ISLAMIC COPPER-BASED METALWORK FROM THE EASTERN
MEDITERRANEAN: TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION AND CONSERVATION
ISSUES
Susan La Niece
ABSTRACT
Fine copper alloy vessels are an important class of metalwork made dur-
ing the Islamic era (which began in ad 622) in the lands bordering the
Eastern Mediterranean. Many of these vessels are decorated with silver,
gold and black inlays that are easily damaged or lost. Candlesticks and
other multi-component pieces frequently suffer because of the weakness
of the original joining techniques used.
Elemental analyses (by atomic absorption and inductively coupled mass
spectrometry) of the collections at the British Museum have already been
published, and an extensive programme of X-ray fluorescence analysis, X-
radiography and microscopic examination is building on that information.
Drawing on the current knowledge of the technical aspects of this copper
alloy metalwork, this paper outlines findings relevant to the conservation,
display and interpretation of these impressive vessels.
ÖZET
Doğu Akdeniz sınırındaki bölgede üretilmiş olan bakır çanaklar, İslami
döneme ait metal işçiliğinin en önemli örneklerini oluştururlar. Bu
çanakların çoğu, artık zarara uğramış veya kaybolmuş olan gümüş, altın
ve siyah kakma tekniğiyle süslenmiştir. Kullanılan orjinal birleştirme
tekniklerinin yetersizliği yüzünden mumluk ve diğer parçalardan bazıları
hasara uğramıştır. British Museum’da bulunan koleksiyon üzerinde
yapılan atomik soğurma ve indüktif coupled kütle spektrometri analizleri
yayınlanmış olup, detaylı X-ray ışınırlık, X-radyografi ve mikroskopik
analizleri de bu çalışmaları desteklemektedir. Bu makale, sözü edilen
bakır çanakların teknik özellikleri hakkında elde edilen bilgiler üzerine
yoğunlaşmış olup, ulaşılan sonuçlarla, bu çanakların konservasyon,
sergileme ve yorumlama çalışmaları arasında sıkı ilişkiler bulmaktadır.
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘Islamic’ is used here in the secular sense, for objects
made under Islamic rule from the first year of the Islamic era,
ad 622, Fig. 1. The lands under Islamic rule bordering the
eastern Mediterranean were well known for their metalworking
centres, for example Cairo, Damascus and Aleppo where fine
inlaid vessels, candlesticks, incense burners and the like were
made, Fig. 2 [1, 2].
Many of the inlaid copper alloy objects now in collections
worldwide have been passed down from generation to genera-
tion, and from their present excellent condition have clearly been
treasured and preserved. While the survival of these copper
alloy vessels testifies to their robustness, this should not lead
to complacency concerning their care and conservation. Some,
Fig. 1 Map of places mentioned in the text. ©Trustees of the British Museum.
35
inevitably, have been altered to fit the needs of later times — for
example, large drum-shaped candlestick bases have been cut
down and inverted for use as basins — and many have suffered
from regular use and cleaning, but surprisingly large numbers
of pieces have survived. In recent decades, Islamic metalwork
has also begun to come from archaeological excavation and
this is tending to redress the balance from the fine collectable
pieces to more modest decorative and utilitarian metalwork. For
example, excavation of a workshop on the outskirts of Tiberias
uncovered a hoard of approximately 1000 items of metalwork
from the Fatimid period (eleventh to early twelfth century ad)
[3, 4]. Another important discovery was the cargo of the Serçe
Liman, an eleventh-century Byzantine merchant ship that sank
off the south west coast of Turkey on its return voyage from Syria
to Constantinople, which has provided a time capsule of artefacts
including glass, jewellery and metalwork [5].
The Mediterranean Sea has a long history as a highway for
trade. Sea traffic was particularly intense at the eastern end of
the Mediterranean in the medieval period, albeit with pauses
brought about by hostilities between the Christian and Islamic
worlds [6]. Metals were among the commodities traded around
the Mediterranean: large quantities of copper came from
Europe to the Islamic lands, particularly from the fifteenth
century onwards [7, 8]. Finished items of metalwork were
also traded; brass artefacts that were made specifically for the
Venetian market in metalworking centres bordering the Eastern
Mediterranean had shield-shaped panels for European coats of
arms while the candlesticks had narrow stems to take the slender
candles used at table in Europe, but all had the complex inlaid
designs characteristic of Islamic metalwork [9].
The artefacts show the technical innovations in metalwork-
ing made by Islamic craftsmen, notably the use of sand-casting
for vessels and other three-dimensional forms some centuries
before this method of casting was used in Europe [10], but there
was also some continuity from earlier metalworking traditions
in the region. Islamic metalwork is uniquely recognizable by its
forms and decoration. The brass (an alloy of copper and zinc)
vessels, which are richly inlaid with silver, gold or copper, and

Fig. 2 Pierced brass incense burner inlaid with silver, from Damascus,
ad 1264–1279. A small bowl containing the incense was sus-
pended inside on gimbals to prevent the burning incense from
spilling as the burner was rolled across the floor. Height 18.5 cm
(BM 1878,1230.682). Image: ©Trustees of the British Museum.
a black organic material that is characteristic of Islamic metal­
work of the twelfth to sixteenth centuries, are to be found in
public and private collections around the world [11]. Elemental
analyses (by atomic absorption and inductively coupled mass
spectrometry) of the collections at the British Museum have
already been published [12], to which has since been added
an extensive programme of X-radiographic and microscopic
examination and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. Drawing
on the current knowledge of the technical aspects of this category
of copper alloy metalwork, this contribution outlines findings
relevant to the conservation, display and interpretation of these
impressive vessels.
coloured alloy of copper and zinc, is the usual material of inlaid
Islamic vessels. It has relatively good corrosion resistance and
its attractive colour and good working properties are well suited
to the fabrication of decorative metalwork.
Zinc was discovered as a metal very late in the history of metal
usage. The reason is that smelting zinc ores such as sphalerite
in a simple shaft furnace similar to those used to smelt other
metals, such as copper, tin and lead, results in the volatile zinc
oxidizing in the flue and being lost. It was not until the prin-
ciples of distillation were applied to zinc smelting that it could
be isolated as a metal. However, for many centuries before that
discovery, brass was made by adding a zinc mineral to copper
metal in a sealed crucible, a process known as cementation [12].
The zinc content of Islamic brass vessels is below the limit of
incorporation of zinc into the alloy by this cementation method
(approximately 29%) and it was not until metallic zinc began to
be used in brass manufacture that the zinc content of the alloy
could readily be taken above 30%.
In India, the production of metallic zinc was mastered around
1000 years ago, much earlier than anywhere else in the world,
and the new metal was treated as a high value collector’s item.
A notable group of cast zinc vessels, dated to the mid-sixteenth
century and inlaid with gold, rubies, emeralds, turquoises, pearls
and diamonds now resides in the collections of the Topkapi
Saray Museum in Istanbul, Fig. 3. The 1526 register of palace
craftsmen at the court in Constantinople mentions ‘the inlayers
of metal’, but interestingly no inlaid brass vessels of the types
being made in Cairo, Damascus and Aleppo are known from
Istanbul at this period and it possibly refers to the makers of these
uniquely lavish zinc vessels. Zinc is soft and much more reac-
tive than copper and its alloys: it is this property that has made
it useful as a sacrificial plating for galvanized iron. Chemical
conservation treatment can result in total loss of the artefact and
consequently it is essential that the material is identified before
any conservation treatments are carried out on vessels or coins
that might be made of zinc.

METALS
The repertoire of metals and alloys used by Islamic craftsmen
includes copper, brass, iron, steel, tin, lead, silver, gold and
zinc. Iron and steel are beyond the scope of this paper and are
covered elsewhere [13]. Copper was commonly used for domestic
utensils, some of which have engraved decoration and, from the
fifteenth century, were often plated with a surface coating of tin.
Gold and silver items have survived less well because precious
metals have always been vulnerable to recycling.
Tin minerals have limited distribution in the lands to the east
of the Mediterranean and bronze, the alloy of copper and tin, was
not much used except for small high-status groups of objects,
mainly of cups and bowls, made of high tin bronze and mostly
originating from further east [14]. High tin bronzes are alloys
of copper with at least 20% tin and can appear pale gold or even
white, depending on the proportion of tin in the alloy and the
manufacturing method. However, unless quantitative elemental
analysis can be carried out it is difficult to identify this alloy,
especially visually, because the forms of these high status high
tin bronze vessels appear to have been widely imitated in brass.
The alloy has good corrosion resistance but, unlike brass, can
be extremely brittle and shatter on impact. Fig. 3 Mid-sixteenth century jug of cast zinc inlaid with gold, tur-
In contrast to tin minerals, the zinc minerals required for brass quoises, rubies, emeralds and pearls. Height 13.5 cm (Topkapi
making are widely available in the region and brass, the golden- Soray 2/2873). Image: Paul Craddock.

36
METAL INLAYS
The techniques of inlaying copper-based metalwork with met-
als of contrasting colour is believed to have travelled west from
Herat in Afghanistan and the metalworking schools in Mosul,
Konya, Damascus and Cairo produced a large number of inlaid
artefacts between the early thirteenth and sixteenth centuries.
The decorative designs were laid out using compass points and
engraved into the brass. Inlays of high purity silver, gold or
copper were hammered into tiny keying pits, punched into the
brass with a pointed tool. Wire was hammered into the engraved
channels to create fine lines of inlay and thin metal foil was cut
to fit larger areas. In some cases these areas were recessed so
that the inlays would lie flush with the surface. Details, such as
facial features, petals of flowers, etc., were gently chased onto
the surface of the foil inlay using a blunt tool, skilfully avoiding
cutting through the thin metal, Fig. 4 and 5. Excavated objects
Fig. 4 Thirteenth-century Mamluk brass bowl (BM 1878,1230.691).
Image: ©Trustees of the British Museum.
Fig. 5 Details of inlay on the thirteenth-century Mamluk brass bowl
shown in Fig. 4: (a) the feathers of the duck were chased onto the
silver after it was inlaid; and (b) the alternating gold and silver
inlays show the difference in keying used for the two metals.
Only traces of the gold now remain. Images: ©Trustees of the
British Museum.
37
Fig. 6 Detail from the radiograph of the base of a late-fourteenth-
century Mamluk round-bottomed brass bowl (BM 1953,1021.1)
revealing decoration of swimming fish and sun-discs concealed
beneath a layer of copper corrosion. None of the silver inlay
remains but radiography reveals the differences in density of
the brass where the craftsman worked on the inlays and even
the distorted cast structure of the metal can be discerned at
high magnification. The fish decoration suggests that the bowl
was filled with water for hand washing. Width of field of view
9.5 cm. Image: ©Trustees of the British Museum.
are usually corroded and the detail of the decoration may be
hidden, but routine X-radiography of such pieces can be used
to reveal the decoration, even when the inlay is lost, Fig. 6. As
immersion treatments with chemicals are indiscriminate, and the
chemicals impossible to remove if they seep behind inlays, soil
and corrosion deposits are normally removed manually under
magnification.
Inevitably, many metal inlays are now lost, even from vessels
that have not undergone burial. Some of the larger inlay areas
have been gashed with a sharp point, suggesting that the gold or
silver was deliberately removed for recycling, but these delicate
precious metal inlays are also vulnerable to accidental dam-
age during handling and especially by cleaning. In a museum
context, measures to protect the vessels from dust, atmospheric
pollutants and high relative humidity (RH) will greatly help their
preservation; storage and display at an RH of 40–60% or less
is generally recommended. Cotton gloves can catch the edges
of the inlays and should be avoided in favour of vinyl or similar
gloves. A sable brush and light vacuum suction can be used to
remove superficial dust, while solvent cleaning should usually
be sufficient to remove surface dirt and light tarnish on silver
inlays. However, where there are organic inlays present — see
below — the use of organic solvents may compromise attempts
to identify the composition of the original inlays scientifically.
Cleaning with chemical reagents obviously brings with it the
danger of penetration of the liquid behind the inlays and should
therefore be used locally, selectively and in a controlled manner.
It may be preferable to remove heavy tarnish locally with a mild
abrasive on a swab moistened with solvent.
BLACK INLAYS
A characteristic feature of Islamic copper-based metalwork is the
use of a black organic material as an inlay in the recessed ground
of the design. It contrasts attractively with both the golden brass
Fig. 7 Detail of the black organic inlay on a sixteenth-century incense
burner with silver and gold inlays (BM 1891,0623.6). Image:
©Trustees of the British Museum.
of the vessels and with the metal inlays. The material was evi-
dently applied hot in liquid form as tiny bubbles are often visible
in its surface. It ranges in colour from reddish, through golden
brown, to deep black, and it is hard, brittle and often shiny, Fig.
7. This black inlay has been described in the literature variously
as bitumen, tar and pitch. Bitumen, or asphalt, is a dark residue
of crude petroleum, generally occurring in areas of volcanic
activity or hot springs and there are a number of known deposits
in the eastern Mediterranean zone, in the Dead Sea, Syria and
northern Iraq. Pitches and tars are derived from pyrolysis of
wood or resins and again are widely available in the region. Both
types of material have a wide range of practical uses as adhesives
and for waterproofing, for example in boat making and for the
roofs of structures. Attempts to identify the black organic inlays
scientifically have met with mixed success, partly because of
the complex chemistry of bitumens, tars and pitches and also
because of inevitable contamination with organic compounds
from handling or use and the polishes and waxes applied on
the vessels over the centuries [9]. Unfortunately, there are some
cases where the black material has been deliberately removed,
probably because it can be mistaken for an accumulation of dirt.
Examination at low magnification should be quite sufficient
to determine whether any black material in the recesses of the
design is indeed dirt, or the remains of this inlay. It can be argued
that even where there was no black inlay, the recessed areas were
intended to be darker to contrast with the bright metal inlays,
and they were not intended to be polished.
Niello is another material used as a black inlay on Islamic
metalwork, although usually on gold and silver artefacts and the
silver fittings of brass vessels, rather than on the brass itself, Fig.
8. Unlike the black organic inlays, which appear to be unique to
Islamic metalwork, niello inlays are found in many cultures and
in different classes of metalwork. Niello is a man-made metal
sulphide mixture that is black or dark grey and slightly metallic
in appearance [15]. It is made by heating sulphur together with
metal filings of silver, copper and lead, in combination or alone,
in a sealed crucible. The resulting small ingot of metal sulphide
is crushed and applied with a flux to fill engraved designs in
the metal to be decorated. The niello is heated until it becomes
soft and pasty in the case of the silver sulphide type, or until it
melts and flows in the case of the leaded mixtures of niello. The
38
Fig. 8 Arabic script, inlaid with niello, on a silver plaque set on the
front of an iron helmet (BM 1881,0802.153). Image: ©Trustees
of the British Museum.
niello is filed and polished flush with the surface of the metal
into which it is inlaid. The silver sulphide niello is the most com-
monly found type on Islamic metalwork, with the leaded niello
only coming into use in the twelfth century. On corroded pieces,
niello may also be mistaken for dirt in the engraved decoration,
but identification of the material from its constituent elements
by non-destructive XRF or by X-ray diffraction analysis can
be helpful.
SOLDER
Many copper-based Islamic objects are multi-component, for
example candlesticks, which were used in religious buildings,
tombs and mausolea where the endowment deeds often specified
that large numbers of candles should be lit. Such candlesticks
were finely decorated with inscriptions and ornamental designs,
whereas those made for secular use could be decorated with
figural scenes depicting the courtly life of their wealthy owners.
The grandest candlesticks were made of sheet brass, the earliest
being made in several pieces, soldered together with soft solder
of lead and tin at each change of angle. This was not a good
design, and most of the early candlesticks made, for example, in
Mosul in northern Iraq, have come apart. Soft solders (metals or
alloys with low melting temperatures — usually lead and/or tin)
that were used for joining deteriorate over time and poor storage
conditions can exacerbate this potential weakness. Controlling
the RH and avoiding environmental pollutants, especially the
use of wood in storage units or display cases, will assist and the
use of reversible adhesives may be necessary to give an object
structural stability.
CONCLUSIONS
The survival of large numbers of Islamic copper alloy vessels
testifies to their robustness, but this should not lead to compla-
cency concerning their care and conservation. One of the notable
features of this class of metalwork is its complexity, both in terms
of construction from multiple components, and also the number
of different metals and other materials employed in its manu-
facture. To assess fully the potential risks of any conservation
intervention or storage and display environmental conditions it is
therefore necessary to identify all the materials present: analyti-
cal identification should not be viewed as an optional addition to
the conservation programme, but rather as an essential precursor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My thanks are due to Rachel Ward for her curatorial expertise and for
her enthusiasm for the scientific and technical studies. I am grateful to
Julianne Phippard, Marilyn Hockey and to all my colleagues in the met-
als conservation section in the British Museum who have freely given
of their advice over the years.
REFERENCES
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  2 Allan, J.W., Persian Metal Technology 700–1300 ad, Ithaca Press,
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39
  8 Bacharach, J.L., ‘Circassian Monetary policy: Copper’, Journal of
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AUTHOR
Susan La Niece is a metallurgist in the Department of Conservation and
Scientific Research at the British Museum. She is currently co-authoring
the catalogue of the British Museum’s collection of Arab metalwork
with Rachel Ward. Address: The British Museum, Great Russell Street,
London WC1B 3DG, UK. Email: slaniece@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk