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Available
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www.sciencedirect.com
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620 Ghassen Ben Salem et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 13 (2018) 619–624
Ben Salem Ghassen / 00 (2018) 000–000 2

Figure 1. (a) Schematic of a connection between a low-alloy steel component and a stainless steel pipe; (b) Geometry and constituents of a
dissimilar steel weld [1]

The fracture resistance of the interface is then characterized in section.2 with fracture toughness tests on CT (Com-
pact Tension) specimens in the brittle-to-ductile transition domain. Fracture surfaces are analysed in SEM (Scanning
Electron Microscope) and the critical failure mechanism for the DMW is identified. Finally, a threshold stress for
the identified brittle mechanism is calculated in section.3, using tensile tests on notched specimens at −170◦ C.

2. Micrographic study of the DMW

The DMW under consideration is a 18MND5/316L weld with a 309L/308L buttering. The buttering is made on
the ferritic component surface and is composed of several layers (i.e., the first layer is made of 309L weld metal, the
rest are made of 308L weld metal), then, the welding to the 316L metal is made with a filling of the V groove by
austenitic weld metal (Fig.1(b)).
This paper focuses on the 18MND5/309L interface of the DMW. Its microstructure, studied in [1], is presented
in the as-welded state (after the welding process) and after a PWHT.
Based on WDS (Wavelength X-ray spectrometry) profiles measured across the interface in the as-welded state,
Mas [1] has characterized the different microstructures formed during the welding process(Fig.2(a)):

• On the ferritic base metal side (18MND5), a Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) characterized by its bainitic mi-
crostructure is formed.
• A thin transition layer, along the fusion line, which is composed of a thin martensitic layer and a fully
austenitic zone of about 100µm wide.
• On the weld metal side (309L), the austenitic buttering is characterized by its two-phase δ-γ microstructure.

The martensitic layer formed at the interface results from a combination of the rapid cooling subsequent to
welding and the local chemical composition [2], [3], [4]. High hardness was measured in this transition layer [5],
[6]. The fully austenitic zone shows a microstructure typical of a primary austenite solidification whereas the deposit
material with a two-phase dendritic microstructure is typical of a primary ferrite solidification.
After the welding process, the DMW undergoes a heat-treatment at 610◦ C for 8 hours in order to relax the residual
stresses. Mas[1] explains that carbon diffusion from the low-alloy steel side (18MND5) to the high-alloy side (309L)
is triggered at this temperature resulting in important microstructural heterogeneities over short distances around the
interface. The martensitic layer and the fully austenitic zone undergo a carbon enrichment together with nucleation
and growth of carbides whereas decarburization of the 18MND5 base metal results in the formation of a narrow
decarburized ferritic band (Fig.2(b)). The hardened region (hard layer) composed of the carburized martensite and
the carburized austenite is located between two much softer layers (decarburized ferritic region on one side and the
weld metal 309L on the other side) which creates a local hardness gradient. Coupled with the presence of a large
population of defects (carbides at the grain boundaries), the 18MND5/309L interface could be a potential weak zone
in the SS DMW, thus it is necessary to characterize its fracture resistance.

3. Brittle fracture analysis of DMW at low temperature

3.1. Experimental program

An experimental program carried out by Framatome aimed to study the fracture resistance of a
16MND5(∼A508)/316L DMW at temperatures between −120◦ C and −50◦ C in order to characterize the evolution
of toughness values in the brittle domain up to the upper shelf of the brittle-to-ductile transition. 20 CT specimens
(25 mm thick) were tested according to the ASTM E 1820 standard [7] and were analysed according to the ASTM E
1921 standard [8]. The specimens were sampled from the mock up with the precrack tip located on the ferritic side
at 100µm±100µm from the FL (Fig.3(a)).
2
 Ghassen Ben Salem et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 13 (2018) 619–624 621
Ben Salem Ghassen / 00 (2018) 000–000 3

Figure 2. Optical micrograph of the dissimilar interface : (a) in the as-welded state (b) after PWHT [1]

Figure 3. (a) CT specimens composition and position of mechanical crack tip (b) Fracture toughness vs. test temperature for CT specimens of
16MND5/ (309L/308L) classified by the austenite proportion in the fatigue precrack

3.2. Failure surface analysis

An important dispersion in the brittle-to-ductile transition domain is illustrated on the toughness-temperature

curve (Fig.3(b)) and could be explained by the metallurgic singularity in the interface and also by the difference
in the crack tip position between specimens. Post-mortem observations of fracture surfaces revealed differences in
precracked zones between specimens : some (CT1, CT3, CT6) were mainly in the ferritic side whereas others (CT2,
CT5, CT8) have a mixed precracked surface between austenitic and ferritic steel as illustrated for CT20 on Fig.4(a).
The presence of austenitic zones in the fatigue precrack leads to lower toughness values (i.e CT2, CT20...) whereas
specimens with the highest toughness values have homogeneous fatigue precrack tips mainly in the ferritic side.
SEM observations of mixed precrack specimens (CT20 in Fig.4(b)) show that the specimen failure seems to
initiate from the austenitic zones with an intergranular brittle fracture mode. The grain boundaries observed indicate
an intergranular fracture originating from coarse grains, characteristic of the austenitic buttering, or of the former
austenitic grains of the martensitic layer. We can conclude that the brittle mechanism initiated at the Martensite-
Austenite interface (MA interface). The failure mechanism responsible for the low fracture resistance of the CT
specimens with mixed precrack seems to be an intergranular initiation at the MA interface after a ductile deviation
of the crack from the austenitic starting front to the FL. In the case of a mainly ferritic precrack, the crack does
not seem to deviate towards the MA interface and the initiation of the brittle fracture happens by cleavage in the
ferritic HAZ, leading to higher toughness values. The embrittlement caused by the intergranular initiation on the
MA interface confirms the metallurgical analysis of the previous section and the mechanical and microstructural
heterogeneities existing at this interface.
3
622 Ghassen Ben Salem et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 13 (2018) 619–624
Ben Salem Ghassen / 00 (2018) 000–000 4

Figure 4. (a) Fracture surface of CT20 specimen tested at −100◦ C (b) SEM examination of the fatigue precrack tip in zone A

Figure 5. Positioning of notch from FL in specimen (a) 760AC (b) 760AM (c) 760M

3.3. Toughness analysis

For further analysis of the toughness values, the specimens were classified based on the proportion of austenite
in the fatigue precrack tip (Fig.3(b)). As underlined previously, there is a clear disparity between specimens with
a ferritic fatigure precrack tip (0% austenite) and those with a mixed precrack tip (10% austenite, 30% austenite)
caused by the difference in fracture mechanisms. The proportion of austenite in the precarck tip does not seem to
have a significant influence nevertheless between specimens with 10% or less austenite and 30%, meaning that the
fracture initiation is not volume dependant.
These results have clearly confirmed that the weakest zone in the SS DMW is the MA interface where the
critical fracture mechanism is an intergranular fracture. This brittle mechanism needs to be modeled in order to
build a predictive model of the brittle fracture risk for the SS DMW. Toughness values for CT specimens with
intergranular fracture seem to hit a plateau at low temperatures (under −80◦ C), which is consistent with the notion
of threshold toughness or threshold stress below which brittle fracture cannot occur, already introduced by several
authors [9, 10, 11, 12].
Moreover, considering the role played by the carbides and inclusions in the initiation of the intergranular fracture
mechanism, a 3 parameters Weibull critical stress based model was selected.

4. Determination of threshold stress

4.1. Experimental study and geometry validation

To model the brittle behavior of the MA interface, a stress based criterion with a threshold stress σth was used.
It was shown in [13, 14] that a reliable method to determine σth is to use Notch Tensile (NT) specimens tested at
a very low temperature. Semi-circular notched specimens were chosen with an external diameter of 10mm, a notch
radius of 1mm and depth of 2mm. In a first step, three tests were performed with the same specimen geometry but
with the notch placed at different positions from the hard layer in order to identify the most suitable configuration
for threshold stress calculation (Fig.5). To choose this configuration promoting intergranular initiation at the MA
interface, SEM analysis of the fracture surfaces was coupled with numerical simulation of the tests. Tests were
carried out at −170◦ C to minimize the plastic deformation in the hard layer and a laser beam measurement system
available at CEA Saclay [15] was used to measure local strain during the tests.
For the three specimens, fracture occured in the notch near the FL. SEM images of the fracture surfaces (example
in Fig.6(a))) indicate the presence of both intergranular and cleavage fracture for the three tests, confirming that
the specimens failure occured near the MA interface following two possible scenari : either initiation of the brittle
failure at the MA interface and then deviation to the ferritic side or initiation in the ferritic decarburized layer and
deviation to the MA interface. In specimen ”760AC”, intergranular fracture seems to have developed in a larger area
4
 Ghassen Ben Salem et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 13 (2018) 619–624 623
Ben Salem Ghassen / 00 (2018) 000–000 5

Figure 6. (a) SEM examination of fracture surface (b) and Maximum principal stress profiles in the notch at failure for specimen 760AC

than cleavage fracture, mainly located around the specimen surface. To identify the initiating failure mechanism for
this test, numerical simulation was compared to the SEM analysis.
A F.E.A (Finite Element Analysis) of the tensile tests was developed in CAST3M [16] with an axisymmetric
model taking into account the different layers presented in section1. The hard layer was modeled with a perfect
plastic model and a yield stress of 2000 MPa [1]. The ferritic base metal, the ferritic HAZ, the decarburized HAZ
and the austenitic buttering were characterized by tensile tests on smooth specimens.
Maximum principal stress profile at fracture for specimen 760AC (Fig.6(b)) indicated a stress concentration on
the interface between the hard layer and the buttering. The maximum value was reached at the interface near the
specimen surface. On the ferritic side, principal stress values remained below 1350 MPa which is lower than the
threshold stress of 1375 MPa for 18MND5 ferritic steel [17]. The stress concentration at the specimen surface in
the interface is in agreement with the intergranular fracture observed in Fig.6(a) and sustains the scenario of an
intergranular initiation at the MA interface. On the other hand, specimen ”760AM” configuration developed a stress
concentration in the hard layer and higher stresses on the ferritic side whereas specimen ”760M” configuration
seems to promote cleavage fracture in the ferritic HAZ. Thus, specimen 760AC configuration seems to be the most
suitable for an intergranular initiation at the MA interface and was chosen for the threshold stress identification.

4.2. Threshold stress identification

Five additional NT tensile specimens with the same positioning as specimen 760AC were tested at the same
temperature. Same SEM examinations combined with numerical simulations were carried out to confirm that in-
tergranular initiation at the MA interface was responsible for each specimen failure. The maximum principal stress
(σI ) value at the interface at fracture was also numerically calculated for each specimen and tests were ranked by
increasing σI values. An experimental probability of failure was calculated for each test following :
i − 0, 5
Pr (i) = (1)
N
where i is the rank of the specimen and N the number of tests. Then a 3 parameters Weibull law was used to
define the threshold stress (σth ) below which an intergranular fracture at the MA interface (and brittle fracture of
the specimen in general) cannot occur. According to Fig.7, σth was estimated to be 1620 MPa, the other weibull law
parameters being the weibull modulus mAE and the scale stress σu AE .
Fitted mAE and σu AE values are relatively low due to the high dispersion in σI values caused by the unevenness
of the MA interface. The threshold stress value obtained is consistent with the maximum principal stress profiles
at failure obtained by numerical simulation of the previous CT specimen tests. Specimens which showed an inter-
granular fracture at the MA interface at different temperatures developed in fact principal stresses higher than the
threshold stress of 1620 MPa.

5. Conclusion

This study focused on the brittle behavior of SS DMW in the brittle-to-ductile transition. Its main objectif is
to characterize the fracture resistance of the 18MND5/309L interface where a high variety of microstructures is
formed during the welding process. Moreover, carbon diffusion from the low-alloy ferritic steel (18MND5) to the
weld metal side (309L) during the PWHT creates a hardened layer of carburized martensite and austenite.
This hard layer seems to be a weak zone in the DMW because of the local hardness gradient and metallurgic
singularities. Fracture toughness tests were carried out at temperatures between −120◦ C and −50◦ C, with a precrack
5
624 Ghassen Ben Salem et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 13 (2018) 619–624
Ben Salem Ghassen / 00 (2018) 000–000 6

Figure 7. Three parameters weibull law identification

tip located on the ferritic side near the FL. SEM examination of fracture surfaces showed an intergranular fracture
initiation for CT specimens with mixed fatigue precrack, resulting in lower toughness values. The intergranular
fracture mechanism initiates at the MA interface after a ductile deviation of the crack to the FL. The analysis of
toughness values classified by the proportion of austenite in the fatigue precrack indicated that the intergranular
fracture mechanism is not volume dependent and seems to be correlated to the notion of threshold stress.
A 3 parameters Weibull law was therefore used to model the previous brittle mechanism. Tensile tests on axisym-
metric specimen, which were machined to initiate intergranular fracture in the MA interface and tested at −170◦ C,
were used to calculate a threshold stress (σth ), below which brittle fracture cannot occur. In a first step, the most
suitable NT specimen configuration for threshold stress calculation was chosen by coupling SEM examination with
stress profiles numerical analysis. A threshold stress of 1620 MPa was then calculated.
The other Weibull law parameters (m and σu ) are temperature dependent and will be identified with CT fracture
toughness tests in the brittle-to-ductile transition. Afterwards, the probabilistic model applied on CT specimen tests
must be extended to a structure case. Finally, the effect of thermal ageing on the DMW fracture resistance will be
studied by performing the same tests on a DMW mock-up treated at 400◦ C for 10000 hours [18].

Acknowledgements

This study was sponsored by Framatome with the participation of the MSSMat and CEA/LISN laboratories. The
authors wish to express their gratitude to all the partners who contributed in this work, especially partners from
Framatome GmbH for the experimental program on the DMW mock-up, Eva Héripré (MSSMat) for her help in the
SEM analysis and Olivier Ancelet and Gregory Perez (CEA/LISN) in the experimental development.

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