off a car windscreen easily for example).

-1-
When hoar frost occurs on aircraft on the ground, the weight of the deposit is
unlikely to be serious, but if not removed may interfere with the airflow and
attainment of flying speed during take-off, the windscreen may be obscured,
and the free working of moving parts such as flying control surfaces may be
affected.

Rime Ice

This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice, is an opaque, rough
deposit. At ground level it forms in freezing fog and consists of a deposit of ice
on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime is light and porous and results
from the small water drops freezing as individual particles, with little or no
spreading.

Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through clouds with
the air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point.
The icing builds up on the leading edges and does not extend back along the
chord. Rime ice usually has no great weight, but the danger of rime is that it
will interfere with the airflow over wings etc, and may choke the orifices of
carburettors, air intakes and Pitot static probes.

It is easily identified on the ground as a whitish hard ice deposit which is

difficult to remove (difficult to scrape off car windscreens for example).

Glaze Ice

Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond after a frosty
night. On aircraft in flight, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters large
water drops in clouds or in freezing rain with the air temperature and the
temperature of the airframe below freezing point.

It consists of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy surface and

results from the liquid water flowing over the airframe before freezing; glaze ice
may be mixed with sleet or snow. It will form in greatest thickness of the
leading edges of aerofoils and in reduced thickness as far as one half of the
chord length.

Ice formed in this way is dense, tough and sticks closely to the surface. It
cannot easily be shaken off and, if it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps
of an appreciable and sometimes dangerous size. The main danger of glaze ice
is still aerodynamic, but to this must be added the dangers of increased
weight, unequal wing loading, propeller blade vibration and ice shedding
debris damage to tailplanes, rear engines etc. Glaze ice is the most severe and
the most dangerous form of ice formation on aircraft.

-2-
Pack Snow

Normally, snow falling on an aircraft in flight does not settle, but if the
temperature of the airframe is below freezing point, glaze ice may form from
the moisture in the snow. The icing of the aircraft in such conditions, however,
is primarily due to water drops, though snow may subsequently be embedded
in the ice so formed.

Conclusions

Icing deposits in flight can cause:

(a) Decrease in lift. Occurs due to change in aerofoil section, resulting

in loss of streamlined flow around the leading edge and top
surfaces.
(b) Increase in drag. Drag will increase due to the rough surface,
especially if the formation is rime. This condition results in
increased skin friction and thicker boundary layer.
(c) Decrease in propeller efficiency. With turbo-prop and piston
engines, the efficiency of the propeller will decrease due to
alterations of the blade profile and increased blade thickness.
(d) Loss of control. Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing
movement of control surfaces.
(e) Increased load and wing loading. The weight of the ice may
prevent the aircraft from maintaining height, or even taking off.
(f) Loss of inherent passive stability. Loss of the inherent stability
may occur due to displacement of the centre of gravity caused by
the weight of the ice.
(g) Loss of vision - if the windscreen becomes iced up.
(h) Malfunction of flight and engine instrumentation and air data
computer. This would occur if Pitot/static vents, P1 probes and air
data probes became blocked.
(i) Debris damage. Caused by sections of ice breaking away from the
airframe and hitting tail-planes, rear mounted engines etc. This
has caused serious accidents in the past.
(j) Drain systems (grey water) becoming blocked.
(k) Icing of intakes, carburettors, cooling ducts etc causing reduction
in efficiency in engines, engine failure, overheating of systems.
(l) Flutter. Ice can change the pattern of the airflow around the
control surfaces, mainplanes etc, as well as change the centre of
gravity of the component – thus allowing flutter to occur.

It is evident from the above that the airframe and systems prone to icing be
kept ice free both before and during take-off (ground de-icing) and during flight
(aircraft de-icing). Ground de-icing is carried out by maintenance personnel
prior to aircraft take-off and aircraft de-icing is carried out by on-board
systems.

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 ICE DETECTION

EASA CS 25 states that if an aircraft is to fly in icing conditions then it must

be proved that it has all the necessary equipment on-board to be capable of
flight in a safe manner.

Most detectors detect the actual presence of ice on the airframe, some (rarely)
measure the two parameters required for icing to occur (moisture and
temperature) and infer that icing conditions exist.

Many different methods are used to detect the presence of ice. The actual
method used is dependent on the aircraft type and manufacturer. With some
aircraft there is a main detector system (often electrical/electronic) with a
back-up system (often low-tech).

Ice detection systems use one of the following methods of detecting and
assessing the formation of ice:

(a) Ice Accretion Method. Ice is actually allowed to accumulate on a

probe which projects into the airstream and in doing so operates a
warning system.
(b) Inferential Method. This method uses two detectors, one to detect
temperature and the other to detect the presence of water droplets
or moisture. So ice is not actually accreted but that it is inferred
that it might from the two measured parameters. Used in wind
tunnel testing but rarely used on aircraft.

We will concentrate on ice accretion detection methods in this book.

Ice Formation Spot Lights

Many aircraft have ice formation spot lights mounted on either side of the
fuselage so as to light up the leading edges of the mainplanes in the dark.
When required they can be switched on to allow for visual examination. They
can, of course, be used at any time by the flight crew to visually check the
airframe in the dark.

Fig. 1 ICE FORMATION SPOT LIGHTS

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Black Rod or Hot Rod Ice Detector

This consists of an aluminium alloy base on which is mounted a black steel

mast detector of aerofoil section, angled back from the vertical and mounted
on the outside of the fuselage so that it can be seen from the flight-deck. The
detector houses a heating element, and in the base there is a built-in lamp.

The heating element is normally off and when icing conditions are met ice
accretes on the leading edge of the mast which can be seen by the crew as it
turns white. During night operations the built-in lamp may be switched on to
illuminate the mast.

Once the mast turns white it is de-iced by switching on the heater element.
This clears the ice, the mast turns black and the heater element is switched
off.

Fig. 2 HOT ROD ICE DETECTOR

QUESTION How would you check this unit for correct operation? (5 mins)

ANSWER Carefully. A little more seriously though - check for damage,

security of attachment and corrosion. Check lamp for correct
operation. Check operation of heater (carefully) with the fingers
and check that the mast is coloured black.

-5-
Vibrating Rod Ice Detector

This detector senses the presence of ice and provides an indication in the flight
deck. The system consists of a solid-state ice detector and warning system.
The ice detector is attached to the fuselage with it’s probe protruding in the
airflow. The ice detector probe is caused to vibrate at it’s resonant frequency of
40kHz. [Resonant frequency is affected by (a) the Forcing Function and (b) the
Mass of the object being vibrated - the greater the mass the lower the
frequency]. (40kHz = 40,000 cycles per second).

When ice forms on the probe, its mass increases and the frequency drops. The
ice detector circuit detects the change in probe frequency by comparing it with
a reference oscillator. At a pre-determined frequency change the ice detector
circuit is activated. Once activated the probe de-icing heater is triggered to de-
ice the probe and return it's frequency to normal. The heater then turns off, to
allow the probe to ice up again (if icing conditions still exist).

This cycle is counted by the system and after a certain number of cycles an ice
warning signal is sent to the flight deck, and certain de-icing systems are
switched on and/or a signal is sent to a computer - depending on the aircraft.

Fig. 3 VIBRATING ROD ICE DETECTOR

This cycle will be repeated for as long as the icing conditions exist.

When icing conditions cease the system re-sets itself, turning the ice
attenuation lamp off in the flight deck, and de-activating any de-icing systems
that it has switched on.

QUESTION How would you check this unit for correct operation? (5 mins)

-6-
ANSWER In general the following points apply:

(a) Check the AMM.

(b) Operate any BIT systems.
(c) Check heater (carefully) by switching ON and touching
with fingers.
(d) Holding the probe using ‘oven gloves’ while the unit is
switched on will cause it’s frequency to drop and the system
to operate.
(e) Letting go of the probe (as the heater comes on
automatically) will allow the warning to cancel (after a
delay period).

The following describes the system as fitted to the B747-400.

Two independent systems provide flight deck indication of icing conditions and
automatic activation of engine intake thermal anti-ice systems. Components
used by the ice detection systems are; 2 ice detector probes; the nacelle anti-ice
control switches on the anti-ice/rain removal module, and the Engine Indication
and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) display. (A CRT [flat screen display on the
flight deck).

Both systems are powered by 115V ac and the detector probes are located on
the lower front part of the fuselage just aft and below of the Pitot static probes.

The detector probe contains a sensing element, a heater and control cards. The
sensing element is part of an electromechanical resonant circuit which oscillates
at approximately 40kHz.

Ice build up on the end of the element lowers the resonant frequency by
increasing the effective mass of the element. After a specific amount of ice has
accumulated, the heater is activated to melt the ice and return the resonant
frequency to its initial value.

If the heater cannot melt the ice after 25 seconds, or if the internal temperature
of the ice detector exceeds 300°F (150°C), the heater and the detector outputs
are de-activated.

Each ice detector provides an output to activate the corresponding left or right
side engine anti-ice systems and a separate output for indication of wing icing
conditions. Computations for identifying icing conditions and for activating anti-
ice systems are performed in the ice detector.

Control of the anti-ice system is via the Anti-Ice/Rain Removal Module on the
flight deck. The module includes 4 nacelle anti-ice switches. Each switch has 3
positions to place the corresponding anti-ice system ON, OFF or in AUTOMATIC
mode under control of the ice detection system.

-7-
As ice builds up on the ice detector sensing element during flight, the resonant
frequency of the sensing element decreases. When a 0.02in (0.5mm) ice layer
accumulates, the heater turns on. When the resonant frequency returns to it’s
initial value, the heater turns off, about 8 seconds after it has turned on. This
process is repeated as long as icing conditions exist. The ice detector keeps
count of the number of icing/de-icing cycles of the sensing element.

When 2 consecutive cycles are counted, the detector outputs a signal to activate
the engine anti-ice system for about 3 minutes. If an additional icing/de-icing
cycle occurs during this time interval, the 3 minute engine anti-ice activation
period is begun again. If it takes more than 15 seconds to melt the ice on the
first icing/de-icing cycle, the ice detector will activate the engine anti-ice system
for 3 minutes without waiting for a second cycle.

When 10 consecutive probe icing/de-icing cycles are counted, the detector

outputs a wing icing signal to the EICAS/EFIS interface units (EIU's) for 3
minutes. If an additional icing/de-icing cycle occurs during this time interval, the
3 minute wing icing cycle is begun again.

If the wing or nacelle anti-ice control switch is placed in the OFF position then a
message is sent to the EICAS display, the same happens if a control valve fails
to open. If the wing or nacelle anti-ice control switch is placed in the ON position
and the total air temperature exceeds 12°C a message is also sent to the EICAS
display. If an ice detector probe fails a message is sent to the EICAS display.

When the aircraft is on the ground, the icing/de-icing cycle is held at zero so that
there is no automatic activation of anti-ice systems. However, the ice detector
heater is still enabled on the ground.

The ice detection system can be tested in 2 ways: on the ground using the
Central Maintenance Computer (CMC) and doing an operational test.

CMC Test. With electrical power applied the CMC does a self-test of the detection
system. If the system fails it will produce a list of messages which include CMC
messages, message numbers and relevant ATA chapter numbers. The CMC
Message Index in the fault isolation manual shows the corrective action for each
message.

Operational Test. It is important for this test that the engines must not be
running. Electrical power must be on after confirming that it is safe to do so and
the aircraft must be put into the Air Mode in accordance with the AMM.

Hold the hand near the detector probes to make sure they are not hot. Set the
nacelle anti-icing 1, 2, 3 and 4 switches on the anti-ice/rain removal module to
AUTO.

-8-
To check the engine anti-ice systems for the left ice detector, put on a heat
resistant glove and apply pressure to the probe tip with the thumb and forefinger
for one or two seconds. Release the probe tip for 15 seconds. Apply pressure
again to the probe tip with thumb and forefinger for one or two seconds. Release
the probe tip.

Make sure that the EICAS caution message >ICING NAC shows for about 3
minutes. It is advisable to use a wet cloth or a piece of ice to cool the probe strut
(not the probe tip) while you do this test, this helps to increase the life of the
probe.

Repeat the same test for the right hand detector. If necessary run through a
‘CMC Test’ afterwards in accordance with the AMM.

Return the aircraft to the Ground Mode in accordance with the AMM and remove
electrical power. Record all work done and sign the appropriate documentation.

Pressure or Pneumatic Operated Ice Detector

This consists of a short tube, which is closed at its outer end and mounted at
right angles to the airflow and connected to a case. Small holes are drilled in
the leading edge and in the trailing edge of the tube. Dynamic air enters the
holes at the leading edge and passes into the case returning to the airstream
via the holes at the rear of the tube. A heater element is fitted in the tube to
allow it to be cleared of ice (once formed).

Also there is a thermostatically controlled anti-icing heater in the case that is

on all the time to prevent it icing up.

In flight, Pitot pressure will build up inside the case and push the diaphragm
down. This will keep the switch in the position as shown in figure 4.

When ice accretion builds up on the leading edge of the probe the Pitot
pressure is cut off. The air pressure now drains away through the calibrated
orifice and the rear static vents. The natural springiness of the diaphragm will
cause it to move up and the switch to close - thus giving a warning signal to
the flight deck.

The switch operation will also cause the heater element to come on in the
probe - thus de-icing the probe and resetting the system. This cycling will
continue until icing conditions no longer exist.

-9-
 Fig. 4 PRESSURE OPERATED ICE DETECTOR

A delay may be built into the warning system to keep it activated until after
one complete clear cycle of the system - this prevents the flight deck warning
lamp from flashing on and off during the cycling process. The system is
connected to the weight switch or an airspeed capsule.

QUESTION Why is the unit connected to either a weight switch or airspeed

switch? (5 mins)

ANSWER If it were not de-activated as the aircraft slows down it would

give an ice warning as the Pitot pressure drops. So it will be
de-activated either by a weight switch or an airspeed capsule
some time during the landing approach/landing run.

QUESTION How would you test the unit? (5 mins)

ANSWER Refer to the AMM. The probe heater can be checked with the
fingers – carefully. The internal heater may be felt from the outside
of the case or be checked using electrical test meters. Of course,
damage, corrosion etc to the unit and probe can be checked
visually.

- 10 -
 The functional test would require the use of a special adapter and
the supply of Pitot pressure. The system would also have to be
configured so the unit thinks the aircraft is in the air (operate
weight switch or airspeed switch).

Rotary Ice Detector (or Napier Ice Detector)

The Napier Servomechanisms ice detector consists of an electrically driven,

externally-splined rotor revolving close to a fixed knife edge cutter. Clearance
between the rotor and cutter is 0.002in (0.05mm). The rotor is mounted with
it’s axis at right angles to the direction of the airflow.

Fig. 5 ROTARY ICE DETECTOR

Any ice accreting on the front of the rotor is scraped off as it rotates to the rear
where the cutter is. Ice scrapping starts as soon as the thickness exceeds the
clearance between the rotor and the cutter. The scraping action on the ice
produces a torque reaction on the motor. This is mounted on a spring loaded
gimbal and the torque reaction causes it to rotate a few degrees in the opposite
direction to that of the rotor. This action closes a micro switch and sends a
warning signal to the flight deck.

While ice continues to accrete the torque reaction will remain and the warning
signal stays on. When ice accretion ceases half a revolution later (of the rotor)
the scraping ceases - torque reaction ceases and the motor (within its housing)
gimbals back to it’s original position, (under the influence of a spring). This
opens the micro switch and the flight deck warning is cancelled.

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QUESTION How would you check this detector for serviceability? (5 mins)

ANSWER Naturally refer to the AMM, but in general, apart from security,
corrosion, attachment and lay of cables etc, the unit is checked
for:

(a) Operation - switch it on and see that it rotates.

(b) As it rotates place a screw driver in the slot at the end if the
rotor and gently hold the handle in your hand. The torque
reaction on the rotor should cause the warning on the flight
deck to operate.

Inferential Method (Moisture and Temperature Detector)

Ice can only be formed when two conditions exist: (1) moisture is present and
(2) the temperature is at or below freezing.

With the inferential method these two parameters are monitored separately.

The system is not used widely on aircraft but may be found in wind tunnel
testing equipment.

The temperature and moisture detectors are wired in series so that they both
have to show positive for a warning to be given. But note - no actual ice has
been detected.

The temperature detector can be a contact thermometer or any other

temperature detector. The moisture detector consists of two heated elements
wired as a bridge. One element is open to the airflow, the other one is
protected.

When moisture occurs the exposed element cools due to the latent heat of
evaporation being drawn off. This changes its resistance and the bridge
becomes unbalanced which causes a relay to close a switch. When moisture
ceases to occur the temperature of the exposed element rises to that of the
protected element - the bridge balances and the relay opens the switch.

So when the bridge is unbalanced (due to the presence of moisture) and the
temperature switch is made (due to temperatures at or below freezing) then a
warning is given.

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The Beta Particle Ice Detection System

Beta particles are absorbed by ice so if one probe emits beta particles the other
probe will detect them. If the probes get iced up then the beta particles will get
absorbed and the detector probe will detect fewer beta particles. At a certain
beta particle count rate a relay in the detector probe will operate causing a
warning to come on in the flight deck. The system is reset by a heater element.
The system is tested by using a strip of Teflon wrapped around one of the
probes - this will absorb the beta particles and cause a warning to come on
and the de-icing system to work.

The probe protrudes perpendicularly from the fuselage wall. It is installed in

the forward fuselage in a zone where the local liquid water content in icing
conditions is always greater than that in the upstream ambient air.

The beta particles are emitted from a Strontium 90 Sulphate capsule

(maximum activity = 50 microcuries) and the radiation counter is a Geiger
tube installed in the probe base. The beta particle source and the count rate
are located on either side of the sensing surface so that the thickness of ice on
the leading edge can be monitored through two opposite facing windows.

The radioactivity of the probe is, at a distance of 41cm (16”) roughly equivalent
to that emanating from a luminous wristwatch. The fuselage wall forms a
screen which provides protection for occupants. However, for ground handling
of the probe during maintenance, some safety precautions should be observed.

When the ice thickness increases, the pulse rate of the Geiger tube measuring
the attenuation of the beta particle stream decreases. The triggering threshold
corresponds to 0.4mm (0.015 in) ice thickness on the sensing surface of the
probe. When the triggering threshold is reached, the relay internal to the ice
detection controller is energised and causes simultaneously:

* Activation of the warning system (single chime, display on

the flat screen and illumination of annunciator lights in the
flight deck).
* Probe de-icing.

The probe also incorporates a de-icing electrical circuit and an overheat

protection device which trips if probe de-icing operates for excessively long
periods. De-icing power is 5A 115V ac.

The particle count signal is fed from the probe to the controller via a coaxial
cable.

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Maintenance

The system can be tested from the flight compartment by pressing briefly the
ICE/TEST pushbutton switch. The test is positive if momentary action on the
ICE DET/TEST pushbutton switch triggers the ice warning. When the
pushbutton switch is released (out), this cancels the ice warning: The ANTI
ICE warning light on the warning light display panel and the ICE legend of the
ICE DET pushbutton switch go off.

Test of the system can be performed on the aircraft on the ground by

simulating ice thickness. A Teflon strip is temporarily wrapped around the
sensing surface of the probe. A 0.13mm (0.005”) thick strip does not cause ice
warning activation whereas a 0.52mm (0.020”) thick strip does.

METHODS OF ICE PROTECTION

Ice protection for aircraft can be by a de-icing system or an anti-icing system

and is necessary for:

* Aerofoils.
* Tailplane (stabiliser) and fin.
* Intakes – engine and APU.
* Propellers.
* Spinners.
* Control surfaces.
* Windscreens.
* Detector probes – TAT, Pitot, engine EPR, angle of attack etc.
* Slats.
* Carburettors.
* Drain masts (grey water and potable water masts).
* Waste water connections, escape slide attachments etc.

blank

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 Fig. 6 AREAS TO BE DE-ICED/ANTI-ICED – A330

Not all these systems will be fitted to all aircraft but you have to be aware that
they do exist and how they work.

De-icing implies the removal of ice after it has formed and anti-icing refers to
the prevention of ice formation. Some equipments can be de-iced – mainplanes
for example – where any removed ice (by the airflow) cannot damage any other
part of the aircraft. Engine intakes are usually anti-iced as de-icing might
cause lumps of broken-off ice to damage the compressor.

Anti-icing/de-icing Methods

Method Application Principle

FLUID Wings, tail units, A chemical breaks down the bond

propellers, between ice and water and can be either
windscreen. sprayed over the surface eg a windscreen,
or pumped through porous panels along
the leading edge of a surface eg a wing, or
allowed to flow by centrifugal force along
the leading edge of a propeller.

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PNEUMATIC Wings, tail units. Sections of rubber boot along the leading
edges are inflated and deflated causing ice
to break up and with the aid of the air-
stream break away.
THERMAL

Hot air bleed Wings, tail units, Hot air from turbojet engine compressor
engine intakes, (rarely exhaust, via a heat exchanger)
windscreens, slats. passed along inside of leading edge
structure or directed on outside of
windscreen.

Combustion As above. Hot air from a separate combustion

heater heater or from a heat exchanger
associated with a turbo prop engine
exhaust gas system.

Electrical Wings, tail units, Heating effect of electric current (dc or ac)
heating. intakes, propellers, passing through wire, flat strip or film
rotor blades, type elements attached to the inside of
Pitot heads, the windscreen, component, or heater
probes, element drain mast, embedded
control surfaces within the structure (composite
(Dash 8 elevators), materials, windscreens).
carburettors.

Hot oil. Jet engine nose Engine oil heating – which helps cool the
cone hot oil.

De-icing Materials

The various fluids used for frost and ice protection and for de-icing aircraft on
the ground are inflammable and sometimes poisonous. Care must be taken
when handling. Use only the correct type of fluid for the system/application as
laid down in the AMM chapter 20 Maintenance Practices (typically for airframe
de-icing systems TKS R328 or any fluid to specification DTD 406B).

Make sure when topping up the windscreen de-icer bottle that it is the correct
fluid as some airframe de-icing fluids can have an adverse effect on laminated
windscreens.

- 16 -
 ELECTRICAL AIRFRAME ICE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Heater elements can be:

* Spraymat system - leading edges, intakes.

* Heater mats - Intakes, propellers and spinners.

Each mat is designed for a specific application, the heat output being obtained
from whatever electrical source is available. Mats are available both for anti-
2 2 2
icing or de-icing and are rated in watts per m (W/ m ) or kW/ m .

Anti-icing mats for intakes, are supplied continuously with electricity, while
the de-icing mat is intermittently heated. The total area to be heated is often
divided into several smaller areas with independent mats for each. The
electrical power is then arranged to be switched to each small area in turn.

Thus, on any particular area, there is no heating for a given period during
which the ice builds up and then, when power is switched to that area,
adhesion is broken by heat and the ice removed by the airflow. (Non intake
applications).

Fig. 7 HEATER ELEMENTS

Spraymat

Spraymat is so called because the heater mats are sprayed directly onto the
surfaces to be protected. The surfaces are pre-treated and each spray
application is preceded by a masking process. It comprises:

(a) The base insulator which is sprayed on to the pre-prepared

surface to be protected and is made up of either a rubber or
polymer insulating material.
(b) The conductor element which is sprayed on to the base insulator
and is made of either aluminium or Kuminol (copper magnesium
alloy).

- 17 -
 (c) The outer insulation which is of the same material as the base
insulator.
(d) The protective coating (‘Stoneguard’) which is used when the
heater requires extra protection from mechanical damage, eg on
leading edges.

Heater Mats

These are used on air intakes on the engine and other components. Heater
mats differ in design and construction according to their purpose and
environment.

The latest mats have elements which are made from a range of alloys woven in
continuous filament glass yarn. Other elements are made from
nickel chrome foil. The insulating material is usually PTFE which gives a
higher limiting temperature than synthetic rubber.

The supplies to heater mats are controlled by units similar to those used in
spray mat systems.

The supply for the heaters can be either ac or dc.

The anti-icing supply is continuous, controlled only by master switching and

overheat protection devices. The de-icing supply is cyclic, pulses being fed
through a cyclic switch or similar device. The timing of the pulses is
determined by the manual setting of a flight deck selector.

System Operation

Figure 8 shows a typical electrically operated anti-icing/de-icing system. It is

simplified with the thick line representing the 3 cables of the 3 phase (3∅) ac
supply and up to 3 control boxes (current balance relay, control relay and
overload protection) being replaced by one control box (4).

QUESTION Why is the control of the system via a 28V dc supply using
Relays? Why is the system not switched directly by the pilot. (5
mins)

ANSWER The heavy current carrying cables (3∅ 200V ac) are taken the
shortest route from the bus bar to the heater elements (the cables
are heavy). This will then require the use of remote switching
equipment in the form of relays (electrically operated switches). To
route the heavy cables via the flight deck would involve a weight
penalty with large switches for the pilot to operate.

- 18 -
 Fig. 8 ELECTRICAL DE-ICING SYSTEM

When the system is switched on, direct current energises the power relay (4)
via closed contacts in the overload sensing device (part of 4 in the drawing)
thus allowing the 200V ac to flow directly through to the continuously heated
elements and to the timer switch (8). The cyclic timer normally controls all
aircraft cyclically heated elements with slow cycle normally selected at
temperatures below about -5°C.

In the event of an overload, the heater elements are protected by the sensing
device (within 4) which when actuated interrupts the supply to the power
relay, this in turn interrupts the supply of heating current. The current
balance relay (part of 4 or a separate unit) is actuated whenever there is an
imbalance between phases. (6) shows a continuously heated element whilst (7)
and (9) are cyclically heated.

For operation on the ground, the applied voltage is reduced to prevent

overheating. This is effected by the automatic closing of the weight switch (13)
fitted to the landing gear.

- 19 -
 WINDSCREEN ICE PROTECTION

Misting/fogging (on the inside) and frosting (on the outside) can occur on the
surfaces of aircraft windscreens. Misting/fogging occurs because of the warm
air in the cockpit contacting the cold windscreen and condensing. Moisture
and freezing temperatures on the outside will cause ice to form on the outside
of the windscreen.

The methods of preventing the formation of mist or ice on windscreens include:

(a) Dry air sandwich (anti-misting).

(b) External fluid spray (anti-icing).
(c) Wiper (rain clearance).
(d) Gold film - inside outer surface layer of windscreen (anti-icing).
(e) Gold film - inside inner surface layer of windscreen (anti-misting).
(f) Hot air - outside (anti-icing and rain clearance).
(g) Hot air - inside (anti-misting).

Dry Air Sandwich

Basically the dry-air sandwich windscreen consists of two transparent panels

spaced apart to allow an air gap and sealed by a frame of Vinyl (polyvinyl
butyral). It is a double-glazed windscreen. This method is also used for
transparent plastic windows on the fuselage as well as windscreens.

External Spray System

Figure 9 shows a system as fitted to a fighter aircraft, though all external

spray systems will work using the same principles. The system comprises a
de-icing fluid tank connected by a pipe line to an electrically operated pump,
the delivery side of which is coupled to a spray device arranged in front of the
windscreen.

It is fitted with inlet, vent and supply pipes, together with a small drain pipe.
The inlet and vent pipes connect with the fluid tank, the supply pipe to the
spray device and the drain to the atmosphere. The pump is controlled by a
switch in the flightdeck.

Servicing will include keeping the holes in the spray device clear, cleaning the
tank filler-neck filter and refilling or topping-up the tank with fluid of the
correct specification. For full details of servicing see the aircraft maintenance
schedule and the AMM.

Functional checks include switching the pump on and checking for fluid spray
coverage on the windscreen.

- 20 -
 Fig. 9 WINDSCREEN FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEM

Electrical Heat

Electrically heated windscreens are used on the majority of modern aircraft,

both for ice and mist prevention and to increase the resistance of the
windscreen against bird strike at very low temperatures (a heated windscreen
is more tough and less brittle than a cold one).

A transparent film element (gold film) is fitted between the laminations of the
windscreen and connected to the electrical system. The gold film is thin
enough to see through but will take an electric current and act as a heater.

A temperature sensitive element is incorporated in the panel to automatically

regulate the film temperature.

QUESTION Where is the gold film heater element positioned in the

windscreen? (2 mins)

ANSWER It is fitted inside the front glass layer (anti ice) and one may be
fitted between the inside glass layer and the vinyl layer (anti
mist). See figure 10.

Electrical Control

The heater film element has to be protected from overheat as this could cause
windscreen delamination.

- 21 -
Figure 11 shows the heater element controlled by a temperature control unit.

Within the unit is a bridge circuit with one element of the bridge connected to
the windscreen film heater. When the switch in the flight deck is switched on it
operates a relay within the control unit. This causes the heater element to
start to heat up.

Initially the bridge circuit within the temperature control unit is unbalanced,
but as the screen temperature begins to increase so the sensing element gets
hotter and it's resistance increases. At a pre-determined temperature (say
40°C) it’s resistance is high enough to balance the bridge - this de-energises
the relay and switches off the supply.

Fig. 10 CROSS-SECTION OF DC10/MD11 SOLID WINDSCREEN

With the power supply interrupted the heater element and temperature
sensing elements start to cool. When cool enough the bridge will become
unbalanced enough to cause the relay to come on. When it does so it will start
to heat up and start to unbalance the bridge again.

The system continues in this mode until switched off. A separate overheat
standby sensing element is also fitted (but not shown).

Modern windscreens, such as the A320, are computer controlled (see figure
12).

blank

- 22 -
 Fig. 11 WINDSCREEN ANTI-ICE TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Hot Air Blowing

To prevent icing and misting, hot air is sometimes blown over the outside
(anti-ice) and inside (anti-mist) of the windscreen and other transparent
panels. The principle of the outside air blast system is also used for rain
clearance on some aircraft such as the DC8 and the King Air.

Great care must be taken with ground running aircraft engines with this
system to ensure the system is switched off to prevent overheating the
windscreen.

The hot air is usually taken from a tapping on the pneumatic ducting up-
stream of the conditioning packs. This ducting is usually from the compressor
stage of the jet engine leading to the packs.

The A320 Windscreen Heating System (Figure 12)

Electrical heating is provided for anti icing of each windshield and demisting of
side windows of the cockpit. Two independent window heat computers (WHCs),
one on each side, automatically regulate the system and provide overheat
protection and fault indications.

The window heater comes on automatically when the engines are started or,
switched on manually prior to engine start or if the aircraft is in the air
(signals via OR gates).

- 23 -
The windshield heating operates at low power on the ground and at higher
power in flight. The change-over is automatic via a weight-switch signal to the
computer.

System status data is sent via ECAM (Electronic Central Aircraft Monitor) and
symbol generators to flight deck displays.

- 21 -

Fig. 12 320 COMPUTER CONTROLLED WINDSCREEN ELECTRICAL

ANTI ICING SYSTEM

WINDSCREEN WASH & RAIN REPELLENT SYSTEMS

Most windscreens are kept clear by windscreen wipers. These are not too
dissimilar to those used on automobiles and are operated hydraulically or
electrically. Used to maintain clear vision through the windscreen when
raining, sleeting or snowing and will clear snow and ice in conjunction with
the de-icing system.

They work well on the ground at normal taxiing speeds and take-off and
landing but in-flight in heavy rain their effectiveness is limited. In some cases
to make rain clearance easier a rain repellent solution can be sprayed onto the
screen.

Figure 13 shows a system as fitted to the B747 and figure 14 shows the flight
deck control panel as fitted to the B777.

- 24 -
In figure 13 each front windscreen is fitted with a two speed electric wiper. The
wiper is controlled by a rotary switch. Emergency park selection is used if the
wiper fails to park when switched OFF. In moderate to heavy rain, a rain
repellent may be sprayed onto the windscreen to improve visibility. This is
spread by the wiper to form an even film which allows the water droplets to be
blown away by the airflow. Pushing the same switch down will operate the
wash bottle – which helps clean the windscreen of debris (insects, dirt etc).

Rain repellent is removed from the windscreen on the ground by the use of
rain repellent solution as listed in the AMM.

Fig. 13 TYPICAL WINDSCREEN WASH & RAIN REPELLENT SYSTEM

Fig. 14 WINDSCREEN HEAT CONTROL PANEL – B777

- 25 -
On some aircraft such as the Boeing 777 the front windscreens are treated
with a hydrophobic coating (hydrophobic meaning water-repellent). This
means that there is no need for a liquid rain repellent system as the water
droplets disperse by the airflow without additional help.

WINDSCREEN WIPERS

The wiper action is similar to that of an automobile in that a wiper blade is

caused to move back and forth over the windscreen – thus clearing water
droplets, snow, sleet etc to provide clear vision.

The wiper blade is made of rubber with a knife-edge in contact with the
windscreen. It is supported in metal support channels that ensures even blade
pressure contact with the windscreen.

Figures 15 and 16 shows the electrically operated blade system for the B757.
It is typical in that it is electrically powered and sweeps the blade over a part of
the forward facing windscreen.

Operating parameters for the blade can include:

* Parking the blade off the windscreen when switched off.

* The number of blade sweeps per minute (may be variable).
* The angle of sweep.
* The contact pressure of the blade on the screen – to ensure good
rain clearance and prevent displacement of the blade away from
the windscreen by the airflow.
* Speed. The speed at which the blade completes each sweep.
* Smooth operation.

The maintenance of the blade system involves:

* Checking power supplies to motor and flight deck controls.

* Checking for general serviceability of all components including the
condition of the rubber blade.
* Changing any defective components with the most usual change
being the rubber blade.
* Operational checks on the system (see below).

Operational checks are specified in the AMM and are carried out when
specified in the maintenance schedule or after a component change or when a
fault is reported. Remember when operating the wiper that the windscreen
must be kept wet at all times - otherwise damage to the screen may result.

Before commencing tests ensure windscreen is clean and the blade is in

contact with the screen and not any part of the blade supported structure.

- 26 -
Ensure the sweep area is clean and smooth from the park position to the
screen.

Ensure that windscreen electrical anti-ice supply is disconnected. On some

aircraft there is a possibility of an electric shock from the screen if this is not
done.

The checks that can be carried out include:

Controls. Check that the controls on the flight deck operate the left and right
hand wipers correctly and as directed. Ensure all flight deck indications are
correct.

Sweep. Check that sweep length is correct (as per AMM) and that the blade
does not go over any windscreen seals/edges except when selected to park.

Speed. Check the ‘sweeps per minute rate’ is within the limits laid down in the
AMM and correspond to the setting control in the flight deck (LOW, MEDIUM,
HIGH). Rates can vary up to about 300 sweeps per minute. For high sweep
speeds it is recommended to use a commercially available Sweep Counter.

Check for smooth operation on each sweep and that the blade cleans the
windscreen.

Blade Contact Pressure. Using a spring balance (scale 0-20 lbs) or similar
device attach at the wiper arm position where the blade assembly attaches to
arm and pull the blade away from the windscreen. A minimum force should be
required to lift it off (eg 15lbs).

Park. When selected to PARK ensure blade parks correctly.

Should it fail any of the above tests then rectification can include, as
appropriate:

* Checking electrical supplies.

* Changing control panel in flight deck.
* If sweep or park position is not correct this can be adjusted for at
the adjustment sleeve on the wiper arm pivot bolt.
* If speed cannot be maintained within limits (sweeps per minute)
then the motor will have to be changed.
* If blade contact pressure is incorrect this can be adjusted for by
adjusting the pressure adjusting bolt.
* If the blade does not give a clear smear free wipe of the screen,
change the blade.

- 27 -
Fig. 15 WINDSCREEN WIPER SYSTEM

blank

- 28 -
 Fig. 16 WIPER ARM DETAIL

Remember, when working on the blade or the system to isolate the electrical
supply and tag. After any adjustments/replacements, retest, re-configure the
aircraft and clear all paperwork.

FLUID AIRFRAME DE-ICING SYSTEMS

In systems of this type, a de-icing fluid is drawn from a storage tank by an

electrically driven pump and fed through micro filters to a number of porous
metal distribution panels.

The panels are formed to the profiles of the leading edge of the wing, tailplane
and fin onto which they are fitted. At each panel the fluid passes into a cavity,
and then through a porous plastic sheet to a porous metal outer skin. As the
fluid escapes it breaks the bond between the ice and the skin of the aircraft,
and the fluid and ice together are blown away by the airflow.

The porous metal element may be made of sintered stainless steel or laser
drilled titanium (expensive).

- 29 -
 Fig. 17 FLUID SYSTEM

(Sintering is a process whereby a fine metal powder is pressed into shape with
heat applied to produce a component. If the pressure is not too great then the
finished component is porous. Used for filters and de-icing fluid distribution
panels etc. Laser drilling produces hundreds of minute holes per square inch
which under normal conditions are only just visible).

Fig. 18 DISTRIBUTOR PANEL

The system shown in figure 17 is a simplified system but is typical of those

found on aircraft. The fluid is drawn from the tank and pumped to the various
systems via a filter. The pump is operated either via a switch in the flight deck
or automatically via the ice detection system.

There may be a tank contents indication system fitted, either a capacitive type
or a float type. Other system indications may include a low level warning, a
pressure transducer and a low-pressure warning switch. Before the fluid
reaches the distribution panels it goes via a proportioning unit.

- 30 -
This meters the quantity of fluid to each panel depending on the panel’s size.
On a propeller driven aircraft de-icing fluid may also be fed to the propellers
via slinger rings.

It is normal not to have the same system supply fluid to the windscreen as the
fluid can adversely affect the structure of the windscreen.

Installation and Maintenance

Distributor panels. Check part number of panel against the IPC/AMM.

Where aerofoils are not symmetrical odd part numbers usually indicate a left-
hand (port) component and even numbers right-hand (starboard) component.
A check should also be made for signs of corrosion, damage and deformation
of the panel profile.

Panels which are to be sealed by an epoxy resin compound should also be

checked to ensure that the PTFE coating release agent is undamaged. Check
panel for security of attachment.

Before fitting check the aircraft structure to which the panel is to be fitted for
corrosion and damage – repair/replace as per SRM if found damaged.

Tanks. Before installation, the tank should be inspected for signs of damage
and interior cleanliness, and the tank supporting structure checked for
security, corrosion etc.

With the tank accurately positioned it should be firmly secured by the

mounting straps or mounting bolts as appropriate. Blanks should be removed
from all pipe unions, new sealing rings fitted and the pipelines connected.

Pumps. Before installing it should be inspected for signs of damage, and

checks made that the part number of the pump is correct (EASA form 1).
Connect electrical power and carry out a functional check. The inhibiting fluid
should be retained in the pump for the functional check, the duration of which
should not exceed that specified. Do not dry run the pump.

Pipelines and Couplings. Pipelines should be supported by clips spaced not

more than 18” apart (457mm). Where there is more than one pipe in a run the
pipes should be cleated together every 6” (152mm).

Filters. After installation, the system should be operated until fluid flows from
the filter outlet connection or, if provided, from a bleed screw hole. The pump
should then be switched off and the filter outlet connection or bleed screw
refitted.

- 31 -
Proportioning Units. Before installing proportioning units a check should be
made that they are of the correct type. Units are identified in two ways: (a) by
the part number which includes a variation number relating to the calibration;
and (b) by a description of the aircraft type and location for which each unit is
calibrated.

Priming and Testing

After the installation of a component and at periods specified in the

Maintenance Schedule, priming and functional testing of the system should be
carried out as specified in the AMM.

In general, check that the tank is full and that, when the pump is operated,
fluid flows out from each of the distributor panels. They will appear to sweat
and the drops will run down the underside of the wing to fall on the floor.
Pipes to propeller slinger rings will run fluid freely.

Check for correct fluid distribution and leaks and wire lock all unions.

PROPELLERS

Propellers may be anti-iced by using:

* Fluid
* Electrical power via contact brushes at the back of the spinner.
* Induced ac electrical power via coils behind the spinner and coils
on the back of the spinner itself.

The fluid system provides a film of de-icing fluid to the propeller blade surfaces
during flight which mixes with the water or ice and reduces the freezing point
of the mixture. Where ice has already formed on the blades, the fluid
penetrates under the ice and loosens it sufficiently for it to be thrown off by
centrifugal action.

Fluid is distributed to each propeller blade from a slinger ring which is

mounted on the back of the propeller hub or spinner. The fluid is pumped into
this ring through a (stationary) delivery pipe.

Some propellers have rubber overshoes fitted to the leading edges of the blades
to assist in the distribution of the fluid. On this type of installation fluid is fed
from the slinger ring to a small cup, which is part of the overshoe, and is then
forced by centrifugal force along spanwise leading edge grooves (about 1 to
2mm deep and 5mm wide) in the overshoes. The groves finish about 1/3rd to
1/2 of the blade length.

- 32 -
The action of the centrifugal force and the airflow will distribute the fluid to
both sides of each blade.

On propellers which are not fitted with overshoes, fluid is fed from the slinger
ring through a pipe to the root of the blade, as before, and is then distributed
by centrifugal force and the airflow over the blade.

The fluid may be pumped to the slinger ring from the supply tank by an
electrically driven pump but pneumatic pressure is sometimes used.

The electric pump is controlled by a switch and, in some installations, the

pump speed may be varied by means of a rheostat. Non-return valves are
sometimes provided to prevent loss of fluid when the pump is not operating.

The Slinger Ring

The slinger ring rotates with the propeller. The pipe and nozzle which deliver
fluid to the slinger ring should be positioned so that there is clearance between
the pipe and the side of the ring to prevent interference when the propeller is
rotating. This clearance is important as the tolerance is small and an error
will cause excessive wear or the system will spill fluid.

Fig. 19 PROPELLER FLUID DE-ICING

VP Propeller

For VP (variable pitch) propellers, the propeller feed pipe leading from the
slinger ring to the front of each blade is positioned to end just inside an oval
rubber fluid cup bonded to the front of the blade. There is a small clearance
between the feed pipe and the cup and the arrangement allows the blade to
change pitch and still receive de-icing fluid.

- 33 -
Function Test

If there is any doubt as to whether the propeller de-icing system is functioning

properly it should be checked during an engine ground run.

The propellers should be painted with commercial whitewash (or methylated

spirits and whiting) and allowed to dry.

A suitable dye should be added to the fluid so that when the de-icing system is
operated the dyed fluid will stain the white propeller and indicate the
distribution pattern over the blades.

Ideally, carry out the test when the engine has to be run for other reasons, and
towards the end of the engine run switch the anti-icing system on.

The pump will pump the fluid to the slinger ring where centrifugal force takes
over and the fluid is forced out through the hole in the slinger ring (one at
each blade), through a short pipe to the beginning of the fluid distribution
channels on the front of each blade.

Centrifugal force and the airflow help to distribute the fluid evenly over both
the front and rear surfaces of the blade.

Before stopping the engine switch off the anti-icing system. Shut down the
engine and inspect the blades.

Each blade should show an even distribution over both surfaces. Uneven
distribution may be caused by the slinger ring being fitted incorrectly, by the
feed pipes from the ring being incorrectly located or by obstructions in the
pipelines.

The blades should be cleaned to remove all traces of fluid and whitewash.

Often the system is just switched on during a ground run and the blades
checked by feel after engine shut-down. This saves a lot of time painting and
cleaning.

Cleaning the Fluid System

When the system is to be out of use for a long period it is advisable to remove
all traces of de-icing fluid. This may be done by draining the tank and re-filling
with a mixture of 95% methylated spirits and 5% distilled water.

The system should be operated until the tank is empty. During this operation
the engines should be run if the system involves propeller fluid de-icing.

- 34 -
Inhibiting the Fluid System

The fluid used in de-icing systems is stable and non-corrosive but leaves a
gummy deposit after drying out. Inhibiting the system is at the discretion of
the aircraft operator, but if it is not inhibited it is advisable that a certain level
of de-icing fluid is maintained in the tank and the system operated at regular
intervals.

To inhibit the system after draining and/or cleaning, fill the tank with
inhibiting fluid as per the AMM or use fluid DTD 5540. Run the system to
ensure all internal surfaces are coated. Inhibiting is carried out for aircraft
storage and if the aircraft will not be flying in icing conditions for some time.

To de-inhibit the system flush through with a cleaning fluid as per the AMM.
Refill with the de-icing fluid and test.

Electrical De-icing of Propellers

This is done using dc or ac supplies with heater mats bonded to the leading
edges of each propeller, and sometimes to the spinner. Each propeller heater
mat starts at the root and has a length of about ½ the blade length. On large
aircraft the supply is 200V 3∅ ac, on smaller aircraft the supply is dc.

Heater elements may also be bonded to the inside of the propeller spinner with
connecting wires from the spinner to the junction box fitted to the front of the
propeller bulkhead – which rotates with the propeller.

Wires from each of the blade heater mats also lead to the junction box. The
junction box is connected to slip rings on the rear of the propeller bulkhead.
The slip rings are in contact with stationary brushes fitted in a brush housing
on the engine support structure. The electrical supply goes through the
positive brush gear to the positive (rotating) ring gear through the heater mats
and back via the negative rotating ring gear and negative brush gear.

On some modern aircraft electrical power is transferred to the rotating

propeller via induction coils on the stationary airframe and rotating coils
inside the rotating propeller hub – with no physical contact.

For more information on propeller de-icing refer to the book on propellers in

this series.

- 35 -
 PNEUMATIC AIRFRAME DE-ICING SYSTEMS (DUNLOP OVERSHOES)

This is a mechanical de-icing system and would not be used for anti-icing.

Air pressure and vacuum is supplied alternatively to inflatable rubber

overshoes fitted to the leading edges of mainplanes, tailplane and fin and when
alternately inflated and deflated cause the ice to break away.

Pressure and vacuum is supplied to the distribution valves which cycle the
supplies alternately to the supply pipes to the de-icer boots.

It is inexpensive to fit but disturbs the airflow (at a critical point on the wing –
the stagnation point) when in operation – reducing lift and increasing drag.

The Overshoes

The overshoes or de-icer boots are made of a rubber/rubberised fabric or a

polymer material and are manufactured in such a way as to produce inflatable
tubes that run spanwise on some aircraft and chordwise on others. The span
wise boots may run for nearly the whole length of the wing. The chordwise
boots start at just under the leading edge and run over the leading edge to
finish a few inches after the leading edge on the top of the wing.

Fig. 20 PNEUMATIC DE-ICER SYSTEM

- 36 -
The tubes within the boots are connected to pipelines that supply alternating
pressure and vacuum. The external surface of the boots are covered by a
conducting film to allow the discharge of static electricity.

They are fitted to the leading edges and can run for the full wing span length.
The width of the boot is not much more than the stagnation point range of the
aerofoil.

Air Supplies

The tubes are inflated by air from the pressure side of an engine driven
vacuum pump or from a high pressure reservoir or in the case of some types of
turbo-propeller aircraft, from a tapping from an engine compressor stage. This
provides the inflation stage of the operating sequence.

The deflation cycle of the sequence (and whenever the system is switched off)
is provided by vacuum air from a vacuum pump, or, in some systems an
engine compressor tapping using the venturi section of an ejector nozzle.

Controls and Indicators

The system can be switched on by the pilot but may be switched on

automatically from the ice detection system.

The timing of the cyclic distribution valves is carried out by an electronic

control, and flight deck indications include indicating lights and electrically
operated pressure and vacuum gauges. For a specific installation reference
should be made to the appropriate AMM.

Operation

When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to the boot sections to
inflate each alternate tube. The inflation weakens the bond between the ice
and the boot surface, causing the ice to break away. At the end of the inflation
stage the tubes are fully deflated by the vacuum supply.

The inflation and deflation cycle is repeated continuously while the system is
on. When the system is switched off vacuum is supplied continuously to all
tubes to hold them flat against the aerofoil leading edges thus minimising
drag.

- 37 -
Installation

Full details of the checks to be carried out on the components prior to

installation, and installation methods, are given in the AMM. De-icer boots
may be attached by rivets or special fasteners or may be bonded into position.

Inspection and Maintenance

Most inspection and maintenance is associated with the de-icer boots, since
their location on an aircraft makes them vulnerable to damage from airborne
debris (ice, rain etc) and ground handling (step ladders, refuelling hoses etc).
General abrasion will show up as a roughened surface, other damage is
usually obvious.

Precautions when considering the boots include:

(1) Re-fuelling hoses and other equipment must not be dragged over
the surfaces.
(2) Ladders or service platforms which are placed near the boots
during servicing operations must have soft padding fitted to
prevent damage.
(3) Oil or grease on the surface of boots must be removed as soon as
possible with soap and water or with a clean rag moistened with
lead-free petrol. Petrol should not be allowed to dry on the surface;
it should be wiped off immediately with a clean dry cloth.

Repairs

For specific repair procedures refer to the AMM/SRM or the boot

manufacturer’s repair manual. In general small holes and minor damage may
be repaired using a repair kit similar to a bicycle puncture repair kit (follow the
repair kit instructions). These cold patch repair kit covers cuts, holes and
cracks up to 2" (51mm) long.

For larger damage emergency repairs only may be carried out. The best way to
repair extensive damage to a boot is by replacement. Removed boots may be
sent back to the manufacturer for repair by vulcanising or it may be scrapped.

Functional Tests

Carried out at periods specified in the maintenance schedule; when a

malfunction occurs; or a component has been replaced, and also after repairs.

- 38 -
The method depends on the type of aircraft and details are given in the AMM,
but in general:

(1) Tests may be carried out using either the aircraft engines or air
supplies from a ground test trolley. If a system is to be tested by
using a test trolley, the air supply must be clean, moisture-free
and at the correct pressure.
(2) Pressure and vacuum indicators should be checked to ensure that
supplies are maintained at the specified values.
(3) With a system selected 'ON' boots should be checked to ensure
that they inflate and deflate in the correct sequence and for the
correct periods of time.
(4) When checking pipelines etc for leaks it is important to remember
that any leaks in the vacuum line will suck in any detection fluid
used (Snoop etc). So do not use detection fluid on the vacuum
lines to the distribution valves or the lines from the distribution
valves which cycle from pressure to vacuum.

Storage of De-Icer Boots

Before storing, boots should be inspected for surface condition and defects.
They should be cleaned and repaired where necessary and dusted with French
chalk.

Connectors should be blanked off and the boots rolled up. Rolling should be
commenced at the end remote from the valve which should be on the outside
of the finished roll.

Where connectors are located near the centre of the boot, a pad of corrugated
paper should be placed over the connectors to protect the contacting surface.

The rolled boot should be carefully wrapped up in a heavy paper to exclude all
light, and then stored in a cool, dry, dark place, away from any electrical
running equipment where it will not be crushed or wrinkled. In cases where
boots are bonded to detached leading edge sections, the sections should be
wrapped up and supported on their trailing edges.

QUESTION When storing anything made of rubber it must be away from

electrical running equipment. Why? (2 mins)

ANSWER Electric motors and particularly generators generate ozone (O 3)

when running - this is the principal ageing element of rubber.

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 HOT AIR DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS

In general the leading edge sections of wings, tail units, intakes and slats are
usually provided with a second inner skin to form a small gap between it and
the inside of the leading edge section. Heated air is ducted to these sections
and passes into the gap, providing sufficient heat in the outer skin of the
leading edge to melt ice already formed and prevent further ice formation.

The air is exhausted to atmosphere through outlets in the skin surfaces and
also, in some cases, at the tips of wings and tail units.

The temperature of the air within the ducting and leading edge sections is
controlled by a valve system which depends on the type of aircraft.

Hot air can be obtained from:

(a) A tapping from the compressor stage of a jet engine (common for
large jet transports).
(b) A combustion heater - using a heat exchanger and ram air (used
on some piston engined aircraft).
(c) A heat exchanger system using the heat from the exhaust gases.
Not common but used on some aircraft. The air being used for
cabin heating, anti-icing etc.

QUESTION What sort of engines would use (c) above? (5 mins)

ANSWER Small piston engined aircraft might use a heater muff (heat
exchanger) around the exhaust pipe. Ram air is passed through
which picks up heat from the exhaust pipe and is used for cabin
heating, anti-icing etc.

Some turbo-prop engines use the jet efflux gases via a heat
exchanger for anti/de-icing purposes. The gases being passed
back into the jet pipe.

QUESTION Why might the efflux gases be used in a turbo prop engine and
never on a pure jet engine? (10 mins)

ANSWER Approximately 90% of a turbo-prop engine's power is used to drive

the propeller with the residual thrust from the engine accounting
for about 10%. So interfering with the jet efflux will have little
effect on the overall engine performance - though it will have some
of course. 'Mucking about' with the efflux of a pure jet would
seriously affect it's performance as all it's thrust is obtained from
the exhaust. The speed of the efflux would also be high and airflow
control would be difficult.

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In many cases the tapping from the compressor side of the jet engine is
integrated with the cabin air supply system with the anti-icing air being
tapped off to the anti-icing system before the (hot) cabin air enters the cold air
units/conditioning packs to be cooled. The tapping will be from about the 7th
stage, and on some engines there are two per engine (say 7th and 14th with the
14th modulated at high rpm) – but check the AMM.

With combustion heaters and exhaust heat exchanger systems there is a real
risk of carbon monoxide poisoning of passengers and crew should any part of
the ducting down-stream of the combustion area leak. This means that in
some aircraft carbon monoxide detectors are fitted where there is a risk of
such poisoning.

Ducting

The AMM will have details of the ducting that is used but in general the
ducting may be made of stainless steel, light alloy, or composite material. The
material used must be of the correct specification to resist the air
temperatures encountered at that particular part of the ducting where
normally metal like stainless steel is used early on in the system where the
temperatures are highest.

Temperature Control

The control of the air temperature within ducting and leading edge sections is
important as overheating and burning of the metal and ducting may occur.

In a typical compressor bleed system, control is effected by temperature

sensing units which are located at various points in the ducting and by valves
in the air supply ducting. The sensing units and valves are electrically
interconnected and the valves are automatically positioned to regulate the flow
of hot air.

When heat exchangers are employed, temperature control may be obtained by

the use of adjustable flaps and valves to decrease or increase the supply of
heating and/or cooling air across the exchangers.

The method of controlling the flaps and valves varies, but a typical system
incorporates an electric actuator, which operates automatically by a device
controlled by a temperature sensing element fitted in the duct on the warm
outlet side of the heat exchanger.

In systems incorporating combustion heaters, the temperature may be

controlled by thermal cyclic switches located in the heater outlet ducts, so that
when the temperature reaches maximum the fuel supply to the heaters is
automatically switched off. When the temperature drops to a pre-determined
value the heater is started back up.

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Installation

Refer to the AMM. Always check for security of attachments, corrosion and
damage of components and in general the following applies:

Heat Exchangers. Before installation, heat exchangers should be inspected to

ensure that no foreign matter has entered the various connections, and they
are free from obstruction.

Combustion Heaters. Before installation, combustion heaters should be

inspected and when necessary, pressure tested in accordance with the
manufacturer's maintenance manual to ensure that no fuel or combustion
products can leak into the air supply of the system (see GR 11 of CAP747).
Pressure tests are usually to 2psi (or as stated in the manual) with the unit
submersed in water, special bungs fitted and in a suitable safety cage.

There should be no leaks.

Combustion heaters and their hot air outlet ducting should be dismantled,
inspected, reassembled and pressure tested at least once every 500 heater
operating hours. These hours are assumed to be the same as aircraft flying
hours unless agreed by the CAA to be a percentage of the flying hours.

System Inspection and Maintenance

Check the AMM and the maintenance schedule. The following general points
apply. Check all components for:

(a) Damage, cracks and evidence of leakage.

(b) Security of attachment, locking and corrosion.
(d) Security of fittings, ducts, electrical connections, controls.
(e) Damage and security of cables and moisture ingress.

Testing - carried out in accordance with the AMM but in general:

(a) Carry out any BIT checks – check on-board fault computer.
(b) Ensure all intakes/exhausts are free from debris, birds nests etc.
(c) If ram air is required - as for combustion heaters - use a ram air
supply servicing trolley.
(d) Ensure electrical power is on.
(e) Run engines if engine hot air is used.
(f) Select temperature required and monitor temperature outlet/s.
(g) Check flight deck indications and warning captions.
(h) Check temperature of airframe/cowling surface by hand or use
surface temperature thermometer.
(i) Check for leaks in the ducting.

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 Fig. 21 BAe 146 PNEUMATIC SUPPLY SYSTEM

Fig. 22 BAe 146 ENGINE ANTI-ICING DETAIL

Example System – BAe 146

Figure 21 shows the BAe 146 anti-icing hot air system. The air supply comes
from a tapping on each engine and also from the APU. The air is fed to the
mainplanes and tailplane (stabiliser). Anti-icing air comes from a separate (7th
stage) tapping on each engine for the intake, splitter lip (between bypass air
and core air) and LP compressor inlet guide vanes.

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 Fig. 23 ANTI ICE CONTROL PANEL OF THE B777

The engine spinner is anti-iced by hot engine oil – which also acts as an oil
heat sink (oil cooler).

Control is via the overhead panel on the flight deck and sections of the system
may be in the de-icing or anti-icing mode.

Windscreens, Pitot heads and stall warning vanes are electrically anti-iced.

Figure 23 shows the flight-deck anti ice control panel of the B777. Study the
drawing and note the available selections. Note also that the tailplane and fin
are not anti-iced. (EEC = Electronic Engine Control.)

A320 Engine Anti-ice

Figure 24 shows the intake anti-icing system for the Airbus A320.

Intake air is taken from a separate tapping from the high pressure compressor
of the jet engine. The air is controlled using an on/off valve which is switched
from a push button (one for each engine) on the control panel on the flight
deck.

The control valve closes when the engine is shut down and automatically
opens in the event of electrical power failure (fail safe).

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 Fig. 24 A320 ENGINE INTAKE ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

When open the N1 limit of the respective engine is reduced.

Note the signals going to FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control – a
computer involved in the control of the engine) and ECAM (Electronic
Centralised Aircraft Monitor – for flight deck CRT screen displays).

OTHER ANTI-ICED AREAS

These include:

* Air data probes particularly Pitot heads and TAT (Total Air
Temperature) probes. Some-times static vents.
* External sensing units such as angle of attack vanes.
* Drain masts, in particular external grey water drains.
* Door mechanisms – those that suffer from the cabin condensation
freezing.
* Potable water servicing valves.
* Internal domestic water supplies systems where there is a
possibility that they might freeze.

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The above are anti-iced electrically with single phase 115V ac, although dc is
used on some components. The heater elements may be controlled by a
computer with overheat protection being provided by an inbuilt thermostat.
If anti-iced slats and flying control surfaces usually use hot air systems.

Slats

Figure 25 shows an example of how the hot air is distributed to the leading
edge of the slats. As the slat is moved forward so the telescopic feeder duct
extends. This allows air to the leading edge of the slat at any position. The air
is allowed to the inside surface of the slat via drillings in the slat duct.

Figure 26 shows an example of the electrical power supply. You should note
from this the general layout of the location of the generators, external supplies,
bus bars and the supplies taken off the single phase supplies, and the dc
supply.

Some systems have automatically reduced power when the aircraft is on the
ground and heaters such as the TAT heater are turned off completely
(automatically). The probe heater control unit takes care of these functions
with interfaces to the landing gear weight switch.

Some control units also have interfaces with the engine vibration monitoring
system and the Central Maintenance Computer (CMC). On modern systems
they will identify and memorise faults.

If electrical current gets too high or too low a warning is signalled to the flight
deck warning computer.

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Fig. 25 HOT AIR SUPPLY TO SLATS

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- 47 -
Fig. 26 EXAMPLE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLIES

Fig. 27 GREY WATER DRAIN MAST

- 48 -
Heaters such as internal domestic pipework heaters (ribbon heaters), door
mechanism heaters, and drain mast heaters only come on when icing
conditions are sensed.

Testing

Always refer to the AMM. On older aircraft testing is done carefully with the
fingers by switching the heaters on and noting the temperature (an accurate
reading can be obtained by the use of temperature indicator tongs placed
around probe type heaters). On modern aircraft inbuilt testing (BIT) is carried
out every time system power is switched on, and on command from the central
maintenance computer. The tests involve checking computer equipment such
as the CPU, RAM etc, also inputs and outputs and the integrity of heater
probes.

Figure 27 shows the heater details of a grey water drain mast (called grey
water to denote that it comes from the hand basins and sinks of the aircraft
(moderately clean) – with blue water indicating that it comes from the toilets
which is not allowed overboard of course). Note the heater element,
temperature sensor and over temperature switch.

Figure 28 shows the general layout of a probe heater computer. Note the
heaters of the various probes. Note also the 115V ac single phase supplies via
a dc operated relay and the 28V dc supply. Note the logic inputs from the
engines and landing gear and the data connections to the CMC.

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- 49 -
Fig. 28 PROBE HEATER COMPUTER

”””””””

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