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Procedia Manufacturing
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48th
48th SME
SME North
North American
American Manufacturing
Manufacturing Research
Research Conference,
Conference, NAMRC
NAMRC 48,
48, Ohio,
Ohio, USA
USA
48th
48th SME
SME North
North American
American Manufacturing
Manufacturing Research
Research Conference,
Conference, NAMRC
NAMRC 48,
48, Ohio,
Ohio, USA
USA
Deep
Deep Learning-Based
48th SME North
Learning-Based Intelligent
American Manufacturing
Intelligent Process
Research
Process Monitoring
Conference, NAMRC
Monitoring
48, of
Ohio,
of Directed
USA
48th SME North American Manufacturing Research Conference, NAMRC 48 (Cancelled due to Energy
COVID-19)
Directed Energy
Deep Learning-Based
Deep Learning-Based Intelligent
Intelligent Process Monitoring
Process Monitoring of Directed
of Directed Energy
Energy
Deposition
Deposition in
in Additive
Additive Manufacturing
Manufacturing with
with Thermal
Thermal Images
Images
Deposition
Deposition in Additive Manufacturing with
with Thermal Images
Xiang Liin
a,∗, Additive
a,∗
a,∗
Manufacturing
Shahin Siahpour
Xiang
aa a Thermal
a Images
a
aa , Jay Leeaaa , Yachao Wangaaa , Jing Shiaaa
a,∗
Xiang Li
Lia,∗
a,∗
,, Shahin
Shahin Siahpour
Siahpouraaa ,, JayJay Lee
Leeaaa ,, Yachao
Yachao Wang Wangaaa ,, Jing
Jing Shi
Shiaaa
Xiang Li a,∗, Shahin
aa Department
Xiang Li
Department
, Shahin
of Mechanical
of Mechanical
a Department
of
Siahpour
Siahpour
and Materials
and Materials ,
, Jay
Jay
Engineering,
Engineering, Lee
Lee ,
,
University
University Yachao
of
of Cincinnati,Wang
Yachao
Cincinnati,Wang ,
,
Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Jing
Jing Shi
ShiUSA.
OH 45220
OH 45220 USA.
of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45220 USA.
Mechanical
aa Department and Materials Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45220 USA.
a Department
Department
of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45220 USA.
of Mechanical
Mechanical and
and Materials
Materials Engineering,
Engineering, University
University of
of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, OH
OH 45220
45220 USA.
USA.
a Department of

Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Additive
Additive
Abstract manufacturing
manufacturing (AM) (AM) techniques
techniques havehave been
been successfully
successfully developed
developed in
in the
the past
past years
years with
with the
the great
great potential
potential of of overcoming
overcoming thethe existing
existing
Additive
obstacles manufacturing
Additive manufacturing
in traditional (AM)
(AM) techniques
techniques
traditional manufacturing.
manufacturing. In have
orderbeen
have been successfully
successfully
to improve
improve developed
developed
the quality
quality thein
of the the
the past
past years
inmanufactured
manufactured with
yearsparts
withand
parts the great
great potential
the reduce
and reduce potential
costs, it it of
is overcoming
of overcoming
important totothe
the existing
existing
timely and
Additive
obstacles manufacturing
in (AM) techniques In have
order been
to successfully
the developed
of in the past years with the great potential
costs, of
is overcoming
important the existing
timely and
obstacles
Additive
obstacles
Additive
accurately in
in traditional
manufacturing
traditional
manufacturing
monitor the manufacturing.
AM(AM)
(AM) techniques
manufacturing.
techniques
process In
In
during order
have
order
have to
been
to
beenimprove the
successfully
improve the
successfully
manufacturing. quality
However, of
developed
quality of
developed
it the
thein
in
remains manufactured
the past
manufactured
the
a past years
years
challenging parts
with
parts
with
task and
the
and
the
due reduce
great
reduce
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to the costs,
potential
costs,
potential
high it
it is
of
is
of important
overcoming
important
overcoming
complexity of to
to
the timely
the
timely
the
AM and
existing
and
existing
process
obstacles inmonitor
accurately traditional
the manufacturing.
AM process In order
during to improveHowever,
manufacturing. the qualityit of the manufactured
remains a challenging parts
task and
due reduce
to the costs,
high it is important
complexity of toAM
the timely and
process
accurately
obstacles
accurately
obstacles
and the in
inmonitor
monitor the
traditional
the
traditional
the difficulty
difficulty inthe AM
AM process
manufacturing.
process
manufacturing.
processing during
In
during
In
the condition
condition manufacturing.
order
order to
to improve
manufacturing.
improve However,
monitoring data.the
the
data. it
quality
However, it
quality
This paper
paperremains
of
of the
remains
the
proposesa
a challenging
manufactured
challenging
manufactured
a deep task
parts
task
parts
deep learning-baseddue
and
due
and
learning-based to
to the
reduce
the
reduce high
costs,
high
costs,
process complexity
it is
complexity
it is
monitoring of
important
of
important the
to
the
methodtoAM
AM process
timely and
process
timely and
for directed
directed
accurately
and monitorin AM process
processing the during manufacturing.
monitoring However,
This it remains
proposesa challenging
a task due to process
the highmonitoring
complexitymethodof the AM
for process
and
and the
accurately
the
accurately
energy difficulty
monitor
difficulty
monitor
deposition in
inin processing
the
the AM
processing
AM
AM. the
process
the
process
The condition
thermalduring
condition
during
images monitoring
manufacturing.
monitoring
manufacturing.
collected data. This
However,
data. This
However,
during paper
it
paper
it proposes
remains
proposes
remains
manufacturing a
a
are a
a
useddeep
challenging
deep
challenging
to learning-based
task due
learning-based
task
identify due
the to
to process
the high
process
the
process high monitoring
complexity
monitoring
condition,complexity
and amethod
of the
method
of the
deep for
AM
for
AM directed
process
directed
process
convolutional
and
energy the difficulty
deposition in processing the condition monitoring data. This paper proposes a deep learning-based process monitoring method for directed
energy
and
energy deposition
thenetwork inin
difficultymodel
deposition in
AM. The
The thermal
inprocessing
AM.
processing thermal images
images
the condition
condition collected
collected
monitoring during
during
data. manufacturing
manufacturing
This paper are
are used
proposes used to
to identify
aa deep
deep identify the
the process
learning-basedprocess condition,
condition,
process monitoringand
and aaamethod
deep
deep
methodconvolutional
convolutional
for directed
and
neural
energy
neural the difficulty
deposition
network inin AM.
model AM.
is The
The thermal
the
is proposed
proposed
thermalto images
to build an
images
build collected
monitoring
ancollected during
end-to-end
end-to-enddata. manufacturing
This
condition
during
conditionpaper
monitoring
manufacturing
monitoringare
are used
proposes to
to identify
framework.
used
framework.identify the
the process
learning-based
Experiments
process
Experiments oncondition,
process
on monitoring
aaa real
real
condition, and
and a deep
directed
directed convolutional
energy
deep for directed
deposition
convolutional
energy deposition
neural
energy
neural network
deposition
network model
in
model is
AM. proposed
The
is out thermal
proposed to build
images
to images an
build The end-to-end
collected
ancollected condition
during
end-to-end monitoring
manufacturing
condition monitoringare framework.
used to
framework.identifyExperiments
the process
Experiments on real
condition,
oncondition, directed
and a energy
deep deposition
convolutional
energy
neural
dataset deposition
dataset network
in AM
in AM are
are in
model AM.
carried
is
carried Thefor
out thermal
for
proposed validation.
to build
validation. The
an during
results suggest
suggest
end-to-end
results manufacturing
the proposed
condition
the proposed
monitoringare used
method to identify
offers
framework.
method offers a the process
a promising
promising
Experimentsapproach
on
approach aa real
real directed
in process
in process
directed energy
and amonitoring
deep
monitoring
energy deposition
convolutional
based on
on
deposition
based
dataset
neural
dataset in AMimages.
network
in are carried
model is out
is for
proposed validation.
to
to build The
an results suggest
end-to-end the
conditionproposed method
monitoring offers
framework. aa promising
Experimentsapproach
on in
aa realprocess
directed monitoring
energy based on
deposition
neural
the
dataset
the in AM
network
industrial are
AMimages.
industrial are carried
model
carried out
out for
for validation.
proposed
Furthermore,
Furthermore, build
little prior
validation.
little priorThe
an
The results
results suggest
end-to-end
knowledge
knowledge on
suggest
on the
condition
signal proposed
theprocessing
signal proposed
processing method
monitoring
and
and AM
method
AM offers
framework.
is
is a promising
required,
offers
required,Experiments
that
promising
that approach
largely
approach
largely in
in process
onfacilitates
real
facilitates directed
the
process
the monitoring
potential
monitoring
potential based
based on
energyapplications
deposition
on
applications
the
the industrial
dataset in AM
industrial
dataset
in the
the in AM
real images.
are
images. Furthermore,
carried out for
Furthermore,
are carried
industrial little prior
validation.
little prior knowledge
The
priorThe
out for validation.
scenarios. results
knowledge on signal
suggest the
on signal
signal
results suggest processing
proposed
processing
theprocessing and AM
method
and AM
proposed method is
AMoffers required,
offers a
is required,
required, that
promising largely
that largely
a promising largely facilitates
approach in
facilitates
approach the
process potential applications
monitoring
the potential
in process potential based
based on
applications
monitoring on
the
in industrial
real images.
industrial Furthermore,
scenarios. little knowledge on and is that facilitates the applications
in
the the
in the
the the real industrial
industrial images.
real industrial
industrial
industrial scenarios.
Furthermore,
scenarios.
images.scenarios. little prior knowledge on signal processing and AM is required, that largely facilitates the
Furthermore, little prior knowledge on signal processing and AM is required, that largely facilitates the potential applicationspotential applications
in real
in
©
in the
2020 realThe
industrial
Authors.scenarios.
Published Elsevier
by Elsevier B.V.

cc the
2019 real
2019 The
industrial
The Authors.
scenarios.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier B.V.
by Elsevier B.V.
cc 2019
This is an open access article under thescientific
CC
B.V.BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)


Peer 2019 The
The
review Authors.
Authors.
under the Published
Published by
by
responsibility Elsevier
of the B.V.
B.V. committee
 c 2019
Peer The under
review Authors.the Published by Elsevier
responsibility of the scientific committee ofof NAMRI/SME.
NAMRI/SME.
 cc 2019
Peer
Peer

Peer
review
Peer-review The
review
2019 under
Authors.
under
The under
review Authors.
under
theresponsibility
the responsibility
Published by
responsibility
the Published
responsibility
of
of the
by Elsevier
ofthe
Elsevier
of the
scientific
B.V.
thescientific committee
Scientific
B.V. committee
scientific committee
of
Committee
of NAMRI/SME.
of the NAMRI/SME.
of NAMRI/SME.
NAMRI/SME.
Peer review
Keywords:
Keywords:
Peer under
under the
reviewAdditive
Additive the responsibility
manufacturing;
responsibility
manufacturing; of
deep
deep the
the scientific
of learning;
scientific
learning; committee
process
committee
process of
monitoring;
monitoring; NAMRI/SME.
ofdirected energy
energy deposition;
NAMRI/SME.
directed deposition; convolutional
convolutional neural
neural network
network
Keywords:
Keywords: Additive
Additive manufacturing;
manufacturing; deep
deep learning;
learning; process
process monitoring;
monitoring; directed
directed energy
energy deposition;
deposition; convolutional
convolutional neural
neural network
network
Keywords: Additive manufacturing; deep learning; process monitoring; directed energy deposition; convolutional neural network
Keywords:
Keywords: Additive manufacturing; deep learning; process monitoring; directed energy deposition; convolutional neural network
Additive manufacturing; deep learning; process monitoring; directed energy deposition; convolutional neural network
binder
binder jetting.
jetting. Among
Among the the approaches,
approaches, the the powder
powder bed bed fusion
fusion
binder
binder jetting.
jetting. Among
Among the
the approaches, the powder bed fusion
1.
1. Introduction
Introduction binder
has been
has been jetting.
popularly
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While the AMAM technologies
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factors,
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methods,present,
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deposition includedpowder
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possible
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such
from some
as
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i.e.
(PBF), five
directed
directed
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energy
lamination are generally
deposition
deposition
process, included
(DED),
(DED),
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powder
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generally
generally
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result
result such
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methods, (PBF),
fusion (PBF), i.e.
(PBF), sheet
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(DED), jetting
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manufacturing power
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factors,
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methods,
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sheet energy deposition
process, material
fusion (PBF), sheet lamination process, material jetting and jetting bed stress
including
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speed,
speed, of
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hatch
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laser power factors,
process etc.
etc.
is
fusion (PBF), sheet lamination process, material jetting and Therefore,
including
Therefore, accurate
laser
accurate monitoring
scanning speed,
monitoring of the
hatch
the manufacturing
distance,
manufacturing laser process
power
process is
etc.
is
fusion (PBF), sheet lamination process, material jetting and including
Therefore,
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important in laser scanning
accurate
accurate
in AM field speed,
monitoring
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order tohatch
of
to the distance,
manufacturing
of improve
the manufacturing
improve laser
the part power
process
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quality etc.
andis
is
∗
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author.
author. Tel.:
Tel.: +1-513-394-9787. important
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important in AM
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∗∗ Corresponding
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author. Tel.:
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+1-513-394-9787. Therefore,
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E-mail address:
Corresponding
∗ E-mail address: li5xi@ucmail.uc.edu
author. (Xiang
+1-513-394-9787.
Tel.: +1-513-394-9787.
li5xi@ucmail.uc.edu (Xiang Li).
Li). reduce
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E-mail address:
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E-mail address: li5xi@ucmail.uc.edu
author.
address:author.
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+1-513-394-9787.
li5xi@ucmail.uc.edu Li).
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10.1016/j.promfg.2020.05.093
644 Xiang Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 48 (2020) 643–649
X. Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
In the current literature, most quality inspection studies are
focused on the surface detection of the manufactured parts
[21, 16], and the process factor monitoring has received less
attention. There are some important factors which affect the
quality of final products [20]. Laser power and scan speed are
among the most important parameters. If either of the two pa-
rameters locates on the outside of the acceptable range, it will
deteriorate the quality of finish product. This study aims to
bridge this gap and offers an effective solution for process mon-
itoring using the images collected by the infrared camera during
manufacturing [18].
With respect to the condition monitoring images, deep learn-
ing is an effective technique for data processing, and has shown
great capability in feature extraction [6, 12, 7, 10]. In general,
deep learning is also known as deep neural network, which con-
sists of multiple layers for representation learning. The high-
level features can be effectively and automatically learned,
which facilitate the following tasks such as classification or re-
gression. Meanwhile, little prior expertise on image processing
and AM is required, that makes it easy for applications in the
real industries.
In the past years, deep learning has been successfully applied
in the industrial condition monitoring problems. For instance,
the fault diagnosis problems of rolling bearing and gearboxes
have been effectively addressed using the latest deep learn-
ing algorithms [22, 13]. Especially, the AM quality inspection
problem has also largely benefited from the development of the
deep neural network. Zhang et al. [21] proposed a deep convo-
lutional neural network model for metal surface quality inspec-
tion in AM. The results show deep learning is well suited for
the image processing problem in AM. Ye et al. [20] proposed a
deep belief network for quality assessment in AM. The straight-
forward implementation flow benefits the real application in the
industries. Grasso et al. [4] provided a comprehensive survey
on monitoring methods in metal PBF. different classifications
of defects and their main causes, are investigated. One of the
main particular focuses is devoted to development of automated
defect detection rules and study of process control strategies.
Marrey et al. [14] proposed a framework for optimization a
PBF process. The proposed framework characterizes the effect
of process parameters. For the optimization of process parame-
ters, they have exploited the Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
model. Delli et al. [2] proposed a method in order to automati-
cally evaluate the quality of the product in AM processes. They
have utilized a machine learning method of Support Vector Ma-
chine to classify the products into two categories.
This paper proposes a deep learning-based process monitor-
ing method for directed energy deposition in AM. The ther-
mal images collected during manufacturing are used to identify
the process parameters. A deep convolutional neural network
model is proposed for feature extraction and process classifica-
tion. Experiments on a real DED thermal image dataset are car-
ried out for validation. The results suggest the proposed method
is able to accurately identify the AM process parameters, which
is also easy for real implementations in the real industries.
2
2
The remainder of this paper starts with the proposed method
in Section 2. The experiments are carried out for validation in
Section 3. We close the paper with conclusions in Section 4.
2. Proposed Method
2.1. Problem Formulation
In this study, the process monitoring problem in additive
manufacturing is investigated based on the sequential thermal
images collected during manufacturing. Specifically, the time-
series thermal images are obtained in multiple AM experiments
j
n
with different process parameters. Let {{xij }i=1
train N s
} j=1 denote the
thermal image dataset where xij represents each image. ntrain j
denotes the number of the images for the j-th AM experiment,
and N s is the number of all the experiments. Correspondingly,
Ns
{y j }i=1 denotes the process parameter labels of the experiments.
Since the process monitoring task is investigated and the pa-
rameters such as laser scanning speed are identified, a single
image can not be used for pattern recognition. Therefore, the
sample in this study is prepared as a series of multiple sequen-
tial images. Let xkj denote the k-th sample of the j-th experi-
ment, and xkj = {xij }i=k
k+NL −1
}, where NL represents the number of
sequential images in each sample.
In general, this study aims to develop a classifier f which
establishes the relationship between the image sample and the
process parameter label through explorations of the training
dataset, i.e. y = f (x). The classifier is expected to accurately
identify the AM process in the testing scenarios.
2.2. Convolutional Neural Network
In the past years, deep learning has been attracting growing
attention and achieved significant success in different applica-
tions, such as speech recognition, image processing, fault diag-
nosis etc. The basic multi-layer perceptron (MLP) architecture
has been well developed. However, the convolutional neural
network (CNN) structure has been more promising for feature
extraction from high-dimensional signals and widely adopted
in a number of industrial tasks [11, 22].
Specifically, the convolutional operation convolves multi-
ple CNN filters on the input data of the network, and the fea-
tures can be obtained. In this study, since the images are pro-
cessed, the 2-dimensional convolutional neural network is used.
Let x denote the input data image sample. The convolutional
operation is defined as a multiply calculation of the filter w,
w ∈ RFL1 ×FL2 and a concatenated data xi:i+F L1 −1, j: j+F L2 −1 , where
xi:i+F L1 −1, j: j+FL2 −1 denotes the pixel area on the image starting
from the (i, j)-th pixel with dimensions of (F L1 , F L2 ). F L1 and
F L2 represent the lengths of the convolutional filter. In this way,
the convolutional operation can be expressed as,
zi, j = ϕ(wT xi:i+F L1 −1, j: j+F L2 −1 + b), (1)
where b and ϕ denote the bias term and non-linear activation
function, respectively. The values of zi, j are the features learned
 Xiang Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 48 (2020) 643–649
X. Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
from the CNN layer with respect to the filter. By sliding the
filter over the input data, the feature map can be thus obtained,
which can be used for further processing.
Generally, the pooling operation is adopted after the con-
volutional layer, which reduces the dimension of the feature
map and extract the most significant features. In most cases, the
average-pooling and max-pooling operations are preferred, that
aim to extract the average and maximum values of the neighbor-
ing data respectively. By stacking the convolutional and pooling
layers, high-level features can be learned, and the down-stream
tasks such as classification can be largely benefited.
2.3. Proposed Network Architecture
In this paper, a deep learning framework is proposed to ad-
dress the process monitoring problem in AM using the thermal
images, and the overview of the proposed method is presented
in Figure 1.
First, the time-series thermal images are assumed to be col-
lected by the cameras, and multiple DED process settings are
considered in this study. Let Nc denote the number of the classes
of the processes. With respect to the sequential images, the sam-
ples are then prepared containing multiple consecutive images.
The samples are fed into the deep neural network model after-
wards for feature extraction and classification.
Specifically, the deep convolutional neural network architec-
ture is adopted in this paper. First, the average-pooling layer is
adopted to reduce the data dimension. Two convolutional layers
are used next with filter numbers of 32 and 16, and filter size of
3×3. The average-pooling operation is also used between the
convolutional layers to further compress the feature maps and
extract the significant features. Afterwards, the obtained fea-
ture map is flattened and linked to a fully-connected layers with
64 neurons. At last, a fully-connected layer with Nc neurons is
adopted, where the neuron values represent the confidence of
the input sample belonging to each class respectively. A soft-
max function is employed to interpret the confidence values to
probabilities. Throughout the network model, the rectified lin-
ear unit (ReLU) activation function is adopted for each layer.
In this way, an end-to-end process monitoring model for
DED is built, which takes the raw thermal images as inputs,
and directly outputs the process inspection results. Therefore,
the proposed method is easy for implementations in the real
AM industries.
2.4. Network Optimization
The proposed deep learning model consists of a large num-
ber of parameters, i.e. the weights and biases in each layer.
Therefore, optimization of the network is of great importance.
In this study, supervised learning paradigm is implemented
for network training. Specifically, the model is supposed to be
trained to minimize the empirical classification errors on the la-
beled training data. Corresponding with the softmax function,
3
645
3
the popular cross-entropy loss function is adopted as the opti-
mization objective Lopt , which is defined as,
ns 
Nc hi
1  e xi, j
min Lopt = − 1 {yi = j} log  , (2)
n s i=1 j=1 Nc hi
e xi, j
m=1
where n s denotes the number of the training samples, and xi,hij
represents the j-th element of the network output vector, taking
the i-th training sample as the input.
Through minimization of Lopt , the prediction errors on the
training data can be minimized, and the model is expected to
achieve good process monitoring performance on the testing
data.
3. Experimental Study
3.1. Dataset Description
In this study, the directed energy deposition process in ad-
ditive manufacturing is investigated. As one of the pioneer re-
searches in the literature on process monitoring using thermal
images, a basic task is focused on, where a straight stick part is
manufactured using DED. A co-axial system equipped with a
2 kW fiber laser system is adopted for the experiment for melt-
ing and depositing the 0Cr18Ni9 powders. Infrared cameras are
employed to capture the temperature information during man-
ufacturing. Figure 2 shows the overview of the experiments in
this study.
Based on the expert knowledge of the AM engineers, the
optimal scanning speed and laser power can be determined, and
they are denoted as v∗ and p∗ , respectively. Specifically, the val-
ues for v∗ and p∗ are 1200 W and 3 mm/s, respectively. In or-
der to evaluate the proposed method, different experiments are
carried out where different process parameters are used. The
thermal image examples in different processes in this study are
presented in Figure 3. It can be observed that different processes
generally have similar patterns, which makes the automatic pro-
cess monitoring task challenging with respect to the raw image
data. Data overlapping is considered in the preparations of the
samples. The detailed information of the experiments is pre-
sented in Table 1.
3.2. Implementation Details
The thermal images in this study are of high resolutions,
which cover a wide range of the monitoring space. In order to
reduce the noise introduced by the environments and decrease
the computing burden, the center areas of the raw images are
extracted as the region-of-interest (ROI), that focus on the man-
ufactured parts specifically. As shown in Figure 4, the image
patches of 300 × 300 regions are used for sample preparation in
this paper.
Based on the dataset information, different process monitor-
ing tasks can be investigated in this study, and the task informa-
tion is presented in Table 2. The four tasks cover a wide range
of the process monitoring problems and can well evaluate the
proposed method.
646 Xiang Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 48 (2020) 643–649
X. Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 4

Fig. 1. Overview of the proposed process monitoring method in additive manufacturing.

Table 1. Dataset information with different experiments. N: Normal condition;

LS: Low speed condition; HS: High speed condition; LP: Low power condition.
v∗ and p∗ denote the optimal scanning speed and laser power respectively.

Experiment Pattern Scanning Speed Laser Power Number of Samples

#1 N v∗ p∗ 21 − NL
#2 N v∗ p∗ 19 − NL
#3 LP v∗ 0.8×p∗ 24 − NL
#4 LP v∗ 0.6×p∗ 19 − NL
#5 LP v∗ 0.4×p∗ 41 − NL
#6 LS 0.8×v∗ p∗ 18 − NL
#7 LS 0.6×v∗ p∗ 17 − NL
#8 LS 0.4×v∗ p∗ 19 − NL
#9 HS 1.2×v∗ p∗ 16 − NL
#10 HS 1.4×v∗ p∗ 17 − NL
Fig. 2. Overview of the DED experiments.

Fig. 4. The region-of-interest of the raw thermal images in this study.

In the model training, Xavier normal initializer is adopted

for the initializations of the deep neural network model param-
eters. Back-propagation is employed for the optimization of the
parameters. Specifically, the popular Adam optimization algo-
Fig. 3. Thermal image examples in different processes of directed energy depo- rithm is adopted with mini-batches. Table 3 presents the de-
sition. tailed model parameters and experimental settings in the pro-
posed method.
4
 Xiang Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 48 (2020) 643–649 647
X. Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 5

Table 2. Information of the process monitoring tasks in this study.

Task Pattern Training Data Testing Data Task Pattern Training Data Testing Data
T1 N #2 #1 T2 N #2 #1
LP #3, #4 #5 LP #3, #5 #4
LS #6, #8 #7 LS #6, #7 #8
HS #10 #9 HS #10 #9
T3 N #1 #2 T4 N #1 #2
LP #3, #4 #5 LP #3, #5 #4
LS #6, #7 #8 LS #6, #8 #7
HS #9 #10 HS #10 #9

Table 3. Parameters used in this paper.

Parameter Value
Epochs 1000
Learning rate 1e-4
Batch size 32
Dropout rate 0.5
ROI dimensions 300 × 300

3.3. Experimental Results

In this section, the process monitoring performance of the

proposed method is evaluated in different tasks. The reported
experimental results are generally averaged by 5 runs to reduce
the influence of model randomness. In order to show the superi-
ority of the proposed deep convolutional neural network model,
a basic deep neural network (DNN) structure is used for com-
parison. Specifically, only three fully-connected layers are in-
cluded in the DNN model, where 512, 256 and 64 neurons are
adopted respectively. The experimental setting is similar with
the proposed method for evaluation.
Figure 5 shows the testing accuracies in the four tasks. It
can be observed that higher than 80% testing accuracies can be
generally obtained in different tasks, which show the effective-
ness of the proposed method in process monitoring. The pro-
posed method also noticeably outperforms the DNN approach
in different scenarios, that indicates the DCNN structure is more
suitable for the thermal image processing problem in additive
manufacturing.
The confusion matrices in the process classification are pre-
sented in Figures 6 and 7. It is noted that promising classifica-
tion performance is achieved in most AM settings, while the
normal and high speed conditions have more errors. That is
mostly due to the fact that fewer training data are generally in-
cluded in that class compared with the other types, and more
labeled samples are expected to further improve the process
monitoring performance.
In the proposed method, the number of the images included
in each sample is a key parameter, and Figure 8 shows its effects
on the model performance on the task T1. It can be observed the
best performance can be achieved with NL = 3. That indicates
large NL may lead to model overfitting while the samples with
5
Fig. 5. Testing accuracies in the four process monitoring tasks. The results of
the proposed method and DNN are presented.
small NL generally do not contain sufficient information for the
process monitoring task.
To further validate the proposed method, the learned features
at the last fully-connected layer are visualized using the t-SNE
method for dimension reduction. The visualization results are
presented in Figure 9. It can be observed that using the proposed
method, good clustering effect is obtained for different kinds of
the processes. The discriminative features of different processes
can be well extracted, and the they are well separated in the
sub-space for classification. The training and testing data are
also well aligned, that suggested the learned process monitoring
knowledge from the training data can be well generalized to the
testing data.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, a deep learning-based process monitoring
method is proposed for directed energy deposition in additive
manufacturing. The thermal images collected during manufac-
turing are used for pattern recognition, and a deep convolutional
neural network model is proposed for processing the time-series
images. Experiments on a real image dataset in DED are carried
out for validation. The results indicate the proposed method is
able to automatically and accurately identify the process vari-
ables such as scanning speed and laser power in AM. The estab-
648 Xiang Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 48 (2020) 643–649
X. Li et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 6

Fig. 6. The confusion matrices in the tasks T1 and T2 using the proposed Fig. 7. The confusion matrices in the tasks T3 and T4 using the proposed
method (%). method (%).

lished end-to-end process monitoring framework requires little

prior expertise on signal processing and additive manufactur-
ing, which largely facilitates applications in the real industries.
It should be pointed out that as a deep learning-based ap-
proach, the main limitation of the proposed method lies in the
requirement of sufficient training data for model development,
i.e. sufficient thermal images in different process patterns. Fur-
ther research works will be carried out on building an effec-
tive process monitoring model in AM with less labeled training
data.

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