RESPECT FOR PERSONS

1. Theoretical Level - A human person is either a subject or an object.

A Person is a Subject
○ Conscious
○ Free
○ Lacks definition
○ Unfixed essence

A Person is a Subject
● I-Thou
● Being-for-itself
● Being-with
● “Encounter”

SUBJECT NAGDEDEFINE SA SARILI NILA

A Person is a Object
● Unconscious
● Unfree
● Defined identity
● Fixed essence

A Person is a Object
● I-It
● Being-in-itself
● Being-alongside
● “Experience”

A Person is a Object
● Labeling
● Categorizing
● Totalization

OBJECT IBANG TAO ANG NAGDEDEFINE SAKANILA

2. Practical Level - A human person is either a means or an end.

A Person is a Means (School?)

● Interests are disregarded
 ● A form of satisfaction

A Person is an End (Work Industry: salary)

● Interests are considered and satisfied

How can we avoid using a human person as a means?

- By getting the person’s informed/voluntary consent

According to Kant…
The morally acceptable treatment of persons is treating
them as means and ends at the same time…

Why do we need to treat persons as persons ?

- Persons are entitled to rights that impose duties on others

Rights - entitlements or interests one is allowed or permitted to do.

Rights based on duties imposed

Positive Right
● Imposes a duty of non-interference on others
● Imposes a duty of provision on others for the exercise of rights
● OBLIGATES OTHERS TO ACT WITH RESPECT TO THE RIGHT HOLDER

Negative Right
● Imposes a duty of non-interference on others
● FORBIDS OTHERS FROM ACTING AGAINST THE RIGHT HOLDER

Rights considered negative rights may include civil and political rights such as freedom of
speech, life, private property, freedom from violent crime, protection against being defrauded,
freedom of religion, habeas corpus, a fair trial, and the right not to be enslaved by another.

Positive rights, therefore, are rights that provide something that people need to secure their well
being, such as a right to an education, the right to food, the right to medical care, the right to
housing, or the right to a job.
 PROMOTING HUMAN WELFARE

1. Doing good to others

General Kinds of Ethics

NORMATIVE ETHICS - Studies the principles and standards used as bases for making moral
judgments.

METAETHICS - Studies the nature of moral judgments in terms of how they are known and how
they acquire meanings.

APPLIED ETHICS - Examines controversial ethical issues in some specified areas like
medicine, business, law, and environment.

Metaethics and normative ethics are two major branches of ethics.

While metaethics focuses on determining the meaning and objectivity of moral concepts of good
and bad, or right and wrong,
normative ethics attempts to determine which character traits are good and bad, which actions
are right and wrong.
Consequentialism - Good action is one that results in good and desirable consequences.
- Bad action is one that results in bad and undesirable consequences.

Example:
Good - Nagaral ka, nakakuha ka ng mataas na grado
Bad - Hindi ka nag-aral kaya bumagsak ka

Deontology - Good action is one that follows a good or right rule (violates a bad or wrong rule).
- Bad action is one that follows a bad or wrong rule (or violates a good or right rule)

Example:
Good -
Bad -

Virtue Ethics - Good action is one that is performed by a person with good character traits.
- Bad action is one that is performed by a person with bad character traits.

Hedonistic - Good consequences are defined solely in terms of experience of pleasure and
avoidance of pain.

E.g: eating your comfort foodeven though it’s bad for the health

Non-Hedonistic - Good consequences are not just pleasure but also in terms of acquisition of
knowledge and power, establishment of good relationships, and satisfaction of interests.

E.g: studying for the exam but failed

Utilitarianism
- The action is good if it maximizes the aggregate good or welfare of all affected persons.
- The action is good if it promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Religious Deontology
● Good rules are the laws of the divine(bible)
● Good action is one that follows the laws of the divine(bible)

Rational Deontology
● Good rules are the laws of reason
● Good action is one that follows the laws of reason
Comparison of Rational and Religious Deontology
- The laws of reason may coincide with the laws of the divine,
but rational deontology formulates its moral principles independent of religious
considerations

Virtues
- The excellence of a thing in terms of the exercise of its proper functions

Intellectual Virtues
- Excellence of reason requires intellectual virtues
- These are acquired thru study or instruction and are manifested thru knowledge

Moral/Practical Virtues
- Excellence of will requires moral/practical virtues
- These are acquired thru practice or habit-forming activities and are manifested thru
practical actions

2. Being just to others

General Kinds of Justice

DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE - Justice in distributing benefits and burdens

RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE - Justice in imposing punishments and penalties on those who have
been found guilty of wrongdoing

COMPENSATORY JUSTICE - Justice in compensating or paying people for what they have lost
as a result of being recipient of wrongful acts

Egalitarianism - A just distribution is one in which every member of the group receives an
equal share in the distribution
- Political and economic

Capitalist Justice - A just distribution is one in which every member of the group
receives his/her share in the distribution in proportion
to his/her contribution to the success of the goals of the group

Socialist Justice - A just distribution is one in which every member of the group
receives his/her share in the distribution in proportion
to his/her needs
Justice based in Fair Opportunity
- A just distribution is one in which every member of the group
receives his/her share in the distribution in proportion
to the effort he/she has exerted in achieving the goals of the group

Justice as Fairness
- A just distribution is one in which the principle that governs the distribution is chosen in a
fair manner
- Original position; veil of ignorance

Libertarianism
- A just distribution is one in which no moral rights are violated
in acquiring ownership of the goods to be
distributed and transferring the ownership of the goods

Utilitarianism
- A just distribution is one that increases the aggregate
happiness or welfare of all affected persons

Legitimacy of the State and its Power

STATE
● a political organization that is sovereign and supreme in exercising its authority within its
territory

GOVERNMENT
● A political institution that manages the affairs of the state

Justification of the Existence of the State

DIVINE RIGHT THEORY

● The political power of the state is justified thru the appointment its ruler by God or by the
divine
● The rule of the king is absolute
 ● It does not need the approval of its citizens to exercise its power

SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

● The political power of the state is justified thru the informed and voluntary consent that
its citizens have given to the institution of the state
● Consent is expressed in the form of a contract which specifies the primary duties and
obligations of the citizens to the state and of the state to its citizens
● If the citizens fail to fulfill its duties to the state, the state imposed punishments on them

SOCIAL CONTRACT ACCORDING TO THOMAS

HOBBES
- The condition of the"state of nature" is "war of all against all"
● War for power
● War because of threats
● War over resources

● To prevent war, people institute a state

● The state then establishes laws for everyone to follow

SOCIAL CONTRACT ACCORDING TO JOHN

LOCKE
- All humans are created equal by God in terms of natural rights\
● Right to life and liberty
● Right to acquire property
● Right to punish those who violate others' rights

- Problems arise because of unjust imposition of punishments

 ● Different interpretation on the extent of violation of one's rights
● Different interpretation on the levels of punishments

● People institute a state to safeguard their natural rights

● the state then establish laws to properly punish those who violate others' rights

SOCIAL CONTRACT ACCORDING TO

JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU

- Population increases, resources become scarce

● At first, people deal with scarcity with self-development thru enhancing their skills and
developing tools
● Eventually, pride and greed made humans turn against each other

● The rich among the people emerge to be the powerful

● The rich institute a state in order to protect their properties

CONSEQUENTIALIST APPROACH
● The political power of the state is justified
○ only if its government promotes the greatest good of the greatest number of
people

STRUCTURING STATE POWER

ARISTOTLE'S CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENT

● The number of rulers:

○ The rule of one
○ The rule of the many
○ The rule of the few

● To whom do they serve?

○ When the rulers rule to advance the common good or the interests of the people
○ When the rulers rule to advance their personal interests

THE RULE OF ONE

Monarchy
The supreme authority is vested in the monarch, an individual ruler who functions as the head of
the state

Tyranny
An absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law and who maintains his/her position by use of force
and oppressive mechanisms

THE RULE OF THE FEW

Aristocracy
A form of government where its strength is derived from particular privileged group of people

Oligarchy
A form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people.
These people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, education, corporate, religious, political,
or military control.

THE RULE OF THE MANY

Constitutional Government
Defined by the existence of a constitution that establishes fixed norms
to be followed by the government in exercising its power

Democracy
A form of government in which people have the authority to choose their governing legislation

THREE BRANCHES OF A CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRATIC

GOVERNMENT

Executive Branch
The branch of the government which has the power to execute laws in ways
that are efficient but respects human rights

Legislative Branch
The branch of the government which has the power to make, amend, and repeal laws
Judiciary Branch
The branch of the government which has the power
to interpret laws, resolve disputes that arise between individuals or parties

PLATO'S OBJECTION TO DEMOCRACY

● One challenge is how to ensure that the rulers to be elected in a democratic process is
qualified and fit to rule

● The rightful ruler of the country is one with the skill, not the one who is popular among
the people

Demagoguery
Political activity or practices that seek support by appealing to the desires and prejudices of
ordinary people rather than by using rational argument; led by a demagogue

Demagogue
A leader who gains popularity in a democracy by exploiting emotions, prejudice, and ignorance
to arouse some against others, whipping up the passions of the crowd and shutting down
reasoned deliberation

Mobocracy/Ochlocracy
Mob rule is the rule of government by a mob or mass of people and the intimidation of legitimate
authorities

LIMITS OF STATE POWER

STATE AND INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM
The Harm Principle of John Stuart Mill

● The state has the right to regulate the other-regarding actions

○ of its citizens to ensure that these actions will not bring harm to others.

● The state has no right to regulate the self-regarding actions

○ of its citizens even if these actions will bring harm to its doers

REGIONS OF ABSOLUTE LIBERTY

These are the areas of human life where the state has absolutely no right to regulate or interfere
with

REGION OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific,
moral, or theoretical

REGION OF TASTES AND PURSUITS

Freedom of forming the plan of our life to suit our own character, so long as what we do does
not harm others

REGION OF FORMING ASSOCIATION

Freedom to unite, for any purpose not involving harm to others;
the persons combining being supposed to be of fullage, not forced or deceived

STATE AND ECONOMIC FREEDOM

Free Market System/Capitalism
● The elimination of state intervention in economic activities
● The decision on who produces the goods, what goods to produce, forwhom, and at what
price is left totally on the players of the market

Command System/Socialism
● There is a centralized system of state intervention in economic activities