Available

Available online
online at
at www.sciencedirect.com
www.sciencedirect.com
Available
Available online
online at
at www.sciencedirect.com
www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect 
ScienceDirect 
ScienceDirect 
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect 
Procedia
Procedia Manufacturing
Manufacturing 00
00 (2020)
(2020) 000–000
ScienceDirect 000–000
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534

49th
49th SME
SME North
North American
American Manufacturing
Manufacturing Research
Research Conference,
Conference, NAMRC
NAMRC 49,
49, Ohio,
Ohio, USA
USA
49th
49th SME
SME North
North American
American Manufacturing
Manufacturing Research
Research Conference,
Conference, NAMRC
NAMRC 49,
49, Ohio,
Ohio, USA
USA
Novel
Novel Fatigue Tester for Additively Manufactured Metals
Novel Fatigue
Novel Fatigue Tester
Fatigue Tester for
Tester for Additively
for Additively Manufactured
Additively Manufactured Metals
Manufactured Metals
Metals
Shyam-Sundar
Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian
Balasubramanian a,, Chris
aa
Philpott b,, James
bb
Hyder b,, Mike
bb
Corliss b,, Bruce
bb
Tai a and
aa
Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian a, Chris
Chris Philpott
Philpott b, James
James Hyder
Hyder , Mike
Mike Corliss
Corliss , Bruce
Bruce Tai
Tai a and
and
Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian , ChrisWayne
PhilpottHung, James
aa
* Hyder b
, Mike Corliss b
, Bruce Tai and
Wayne
Wayne Hung
Hung a*
a *
Wayne Hung *
Texas
Texas bA&M
a
a
A&M University,
University, College
College Station,
Station, Texas
Texas 77843,
77843, USA
USA
Texas bA&M
aa
University,
Knust-Godwin College
LLC, Katy,Station,
Texas Texas 77843, USA
Texas bbA&M University, College Texas 77494,
Katy,Station, USA
Texas 77843,
USA USA
a
Knust-Godwin LLC, 77494,
bKnust-Godwin LLC, Katy, Texas 77494, USA
Knust-Godwin LLC, Katy, Texas 77494, USA
*
* Corresponding
Corresponding author.
author. Tel.:
Tel.: +1-979-845-4989;
+1-979-845-4989; fax:
fax: +1-979-862-7969.
+1-979-862-7969. E-mail address: Hung@tamu.edu
E-mail address: Hung@tamu.edu
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-979-845-4989; fax: +1-979-862-7969. E-mail address: Hung@tamu.edu
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-979-845-4989; fax: +1-979-862-7969. E-mail address: Hung@tamu.edu

Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
This
This paper
paper proposes
proposes aaa dual
dual function
function fatigue
fatigue tester
tester that
that can
can perform
perform both
both the
the traditional
traditional four-point
four-point rotate
rotate bending
bending and
and the
the new
new cantilever
cantilever rotate
rotate
This
This paper
bending
paper proposes
fatigue test.
proposes dual
aThe
dual function
linear
function fatigue
profile of
fatigue thetester that
that can
cantilever
tester perform
specimen,
can both
perform that
bothisthe traditional
simplified
the four-point
from
traditional the rotate
rotate bending
theoretical
four-point cubic
bending and
and the
profile,
theis new cantilever
subjected
new to rotate
uniform
cantilever rotate
bending
bending fatigue
fatigue test.
test. The
The linear
linear profile
profile of
of the
the cantilever
cantilever specimen,
specimen, that
that is
is simplified
simplified from
from the
the theoretical
theoretical cubic
cubic profile,
profile, is
is subjected
subjected to
to uniform
uniform
stress along
bending
stress along the entire
fatigue
the entire
test. Thegage length
linear
gage and alternating
profile
length and alternating between
of the cantilever
between tension and
specimen,
tension and compression
that compression modes
is simplified modes
from theuntil fracture.cubic
theoretical
until fracture. The system
The system isisdesigned
profile,is designed totooperate
subjectedto operate
uniformat
at
stress
stress along
50-60 Hz,
along the
the entire
which is much
entire gage
gage length
faster than
length and
the
and alternating
traditional
alternating between
5-10Hz
betweenin tension and
traditional
tension compression
and push-pull
compression modes
fatigue until
testing.
modes fracture.
fracture. The
until Preliminary system
Thefatigue
system is
is designed
testing on to
to operate
wrought
designed at
Inconel
operate at
50-60
50-60 Hz,
Hz, which
which is
is much
much faster
faster than
than the
the traditional
traditional 5-10Hz
5-10Hz in
in traditional
traditional push-pull
push-pull fatigue
fatigue testing.
testing. Preliminary
Preliminary fatigue
fatigue testing
testing on
on wrought
wrought Inconel
Inconel
718 cantilever
50-60
718 cantilever
Hz, which specimen
specimen showsthan
is much faster
shows random fracture along
the traditional
random fracture along
5-10Hztheinspecimen
the specimen
traditional gage length,fatigue
push-pull
gage length, and successfully
and successfully separationfatigue
testing. Preliminary
separation of fatigue
of fatigue
testingfractured surfaces
on wrought
fractured for
Inconel
surfaces for
718
718 cantilever
subsequent
cantilever specimen
fractography shows
shows random
specimen analysis. The
random fracture
system
fracture along
will be
along the
the specimen
utilized for gage
studying
specimen length,
gagefatigue
length,ofand successfully
selective
and laser
successfully separation
melted of
Inconel
separation fatigue
of 718 and
fatigue fractured
the effect
fractured surfaces
of for
different
surfaces for
subsequent
subsequent fractography
fractography analysis.
analysis. The
The system
system will
will be
be utilized
utilized for
for studying
studying fatigue
fatigue of
of selective
selective laser
laser melted
melted Inconel
Inconel 718
718 and
and the
the effect
effect of
of different
different
post processing
post processing
subsequent parameters.
fractography
parameters.analysis. The system will be utilized for studying fatigue of selective laser melted Inconel 718 and the effect of different
post
post processing
processing parameters.
parameters.
© 2021
© 2019 TheAuthors,
2019 The
The Authors.Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier
Elsevier B.V.B.V.
©
© 2019 The Authors,
Authors, Published
Published by B.V.
This
Peer is an
review open
underaccess
the article by
responsibilityElsevier
under
of the B.V.
thescientific
CC
B.V.BY-NC-ND
committee license
of (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
© 2019
Peer
Peer
The
review
review
Authors,
under
under the
the
Published by
responsibility
responsibility
Elsevier
of
of the
the scientific
scientific committee
committee of NAMRI/SME
NAMRI/SME
Peer-review responsibility of the Scientific committee of
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific Committee
under ofofNAMRI/SME
the NAMRI/SME
NAMRI/SME
Keywords: Additive
Keywords: Additive Manufacturing;
Manufacturing; Selective
Selective Laser
Laser Melting;
Melting; Mechanical
Mechanical Properties;
Properties; Fatigue
Fatigue Testing
Testing
Keywords: Additive Manufacturing; Selective Laser Melting; Mechanical Properties; Fatigue Testing
Keywords: Additive Manufacturing; Selective Laser Melting; Mechanical Properties; Fatigue Testing

1.
1. Introduction
Introduction defects
defects such
such as
as rough
rough surface,
surface, porosity,
porosity, shrinkage
shrinkage cavity,
cavity, lack
lack
1.
1. Introduction
Introduction defects
defects
of such
such as
bonding as rough
rough surface,
between surface,
layers, porosity,
porosity,
microcracks, shrinkage
shrinkage cavity,
cavity, lack
thermal-induced lack
of
of bonding
bonding between
between layers,
layers, microcracks,
microcracks, thermal-induced
thermal-induced
There
There are
are several
several different
different additive
additive manufacturing
manufacturing of bonding between
deformation,
deformation, balling layers,
balling effect,
effect, microcracks,
residual
residual stresses, thermal-induced
stresses, anisotropy,
anisotropy, and and
There
There
techniques are
are
for several
several
metals: different
different
powder bed additive
additive
fusion (PBF), manufacturing
manufacturing
direct energy deformation,
deformation,
partially balling
balling
melted metaleffect,
effect,
powderresidual
residual
on stresses,
stresses,
the outer anisotropy,
anisotropy,
surface of and
and
the
techniques
techniques for
for metals:
metals: powder
powder bed
bed fusion
fusion (PBF),
(PBF), direct
direct energy partially melted metal powder on the outer surface of the
techniques for
deposition,
deposition, metals:
binder
binder powder
jetting,
jetting, wire bed
wire arc fusion (PBF),
arc additive
additive direct energy
manufacturing,
manufacturing, energy
and
and
partially
partially
components
components
melted
melted
[1,2].
[1,2].
metal
metal
The
The
powder
powder
fast
fast
on
on the
heating
heating the
and
and
outer
outer
cooling
cooling
surface
surface
of
of
of
of the
metals
metals the
in
in
deposition,
deposition,
lately the binder
binder
cold sprayjetting,
jetting, wire
wire
additive arc additive
manufacturing. manufacturing,
arc additive manufacturing,
Since the PBF and
and
can components
components
PBF technique [1,2].
[1,2].
may The
The
form fast heating
fastmicrostructure and
heating and coolingcooling
with of metals
of metals
brittle particlesin
in
lately
lately the
the cold
cold spray
spray additive
additive manufacturing.
manufacturing. Since
Since the
the PBF
PBF can
can PBF
PBF technique
technique may
may form microstructure with brittle particles
lately
provide
providethe cold spray
reasonable
reasonable additive manufacturing.
dimensional
dimensional precision,
precision, Since
surface
surface the PBF
finish,
finish, can
and
and PBF
in thetechnique
in the ductile may form
ductile matrix
matrix form
[3]. microstructure
microstructure
[3]. Such
Such brittle with
with brittle
brittle particles
particles brittle
would particles
would particles
fracture
fracture
provide
provideto
ability reasonable
toreasonable dimensional
dimensional
fabricate complex
complex precision,
precision,
geometry surface
components, finish,
surface finish,
it has and
and
has been
been in
in the ductile
the ductile
easily and matrix [3].
matrix [3].
adversely affectSuch
Such
the brittle
brittle
product particles
particles would
would
mechanical fracture
fracture
properties
ability
ability to fabricate
fabricate complex geometry
geometry components,
components, it
it easily and adversely affect the product mechanical properties
ability
utilized
utilizedtofor
forfabricate complex
fabrication
fabrication of
of geometry
superalloy
superalloy components,
components
components it has
has been
in demanding
in demandingbeen easily
easily
while and adversely
and adversely
while shortening
shortening
affect
affect
fatigue
fatigue
the
theof
lives
lives
product
ofproduct
AM
AM metallic
mechanical
mechanical
metallic
properties
properties
components
components [3].
[3].
utilized
utilized for
for
applications fabrication
fabrication
such as of
of
insuperalloy
superalloy
nuclear, components
components
energy, in
in demanding
demanding
aerospace, and while
while shortening
shortening
Although fatigue
fatigue
long-term lives
lives of
of AM
AM
reliabilities metallic
metallic
like creep components
components
and fatigue [3].
[3].
of
applications
applications such as in nuclear, energy, aerospace, and Although long-term reliabilities like creep and fatigue of
applications such
turbomachinery
turbomachinery
as
as in
in nuclear,
suchindustries
industries highenergy,
nuclear,
for high
for energy, aerospace,
aerospace,
temperature
temperature and load
and
and
and
load Although
Although
wrought
wrought
long-term
long-term
engineering
engineering
reliabilities
reliabilities
alloys
alloys have
have been
been
like
like creep
creep and
intensively
intensivelyand fatigue
fatigue of
investigated,
investigated, of
turbomachinery
turbomachinery industries
industries for
for high
high temperature
temperature and
and load
load wrought
wrought engineering
engineering alloys
alloys have been intensively investigated,
bearing
bearing
bearing
applications.
applications.
applications.
Even
Even
Even
though
though
though
a
a wide
wide variety
variety of
of metallic
metallic fatigue
fatigue ofof AM
AM metals
metals havehave
have justbeen
just intensively
recently
recently beguninvestigated,
begun upon
upon rapid
rapid
bearing
powders
powders applications.
are
are available
available Even though aa majority
commercially,
commercially,
wide
wide variety
variety
majority of
of the
the
of metallic
ofpublished
metallic
published
fatigue
fatigue of
of
development
development
AM
AM of
of
metals
metals have
have
technologies
technologies
just
just
for
for
recently
recently
AM
AM
begun
begun
metal
metal
upon
upon
fabrication
fabrication
rapid
rapid
[4].
[4].
powders
powders
literature are
are available
available
covers commercially,
commercially,
research studies formajority
majority
popular of
of the
the
alloys:published
published development
development of
of technologies
technologies for
for AM
AM metal
metal fabrication
fabrication [4].
[4].
literature covers
literature covers research
research studies
studies for
for popular alloys: Ti-6Al-
popular alloys: Ti-6Al-
Ti-6Al-
Changing a component
Changing aa component
Changing
material
component material from
material from wrought
from wrought
wrought toto similar
to similar
similar AMAM
AM
literature
4V,
4V, Inconel
Inconel covers
718
718 research
(IN718),
(IN718), studies forand
austenitic
austenitic popular
and alloys: stainless
martensitic
martensitic Ti-6Al-
stainless Changing
metal for ademanding
metal for component applications,
demanding material fromhowever,
applications, wrought to
however, hassimilar
has not AM
not been
been
4V,
4V, Inconel
Inconel
steels, and 718
718 (IN718),
(IN718),
Al-10Si-Mg. austenitic
austenitic
The Selectiveand
and martensitic
martensitic
Laser Melting stainless
stainless
(SLM), metal
metal for
for
convincing demanding
demanding
due to lack applications,
applications,
of fatigue/creephowever,
however, has
has
studies. Anot
not been
been
typical
steels,
steels, and
and Al-10Si-Mg.
Al-10Si-Mg. The
The Selective
Selective Laser
Laser Melting
Melting (SLM),
(SLM), convincing due
convincing due to lacklack of of fatigue/creep
fatigue/creep studies.
studies. A A typical
typical
steels,
one
one of
of and
the
the Al-10Si-Mg.
PBF
PBF techniques,
techniques,The Selective
uses
uses a
a Laser
high-power
high-power Melting
density
density (SLM),
laser to convincing due to
tensile/compression to lack
fatigue of test
fatigue/creep
of aa single studies.
sample Aat typical
10
10 Hz
one of
one of the
the PBF
PBF techniques,
techniques, uses
uses a high-power
a high-power density laser
density laser
to
laserjoin
to
to
tensile/compression
tensile/compression
tensile/compression
fatigue
fatigue
fatigue
test of
test of
test
single
of 1aa million sample
single sample
single sample at
at
at 10
10
Hz
Hz
selectively
selectively
selectively
melt
melt
melt
metal
metal
metal
powder
powder
powder
particles
particles
particles
and
and
and
systematically
systematically
systematically join
join
would
would
would
take
take
take
28
28
28
hours
hours
hours
to
to
to
complete
complete
complete 1
1 million
million
cycles
cycles
cycles
[5].
[5].
[5]. ItHz
It
It
is
is
selectively
layers
layers to
to melt
form
form ametal
complexpowder
shape
a complex shape particles and
component.
component. systematically
As
As seen with
seen with join
all
all would take that
envisioned
envisioned 28 hours
that to completefatigue
aa comprehensive
comprehensive 1 million
fatigue study
studycycles
would
would [5].
be
be It is
very
very is
layers
layers
additiveto form
form aa complex
to manufacturing
complex shape
shape
(AM) component.
component.
processes for As
As seen
seenthe
metals, with
with
SLM all
all envisioned
envisioned
tedious, that
that aa comprehensive
comprehensive fatigue study
study would
fatigue giving would be
be very
very
additive
additive manufacturing
manufacturing (AM)
(AM) processes
processes for
for metals,
metals, the
the SLM
SLM tedious, expensive,
tedious, expensive,
expensive,
and
and time
and time consuming
time consuming
consuming giving
giving
the
the numerous
the numerous
numerous
additive manufacturing
components
components in its
in (AM) processes
its as-fabricated
as-fabricated conditionfor
condition metals,
contain
contain onethe
one or SLM
or more
more tedious,
defects
defects on
onexpensive,
the
the andand
surfaces
surfaces time
and consuming
inside
inside fatiguegiving
a fatigue
a the fabricated
specimen
specimen numerous
fabricated
components
components in in its
its as-fabricated
as-fabricated condition
condition contain
contain one
one or or more
more defects
defects on
on the
the surfaces
surfaces andand inside
inside aa fatigue
fatigue specimen
specimen fabricated
fabricated
2351-9789 © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
2351-9789
This is an©
2351-9789 2019
©open The
The Authors,
2019 access Published
article
Authors, under by
Published theElsevier
by B.V.
CC BY-NC-ND
Elsevier B.V. license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
2351-9789
Peer © 2019 Theresponsibility
Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V.Committee
Peer review
review©under
Peer-review
2351-9789 2019
under the
under responsibility
Theresponsibility
the of
of the
of scientific
Authors, Published
the the committee
B.V. of
Scientific
by Elsevier
scientific committee of NAMRI/SME
of the NAMRI/SME
NAMRI/SME
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of NAMRI/SME
10.1016/j.promfg.2021.06.054
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of NAMRI/SME
526 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
2 Balasubramanian et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000

by AM route. High frequency tensile fatigue is limited due to a specimen, it is commonly to report the stress ration R, which
heating of the sample and requires a complex cooling system. is defined as the ratio of the minimum stress and the maximum
Ultrasonic testing at kHz range can shorten the testing cycle, stress (Equation 1). A negative R ratio means the part is
but does not provide true fatigue life when operating at much subjected to alternate tensile and compressive stress. A special
lower frequency; current rotate bending fatigue testing method case for R = -1 would indicate a test with opposite sign and
can increase the testing frequency but the highest stress is only equal magnitude stresses as seen in a reversed bending test.
concentrated to small stress volume. Applying a uniform stress 𝜎𝜎���
𝑅𝑅 � (1)
on a large area or volume of a specimen would allow us to 𝜎𝜎���
detect any significant defects depending on location of the
Where,
worst defect. The need for a sound economical fatigue testing
𝑅𝑅 : Stress ratio
technique that can operate at high frequency while uniformly
𝜎𝜎��� : Maximum amplitude of stress (positive if
stressing a large volume of a specimen is urgently sought for
tension, negative if compression)
timely characterization of AM metals after fabrication as well
𝜎𝜎��� : Minimum amplitude of stress (positive if
as investigating the effects of post processing on fatigue life.
tension, negative if compression)
The objectives of this paper are to:
The high cycle fatigue properties of SLM components are
1. Review current fatigue testing techniques
traditionally studied using rotating bending fatigue tests or
2. Summarize published fatigue studies of IN718 in both
axial push-pull type fatigue tests (Fig. 1) [1].
wrought and AM conditions.
3. Present the design of a cantilever fatigue specimen.
4. Show the dual-function fatigue tester and preliminary
fatigue test results.

Nomenclature

AM Additive Manufacturing.
CAD Computer Aided Design.
d Specimen diameter.
ED Energy density.
F Load applied on cantilever specimen.
Fct Load applied on cantilever specimen.
FEA Finite Element Analysis.
h Hatching distance.
Fig. 1. Schematics of traditional fatigue testing techniques: (a) axial push-
HIP Hot Isostatic Pressing.
pull test, and (b) four-point rotate bending test.
IN718 Inconel-718.
LM Gage length of the specimen.
M Bending moment.
P Laser Power.
PBF Powder Bed Fusion.
R Stress Ratio.
Sa Maximum bending stress.
SLM Selective Laser Melting.
t Layer thickness.
V Beam scanning speed.
Vct Stressed volume in cantilever specimen.
Vrb Stressed volume in four-point bending
specimen.
xi Horizontal distance along specimen length.
σmax Maximum amplitude of stress.
σmin. Minimum amplitude of stress.
ω Angular velocity.

2. Literature Review Fig. 2. Results of finite element analysis showing stress developed in
traditional fatigue specimen: (a) axial push-pull type specimen and (b) four-
2.1. Fatigue testing of AM components point rotate bending tests.

A specimen under fatigue study is subjected to applied In axial push-pull type fatigue tests, a cyclical axial load P
cyclic stress amplitude and mean stress until fracture. To is applied to the specimen using a servo-hydraulic testing
measure the fatigue cyclic mean stress and stress amplitude on machine which develops a high homogeneous stress in the gage
 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000
section LM of the specimen (Fig. 2a). The FEA analysis is
conducted on representative geometries specified in ASTM
E466 for axial push pull type specimens with displacement
boundary conditions applied to simulate experimental loading;
where gage specimen length is 100mm, and the gage section
diameter is 10mm. The stress analysis is conducted using
commercial FEA solvers found in ANSYS; to calculate the
stress experienced by specimens tested. Analysis was
conducted using isotropic linear elastic model because high-
cycle fatigue is conducted below the yield strength of the
material and no local stress concentrations were observed. All
CAD models were meshed using fine hexahedron mesh. While
setting up FEA simulations for fatigue tests with rotating
specimen, a rotational velocity boundary condition was applied
to account for stress induced in the cage volume due to dynamic
effects. For geometry defined in Fig. 2a, a displacement
boundary condition is applied to simulate push-pull type
loading. In Fig. 2b, displacements in x-axis and y-axis are
constrained at the grips of the model and a moment load is
applied to simulate four-point rotate bending.
Due to the high homogenous stress developed within the
gage section of the specimen, there is a high probability that
defects that exist in the highly stressed volume will cause
initiation of fatigue cracks. The axial push-pull type tests can
be used to characterize the effect of various defects in SLM
components and how the interaction of the defects influence
the fatigue performance of SLM components because the entire
volume of the gage section is subject to a high homogeneous
stress. However, axial push-pull type fatigue tests are
expensive and time consuming to conduct because of low
cyclic loading frequencies between 5-20Hz, and hence it is very
inefficient way to characterize the multitude of fatigue
properties of SLM components fabricated using different
process parameters and post processing treatments. While
commercial push-pull type machines can apply loads at a
higher frequency, the loading of the entire gage volume causes
the specimens’ temperature to rise requiring expensive cooling
setup to prevent microstructural changes influencing fatigue
results [6]. Most of the recent literature on tension/compression
fatigue test of additively manufactured components are
conducted at loading frequency less than or equal to 20Hz [5,7–
9].
In order to address the deficiencies with axial push-pull type
fatigue testing, industry has adopted the rotating four-point
rotate bending fatigue testing technique. In four-point rotate
bending tests the specimen is clamped at both its ends while it
is being rotated as shown in Fig. 1b, and a load P is applied to
the specimen forming a uniform bending moment M to develop
across the length of the specimen. The four-point rotate
bending specimen has a fillet diameter of 250mm, and a total
length of gage section is 90mm; and the stress distribution in
FEA analysis (Fig. 2b) is obtained by applying pure bending
moment at the ends of the specimen. The uniform bending
moment develops a peak compressive stress on the outer fibers
of the specimen when observed in its top configuration and a
peak tensile stress to be developed in the outer fibers of the
specimen when observed in its bottom configuration. The
rotate-bending tests allow for faster fatigue cyclic loading of
up-to 50Hz, which significantly reduces the testing times
527
3
required. Due to the specimen geometry, a rotate bending
fatigue test (i) always breaks a specimen at the middle of gage
section, and (ii) initiates a fatigue crack in the highly stressed
regions at the outer surface of a specimen [10]. The defects,
produced in additive manufacturing and are present at both
exterior surface and interior volume of a fatigue specimen, are
equally affecting push-pull fatigue tests but not with rotate-
bending tests since the latter produces non-uniformed stress
across the specimen gage length.
2.2. Fatigue of Inconel-718
In a typical SLM process, a thin layer of metal powder --
typically 30-50μm average diameter-- spreads to form a thin
layer with thickness in the range of 1-5 powder size on a
powder bed in an inert atmosphere chamber; a powerful laser
(20-1000W) is then used to melt powder corresponding to the
CAD geometry of the part. The powder bed is lowered, and
metal powder is deposited again for the next laser scan; these
steps are repeated until the complete CAD geometry is built.
An inert gas environment, typically argon, is used to prevent
oxidation and other undesired interactions between the powder
bed, melt pool and the component being fabricated [11]. The
influence of volumetric and surface defects and its influence on
mechanical properties of SLM'ed components have been
reported in literature [10,12]. The effect of energy density and
its propensity to causing different types of porosity and its
distribution within SLM components has been identified [13].
The study concluded that high energy density would reduce
porosity density, but the pore density near the surface was 3-20
times higher than that at the interior region (Fig. 3). Such
concentrated porosity in the periphery of the component acts as
stress riser and initiates fatigue cracks in push-pull fatigue tests
and particularly in the early stage of rotate bending tests.
Fig. 3. Composite image of typical SLM'ed Inconel-718 at different height
sections [13].
Depending on the energy density levels, different scanning
strategies, inferior quality of the powder, and inevitable
solidification shrinkage would form both harmful spherical and
irregular shaped pores inside and outside of an AM product.
Irregular shaped pores are considered to be the critical defect
in fatigue failure of SLM components [14].
Besides porosity, rough surface and brittle phases in AM
metals are considered detrimental to fatigue life. Rough surface
finish on as-printed SLM components was reported in the range
528 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
4 Balasubramanian et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000

17μm-20μm [2]. Poor surface roughness is caused by the 2. For the same fatigue life of 106 cycle, a wrought
combination of 'staircase effect', balling effect, spatters, and specimen can be loaded to 500 MPa, but an as-printed
partially melted powder on a surface (Fig. 4). The irregularity SLM specimen can withstand only up to 250 MPa or
on AM surface, could act as multiple stress risers and crack half of the load for wrought specimen [15–20].
initiation sites, must be removed by post processing steps such 3. The wrought material seems to have a fatigue limit of
as machining, etching, and polishing. approximately 450 MPa, but the as-printed SLM does
not [15–20].
4. The fatigue of post-processed SLM specimen matches
that of wrought material [15–20].
It is clear that defects induced in additive manufacturing
must be minimized for AM metals that are intended for fatigue
loading applications. This can be done by (i) optimizing
process parameters of SLM process, and (ii) developing
suitable post processing techniques. Process parameter
improvements focus on eliminating/minimizing porosity in
SLM components by identifying the best energy density
parameters [13,21] and reducing anisotropy in SLM
components by identifying the best orientation of the
component in the powder bed [22]. Post-printing processes aim
to remove defects caused by SLM process while providing the
required dimensional form requirement of an engineering
a
component. The review of common post processing techniques
using thermal, mechanical, chemical, and physical mechanisms
can be found in published literature [23]. Heat treatment
techniques, such as homogenization and solution treatment and
ageing, are used to improve the microstructure of SLM
components by dissolving brittle particles in the microstructure
and precipitating strengthening phases. Hot isostatic pressing
(HIP) is used to “heal” most pores in SLM components by
heating the components to a high temperature and applying an
isostatic pressure. Material removal processes such as
machining and polishing are used to improve the surface finish
of rough AM surface. In absence of an HIP’ing step, machining
process also remove regions of high porosity density in the
periphery of SLM components.
10μm

b
Fig. 4. Typical fatigue sensitive defects in SLM IN718: (a) rough outer
surfaces due to 'staircase effect' and partially melted powder, and (b)
shattered brittle phases (at arrows).

The microstructure of SLM components is complicated with

secondary phase particles providing strength through
precipitation hardening and solution hardening mechanisms.
However, due to the rapid cooling of the melt pool in SLM
process causes segregation of impurity elements to form low
melting point brittle phases [10]. These brittle particles, such as
Laves phase in SLM IN718, are shattered when subjected to
even low stress/strain level and initiate a crack in fatigue
loading (Fig. 4b).
The defects and anisotropy in SLM components would
cause significant scattering of data and inferior fatigue Fig. 5. Compilation of S-N curves from published literature comparing
performance when compared to the fatigue of the wrought high-cycle fatigue properties of SLM'ed Inconel-718 and wrought Inconel-
materials (Fig. 5). Upon compiling information from different 718 [15–20].
published sources, the data from this Figure show:
1. At 500 MPa stress level, an as-printed SLM specimen 3. Design of cantilever fatigue sample
would fail after 105 cycles, but the wrought specimen
would last till 106 cycles [15–20]. A new approach is developed in order to address the
deficiencies of the traditional methods of fatigue testing,
 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534 529
Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000 5

namely the push-pull and four-point rotate bending testing.

Similar specimen has been used for low cycle fatigue
performance analysis of aluminum [24], however this research
simplifies the approach and design for high cycle fatigue
testing.
The objective is to increase the loading frequency while
increasing the stressed volume of a fatigue specimen. A
cantilever-based fatigue testing technique is developed to allow Fig. 7. Bending stress distribution in the cross-section of the cantilever
us to apply cyclic fatigue loads on the specimen at a frequency specimen due to the applied load P on zone 3 of the specimen.
of 50Hz and possibly higher. The basic schematic of test is
shown in Fig. 6a, where the specimen is clamped in zone 1 of The design of theoretical beam dimension using the bending
the specimen and a load is applied in zone 3 of the specimen. stress Equation (2), which can be simplified to determine the
The specimen geometry is designed so that when the diameter of the specimen at each horizontal position using
specimen is clamped and loaded, a uniform peak stress is Equation (2) that gives the values of specimen diameter that
developed on the outer fibers of the specimen. The high yields a cubic profile in the gage section of the specimen. Fig.
uniform peak stress developed in the specimen is applied on the 8 shows the peak stress developed in the gage section of the
specimen in a cyclic fashion when the specimen is rotated. Due specimen where the profile of the specimen is generated using
to a higher loading frequency than axial push-pull type, this Equation (4).
cantilever testing technique allows (i) shorter fatigue testing
time, (ii) the entire surface of the specimen to be subjected to a 32 � 𝑀𝑀
uniform stress, however it does not provide a uniform stress 𝑆𝑆� � (2)
𝜋𝜋 � 𝑑𝑑�
throughout the specimen volume.
32 � 𝑀𝑀
𝑑𝑑 � � (3)
𝜋𝜋 � 𝑆𝑆�
𝑀𝑀 � 𝐹𝐹 � 𝑥𝑥� (4)
Where,
𝑆𝑆� : Maximum bending stress (N/mm2)
d : Specimen diameter (mm)
𝑀𝑀 : Bending moment (N-mm)
𝐹𝐹 : Load applied on cantilever specimen (N)
𝑥𝑥� : Horizontal distance along gauge length (mm)

Fig. 6. Cantilever beam design: (a) Schematic and loading, (b) Principal
stress profile in the specimen.

3.1. Cantilever fatigue specimen design

When a specimen is loaded in a cantilever configuration,

bending stress is the dominant stress that is acting across the
length of the specimen. Referring to Fig. 6, the load P applied
in zone 3 of the specimen causes a bending moment M to act
on the specimen. The peak tensile stress is developed in the Fig. 8. Peak stress developed in the gage section of the specimen with a
outer fibers and decreases steadily towards the neutral axis of cubic profile in gage section (Perfect Specimen).
the specimen (Fig. 7), and a peak compressive stress is
developed towards the outer fibers at the bottom side. The
design procedure is described below.
530
6 Shyam-Sundaret Balasubramanian
Balasubramanian
al./ Procedia Manufacturing
Fig. 9. Peak stress developed in the gage section of the specimen with a
linear profile in gage section (Optimized Specimen).
Since manufacturing of the cubic profile for the gage section
would be a tedious and challenging task for machining,
grinding, polishing, and measuring, this complex profile can be
simplified to a linear profile using the least squares
approximation technique. The simplification of the profile of
the gage section, however, causes a slight variation of the peak
stress developed in the gage section of the specimen (Fig. 9).
The maximum stress fluctuation, calculated to be 8% (Table 1)
for the linear specimen, is considered small and negligible
compared to the large variation of material properties among
different fatigue specimens.
Table 1 compares the stress developed in the gage section of
the perfect specimen and the optimized specimen based on the
FEA results; where specimens of similar volume were
subjected to different loads to ensure that similar average
stresses were developed in the specimen. The difference of the
cubic-profile and the linear-profile at the gage length section of
the two specimens is shown in Fig. 10. An FEA study was then
performed using the linear profile to verify the stress contour
upon loading. A uniform stress along the gage length is
obtained as shown in Fig. 11. The final dimensions and other
details of the linear-profile specimen is presented in the
Appendix.
Cubic profile Linear profile
Fig. 10. Comparison of gage section geometry of optimized specimen (red
color) overlaid on top of the perfect specimen (translucent blue color).
et al. / Procedia
Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
00 (2020) 000–000
Fig. 11. FEA analysis showing uniform bending stress developed in the gage
section of the linear-profile cantilever beam.
Table 1. FEA results of cubic and linear-profile cantilever beams with the same
volume.
Parameter Cubic-profile Linear-profile
specimen specimen
Load applied (N [Kgf]) 640 [65] 490 [50]
Average stress in gage section (MPa) 724.4 723.4
Maximum stress (MPa) 732.8 742.2
Minimum stress (MPa) 718.6 678.9
Difference in stress (%) 1.9 8
4. Design of dual function fatigue tester
A multi-purpose fatigue tester was designed and fabricated.
This system can perform fatigue tests with either a cantilever
sample or four-point rotate bending sample. The design
specifications included:
─ Robust design for reliable and long testing time,
─ Preservation of fractured surface from failed
specimens,
─ Adaptability for operation at high frequency,
─ Automatic data acquisition and processing capability,
─ Reasonable cost.
4.1. Cantilever configuration
Fig. 13 shows the fatigue tester for cantilever specimens. As
the motor rotates the specimen, a cyclic fatigue loading of the
gage section of the specimen takes place. Because of the
minimum variation in the peak stress developed in the gage
section of the specimen, it can be assumed that the specimen
will randomly fracture at any point in the gage section of the
specimen. Once the specimen fractures, the collet adapter and
a specially designed load catcher assembly would catch the
falling half of the specimen, prevent it from rubbing against the
other half, and allow subsequent analysis of the fractured
surface. In order to prevent torsional loads to be applied on the
specimen, a load application adapter is fabricated that applies
the load on the specimen through a bearing to ensure that the
specimen is subject to pure cantilever loading. The cross
section of the CAD model of the load application mechanism
is shown in Fig. 12., where a steel taper adapter (Fig. 12(2)) is
inserted on the cantilever fatigue testing specimen (Fig. 12(1)).
A bearing (Fig. 12(4)) in the load attachment assembly isolates
the applied load applied on the Teflon ring (Fig. 12(3)).
 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000
Fig. 12. Model of the load application mechanism. (1) Cantilever fatigue
testing specimen, (2) taper adapter, (3) Teflon ring and (4) bearing.
Both optical and infrared based sensors are installed to count
the number of revolutions of the motor and to record the spindle
rotation speed, these sensors are interfaced to a computer using
an Arduino Microcontroller. When a specimen breaks, a double
pole double throw (DPDT) switch is tripped, which in turn
turns off the motor.
The cantilever fatigue testing technique is not widely used,
and hence no ASTM standards exist to test the fatigue
properties of metals. This will cause nonstandard adoption of
the test defined in this paper. Furthermore, even though the
machine is inexpensive to fabricate, fabrication of the fatigue
specimen requires care to ensure that a uniform stress
distribution is achieved in the gage length of the specimen.
Fig. 13. Model of fatigue tester using cantilever specimen. (1) Cantilever
specimen, (2) Load application adapter, (3) Load, (4) AC motor and (5)
Collet adapter.
4.2. Four-point rotate bending configuration
The cantilever fatigue tester in Fig. 13 can be re-configured
to conduct four-point rotate bending tests by making minor
modifications to the system (Fig. 14). A four-point rotate
bending specimen is clamped in a collet adaptor as before, its
other end is secured with a second collet mounting on a
separate adaptor. Pivoting mountings allow a single load below
to provide pure bending on four-point rotate bending
configuration. While there are no ASTM standards for
application of rotating bending fatigue testing, the four-point
rotate bending configuration of the machine functionally
represents a R.R. Moore fatigue testing machine and the fatigue
testing specimen used in the four point bending test is
according to dimensions specified and used in Moore rotating
bending test [25].
531
7
Fig. 14. Model of fatigue tester using four-point rotate bending specimen.
Additional components include (1) Four-point rotate bending specimen, (2)
Collet adapters, and (3) Load.
The robust AC motor is expected to operate continuously at
a preset rotation speed until it is switched off by the DPDT
switch. The current motor can be set to operate up to 3000 rpm
(50Hz), although a new motor with faster speed rating can be
installed in future. Table 2 compares the three fatigue testing
techniques.
 The push-pull testing can stress 100% of the material
volume in a specimen gage length and preserve the
fractured surfaces upon specimen failure, however, a
typical hydraulic system is expensive and slow.
 The four-point bending technique can operate at faster
frequency than the push-pull method, but a specimen is
stressed at the outer surface for approximately 2.64% of
the gage volume (example of stressed volume calculation
is described in Fig.15). The stressed volume of the
specimen is the gage volume of the specimen subject to
stress that is greater than 90% of the peak stress developed
in the specimen when loaded. In this test, the two adjacent
fractured surfaces could rub together and wipe off the
evidence of original crack sites. The specimen geometry
induces final fracture at the middle of the gage length and
not randomly due to defects at different locations.
 The proposed rotate cantilever testing method can operate
faster than the push-pull technique, with highest stress
spreading over a larger surface of the entire cantilever
beam. The design allows separation of two fatigue surfaces
upon fractured, therefore, subsequent fractography study
can be performed. Having a larger stressed surface and
volume would be beneficial in fatigue study, especially for
AM metallic specimens with random distribution of
defects on the surface and interior volume. Furthermore,
the stress stressed volume is in the outer surface of the
specimen, and any heat generated due to high loading
frequency is dissipated to the surroundings eliminating
needs for specimen cooling.
532 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
8 Balasubramanian et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000

specimens were subjected to a load such that the peak stress

Table 2. Comparison of fatigue testing specimens. developed in the specimen were the same.
Criteria Push-pull Four-point Rotate
bending cantilever
5. Preliminary Results
Loading
5-20 50 50-60
frequency (Hz)

Stressed 100 2.64 32.36

volume (%)

Preservation of
Yes No Yes
fractured
surfaces

Material cost 100 (base) 80 65

saving (%)
Infinite
Alternate Alternate
(negative to
Stress ratio R (-1) (-1)
positive)

b
Fig. 16. The dual function fatigue tester in (a) cantilever rotate bending
mode, and (b) four point rotate bending mode.

Fig. 15. Calculation of highly stressed volume of material in (a) a four-point 10mm
bending specimen and (b) a cantilever specimen.
a
In Fig. 15 the boundary conditions used to calculate the
volume of material subject to 90% of the peak stress or greater
is shown, along with the boundary conditions used to conduct
the FEA analysis. In Fig. 15a, the rotating bending specimen is
subject to a bending moment and a rotational velocity. The
peak stressed volume (0.90Vrb) is calculated in ANSYS using
postprocessing features that display only the section of the
specimen subject to at least 90% of the peak stress, and the
results were corroborated with the CAD geometry of the 10mm
specimen to calculate the stress volume. In Fig. 15b, the
cantilever specimen’s model is fixed on the fixed end, a b
rotational velocity is applied and an axial load is applied to Fig. 17. Fatigue samples that (a) were fractured at random location within
simulate the cantilever fatigue testing condition. The peak the gage length, and (b) separated upon fracture and preserved details on
stressed volume of material subject to a stress greater than 90% fatigue surfaces.
of the peak stress is calculated using ANSYS, and the stressed
volume is calculated. In order to compare results, the The cantilever fatigue testing technique offers a quick
method to fatigue fracture specimens for comparing
 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000
performance of AM materials fabricated by different ways. Fig.
16a shows the system during testing of a cantilever beam while
Fig. 16b shows a fractured specimen and an adaptor for four-
point bending test. Additional load is used to balance the
weight of the motor.
In the preliminary test for cantilever beam configuration, a
load of 20Kgf was applied to generate the maximum stress of
480MPa at the specimen surface, which is about 40% of the
material tensile strength after precipitation hardened. The
specimen fractured after 450,000 cycles when rotated at 3200
rpm (53.3Hz). Preliminary tests of the system use specimens
machined from an extruded and hardened IN718 bar. As
expected, the fatigue specimen fractured at random location
within the gage length and the two fractured surfaces were
preserved without rubbing against each other (Fig. 17).
6. Conclusion
Defects in additively manufactured metals compromised the
mechanical and fatigue performance of a product. Both surface
and volume defects must be minimized if not eliminated to
ensure of the product reliability. Design and fabrication of a
novel fatigue testing system was complete; the testing system
can:
1. Stress the entire surface of a cantilever specimen during
rotate bending test. The linear-profile fatigue specimen
simplifies the cubic-profile geometry for ease of
fabrication and metrology.
2. Use either cantilever or four-point rotate bending
fatigue specimens.
3. Operate at 50Hz although it is capable to perform in the
range 5-60 Hz. High frequency loading saves time to
compare fatigue properties of materials manufactured
by different routes.
4. Preserve fatigue fractured surfaces for subsequent
fractography study.
5. Unlike the tensile specimen when a small change in
gage length is acceptable, the profile of a cantilever
specimen is sensitive to gage length. The precision
dimensions of cantilever specimen require CNC
machining while others can be made with less
sophisticated equipment.
7. Future work
The new fatigue testing system was built. Future work
would include:
a. Finding the upper limit of operating frequency without
thermal degradation of the test specimen.
b. Comparing fatigue data from cantilever beam testing
with those from four-point rotate bending, and push-
pull fatigue testing.
Acknowledgment
Support from the KGSBO company is much appreciated.
533
9
Appendix A. Engineering drawing of the cantilever fatigue
specimen
Units: mm
References
[1] Balasubramanian, S.-S., Philpott, C., Hyder, J., Corliss, M., Tai, B., and
Hung, W. N., 2020, “Review of Testing Techniques and Fatigue of
Additively Manufactured Inconel 718,” Int. J. Eng. Mater. Manuf, 5(4),
pp. 156-194.
[2] Jain, S., Corliss, M., Tai, B., and Hung, W. N., 2019, “Electrochemical
Polishing of Selective Laser Melted Inconel 718,” Procedia
Manufacturing, Elsevier B.V., pp. 239–246.
[3] Popovich, A. A., Sufiiarov, V. S., Polozov, I. A., and Borisov, E. V.,
2015, “Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Inconel 718
Produced by SLM and Subsequent Heat Treatment,” Key Eng. Mater.,
651–653, pp. 665–670.
[4] Molaei, R., and Fatemi, A., 2018, “Fatigue Design with Additive
Manufactured Metals: Issues to Consider and Perspective for Future
Research,” Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Ltd, pp. 5–16.
[5] Hu, Y. N., Wu, S. C., Wu, Z. K., Zhong, X. L., Ahmed, S., Karabal, S.,
Xiao, X. H., Zhang, H. O., and Withers, P. J., 2020, “A New Approach
to Correlate the Defect Population with the Fatigue Life of Selective
Laser Melted Ti-6Al-4V Alloy,” Int. J. Fatigue, 136, p. 105584.
[6] Guennec, B., Ueno, A., Sakai, T., Takanashi, M., and Itabashi, Y., 2014,
“Effect of the Loading Frequency on Fatigue Properties of JIS S15C Low
Carbon Steel and Some Discussions Based on Micro-Plasticity
Behavior,” Int. J. Fatigue, 66, pp. 29–38.
[7] Watring, D. S., Carter, K. C., Crouse, D., Raeymaekers, B., and Spear,
A. D., 2019, “Mechanisms Driving High-Cycle Fatigue Life of as-Built
Inconel 718 Processed by Laser Powder Bed Fusion,” Mater. Sci. Eng.
A, 761.
[8] Nicoletto, G., 2019, “Smooth and Notch Fatigue Behavior of Selectively
Laser Melted Inconel 718 with As-Built Surfaces,” Int. J. Fatigue, 128,
p. 105211.
[9] Sarkar, S., Siva Kumar, C., and Kumar Nath, A., 2017, “Effect of Mean
Stresses on Mode of Failures and Fatigue Life of Selective Laser Melted
Stainless Steel,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 700, pp. 92–106.
[10] Balachandramurthi, A. R., Moverare, J., Dixit, N., and Pederson, R.,
2018, “Influence of Defects and As-Built Surface Roughness on Fatigue
Properties of Additively Manufactured Alloy 718,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A,
735, pp. 463–474.
[11] Yap, C. Y., Chua, C. K., Dong, Z. L., Liu, Z. H., Zhang, D. Q., Loh, L.
E., and Sing, S. L., 2015, “Review of Selective Laser Melting: Materials
and Applications,” Appl. Phys. Rev., 2(4), p. 041101.
[12] Sui, S., Chen, J., Fan, E., Yang, H., Lin, X., and Huang, W., 2017, “The
Influence of Laves Phases on the High-Cycle Fatigue Behavior of Laser
534 Shyam-Sundar Balasubramanian et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 53 (2021) 525–534
10 Balasubramanian et al./ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2020) 000–000
Additive Manufactured Inconel 718,” Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 695, pp. 6–13.
[13] Wang, F., Bosque, H. Del, Hyder, J., Corliss, M., and Hung, W. N., 2020,
“Experimental Investigation of Porosity Distribution in Selective Laser
Melted Inconel 718,” Procedia Manuf., 48, pp. 807–813.
[14] Hu, Y. N., Wu, S. C., Withers, P. J., Zhang, J., Bao, H. Y. X., Fu, Y. N.,
and Kang, G. Z., 2020, “The Effect of Manufacturing Defects on the
Fatigue Life of Selective Laser Melted Ti-6Al-4V Structures,” Mater.
Des., 192, p. 108708.
[15] Kawagoishi, Chen, and Nisitani, 2000, “Fatigue Strength of Inconel 718
at Elevated Temperatures,” Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct., 23(3), pp.
209–216.
[16] Chen, Q., Kawagoishi, N., and Nisitani, H., 1999, Evaluation of Notched
Fatigue Strength at Elevated Temperature by Linear Notch Mechanics.
[17] Yadollahi, A., and Shamsaei, N., 2017, “Additive Manufacturing of
Fatigue Resistant Materials: Challenges and Opportunities,” Int. J.
Fatigue, 98, pp. 14–31.
[18] Solberg, K., and Berto, F., 2019, “Notch-Defect Interaction in Additively
Manufactured Inconel 718,” Int. J. Fatigue, 122, pp. 35–45.
[19] Morgan, K., and Wells, D., 2016, Overview of Fatigue and Damage
Tolerance Performance of SLM Alloy 718.
[20] Solberg, K., and Berto, F., 2019, “What Is Going on with Fatigue of
Additively Manufactured Metals?,” Mater. Des. Process. Commun., 1(5).
[21] Gribbin, S., Ghorbanpour, S., Ferreri, N. C., Bicknell, J., Tsukrov, I., and
Knezevic, M., 2019, “Role of Grain Structure, Grain Boundaries,
Crystallographic Texture, Precipitates, and Porosity on Fatigue Behavior
of Inconel 718 at Room and Elevated Temperatures,” Mater. Charact.,
149, pp. 184–197.
[22] Nicoletto, G., 2017, “Anisotropic High Cycle Fatigue Behavior of Ti–
6Al–4V Obtained by Powder Bed Laser Fusion,” Int. J. Fatigue, 94, pp.
255–262.
[23] Hung, W., 2020, “Post-Processing of Additively Manufactured Metal
Parts,” Additive Manufacturing Processes, ASM International, pp. 298–
315.
[24] Megahed, M. M., Eleiche, A. M., and Abd-Allah, N. M., 1996, “Low-
Cycle Fatigue in Rotating Cantilever under Bending I: Theoretical
Analysis,” Int. J. Fatigue, 18(6), pp. 401–412.
[25] Budynas, R., Budynas, R. G., and Nisbett, K., 2012, Shigley’s
Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill.