Bronze

Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper,

commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often
with the addition of other metals (including
aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and
sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or
metalloids such as arsenic or silicon. These
additions produce a range of alloys that may be
harder than copper alone, or have other useful
properties, such as strength, ductility, or
machinability.

The archaeological period in which bronze was

the hardest metal in widespread use is known as
the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Bronze Age
in western Eurasia and India is conventionally
dated to the mid-4th millennium BC (~3500 BC), Various examples of bronze artworks throughout history
and to the early 2nd millennium BC in China;[1]
elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The
Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about
500 BC, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it is in modern times.

Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes with different
compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized
term "copper alloy" instead.[2]

Etymology
The word bronze (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French bronze (1511), itself borrowed from Italian
bronzo 'bell metal, brass' (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as bronzium) from either:

bróntion, back-formation from Byzantine Greek brontēsíon (βροντησίον, 11th century),

perhaps from Brentḗsion (Βρεντήσιον, 'Brindisi', reputed for its bronze;[3][4] or originally:
in its earliest form from Old Persian birinj, (‫برنج‬, 'brass', modern berenj) and piring (‫)پرنگ‬
'copper',[5] from which also came Georgian brinǯi (ბრინჯი), Turkish pirinç, and Armenian
brinj (բրինձ), also meaning 'bronze'.

History
The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than
previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were
harder and more durable than their stone and copper ("Chalcolithic") predecessors. Initially, bronze was
made out of copper and arsenic, forming arsenic bronze, or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of
copper and arsenic.[6]
The earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau, in the 5th
millennium BC, and are smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-
arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite.[7] The earliest tin-copper-
alloy artifact has been dated to c. 4650 BC, in a Vinča culture site in
Pločnik (Serbia), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-
copper ore, stannite.[8] Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium
BC in Egypt, Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in China, Luristan (Iran),[7]
Tepe Sialk (Iran),[7] Mundigak (Afghanistan),[7] and Mesopotamia (Iraq).

Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could
be more easily controlled, and the resulting alloy was stronger and easier to
cast. Also, unlike those of arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining
are not toxic.
Houmuwu ding (Chinese: 后
Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd
母戊鼎 ; pinyin: Hòumǔwù
dǐng), the heaviest Chinese
millennium BC.[9]Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found
ritual bronze ever found;
together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient
1300–1046 BC; National
site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always Museum of China (Beijing).
involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a major influence This ding's name is based
on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the on the inscription in the
British deposits of ore in Cornwall, which were traded as far as Phoenicia bronze interior wall, which
in the eastern Mediterranean. In many parts of the world, large hoards of reads Hòumǔwù, meaning
bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of 'Queen Mother Wu'
value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze
tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which
mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which
are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other
sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities
for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings.

Transition to iron

Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron, with Vickers

hardness of 60–258 vs. 30–80,[10] the Bronze Age gave way to the Hoard of bronze socketed axes from
Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population the Bronze Age found in modern
migrations of around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin Germany. This was the top tool of
around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and the period, and also seems to have
raising prices.[11] As the art of working in iron improved, iron been used as a store of value.
became cheaper and improved in quality. As cultures advanced
from hand-wrought iron to machine-forged iron (typically made
with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths learned how to
make steel. Steel is stronger and harder than bronze and holds a
sharper edge longer.[12] Bronze was still used during the Iron Age,
and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day.

Composition
Roman bronze nails with magical
There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern signs and inscriptions, 3rd-4th
bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.[13] Alpha bronze consists of the century AD.
alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5%
 tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades. Historical
"bronzes" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers
probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the 12th-
century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a
mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and
an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base
and 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this
mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old
Bronze bell with a visible crystallite
coins. The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and the
structure.
12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's
Church, Liège is described as both bronze and brass.

In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used:

"classic bronze", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and "mild bronze", about 6% tin, was hammered from
ingots to make sheets. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor
were hammered from mild bronze.

Commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead, 40% zinc)
are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying ingredient. They
are commonly used in architectural applications.[14][15] Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of
lead, which makes for improved plasticity[16] possibly used by the ancient Greeks in their ship
construction.[17] Silicon bronze has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max.,
Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance.[18] Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze,
phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell metal, arsenical bronze, speculum metal, bismuth bronze, and
cymbal alloys.

Properties
Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their
constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum
or silicon may be slightly less dense. Bronze is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels.
The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base
alloys.

Bronzes are typically ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron. Copper and its alloys have a
huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common
examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, low-friction properties of bearing bronze
(bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and
resistance to corrosion by seawater of several bronze alloys.

The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about 950 °C
(1,742 °F). Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic
properties. Typically bronze oxidizes only superficially; once a copper oxide (eventually becoming copper
carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion. This can be seen on
statues from the Hellenistic period. If copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called "bronze
disease" will eventually completely destroy it.[19]

Uses
Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins
over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat
and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel
owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water
corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and
submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as
the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide
application in industry and the major form used in contemporary
statuary. Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of the ready Bronze weight with an inscribed
availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color- imperial order, Qin dynasty
matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminum is also used for the
structural metal aluminum bronze. Bronze parts are tough and
typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs.

Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it

important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing, where iron
cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.[20] It is still widely
used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission
pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the
bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly
suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in
guitar and piano strings. Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard Industrial products of the Bunting
surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper) Brass and Bronze Company, 1912
is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools
to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable
vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would
discolor oak. Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts.[21]
Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make the
proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used
for bearings and machine tool ways.[22]

Architectural bronze

The Seagram Building on New York City's Park Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze,
designed by Mies van der Rohe."[23] The Seagram Building was the first time that an entire building was
sheathed in bronze.[24] The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of
bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York.[24] The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and-
topaz-tinted glass building.[23] The building looks like a "squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained
curtain wall of metal and glass."[25] "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging,
its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties.[24][23] It was not only the most expensive building of
its time — $36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls.[23] Mies
van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General
Bronze[24] and "even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass."[23]

Sculptures

Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable
property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the
bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.[26] The Assyrian king
 Sennacherib (704–681 BC) claims to have been the first to cast
monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part
moulds instead of the lost-wax method.[27]

Bronze statues were regarded as the highest form of sculpture in

Ancient Greek art, though survivals are few, as bronze was a
valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval
periods. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are
known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to
survive. In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana (Chausa
hoard) and Gupta periods (Brahma from Mirpur-Khas, Akota
Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha) and later periods (Hansi Hoard) have
been found.[28] Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola
empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the
lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities
of Hinduism. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis,
craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai.

The Seagram Building viewed from In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using
across Park Avenue at 52nd Street bronze. For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of the Kingdom of
Benin; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek
mythology; in east Asia, Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and
Zhou dynasty—more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into
modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary.
The Dancing Girl, an
Harappan artwork; 2400–1900
BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm;
National Museum (New Delhi,
India)
Etruscan tripod base for a
thymiaterion (incense burner);
475-450 BC; bronze; height:
11 cm; Metropolitan Museum
of Art
Ritual tripod cauldron (ding);
c. 13th century BC; bronze:
height with handles: 25.4 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
(New York City)
The Artemision Bronze; 460-
450 BC; bronze; height: 2.1
m; National Archaeological
Museum (Athens)
Ancient Egyptian statuette of
a Kushite pharaoh; 713–664
BC; bronze, precious-metal
leaf; height: 7.6 cm, width:
3.2 cm, depth: 3.6 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian statuette of
Isis and Horus; 305–30 BC;
solid cast of bronze; 4.8 ×
10.3 cm; Cleveland Museum
of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)
Ancient Greek statue of Eros
sleeping; 3rd–2nd century BC;
bronze; 41.9 × 35.6 ×
85.2 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Pair of French Rococo
firedogs (chenets); c. 1750;
gilt bronze; dimensions of the
first: 52.7 x 48.3 x 26.7 cm, of
the second: 45.1 x 49.1 x
24.8 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Gupta sculpture of Buddha
offering protection; late 6th–
early 7th century; copper
alloy; height: 47 cm, width:
15.6 cm, diameter: 14.3 cm;
from India (probably Bihar);
Metropolitan Museum of Art
French Neoclassical mantel
clock (pendule de cheminée);
1757–1760; gilded and
patinated bronze, oak
veneered with ebony, white
enamel with black numerals,
and other materials; 48.3 ×
69.9 × 27.9 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
French or South
Netherlandish Medieval
caldron; 13th or 14th century;
bronze and wrought iron;
height: 37.5 cm, diameter:
34.3 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
Pair of French Chinoiserie
firedogs; 1760–1770; gilt
bronze; height (each):
41.9 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
 Pair of Chinese vases with
French Rococo mounts; the
vases: early 18th century, the
mounts: 1760–70; hard-paste
porcelain with gilt-bronze
mounts; 32.4 x 16.5 x
12.4 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art
French Neoclassical mantel
clock ("Pendule Uranie");
1764–1770; case: patinated
bronze and gilded bronze,
Dial: white enamel,
movement: brass and steel;
71.1 × 52.1 × 26.7 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of mounted vases (vase
à monter); 1765–70; soft-
paste porcelain and French
gilt bronze; 28.9 x 17.1 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art

Winter; by Jean-Antoine Prometheus, Paul Manship's Atlas by Lee Lawrie, bronze

Houdon; 1787; bronze; 143.5 classic gilded bronze sculpture, 1937, Rockefeller
x 39.1 x 50.5 cm, height of the sculpture, 1934, Rockefeller Center, New York City
pedestal: 86.4 cm; Center, New York City
Metropolitan Museum of Art

Lamps

Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass
or "Tiffany glass," and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps.[29][30][31][32]

Fountains and doors

The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in the world was by the Roman Bronze
Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952. The material used for the fountain, known as statuary
bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color.
 This was made for the
Andrew W. Mellon
Memorial in Federal
Triangle in Washington,
DC.[33] Another example of
the massive, ornate design
projects of bronze, and
attributed to General
Bronze/Roman Bronze
Works were the massive
bronze doors to the United
States Supreme Court
Building in Washington,
DC.[34]

Tiffany table lamp with bronze
Decorated back of a Celtic
bronze mirror, 120-80 BC, St
Keverne, England
Mirrors
Before it became possible to
produce glass with
acceptably flat surfaces, bronze US Supreme Court Building's
was a standard material for massive bronze doors by Gilbert
mirrors. Bronze was used for Donnelly, Sr., and his son John
this purpose in many parts of Donnelly, Jr.
the world, probably based on
independent discoveries.
Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–
1750 BC), and China from at least c. 550 BC. In Europe, the Etruscans
were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BC, and Greek and
Roman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials
such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors
had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan
and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small
scale in Kerala, India.
Musical instruments

Bronze is the preferred metal

for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal,
which is typically about 23% tin.

Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives
a desirable balance of durability and timbre. Several types of bronze
are used, commonly B20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80%
copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from Chinese bells:Bianzhong of Marquis
Yi of Zeng, Spring and Autumn
8% tin and 92% copper. As the tin content in a bell or cymbal rises,
period (476–221 BC)
the timbre drops.[35]

Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of
various stringed instruments such as the double bass, piano, harpsichord, and guitar. Bronze strings are
commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that
of high-tensile steel.[36]

Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in

struck idiophones around the world, notably bells, singing bowls,
gongs, cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples include
Tibetan singing bowls, temple bells of many sizes and shapes,
Javanese gamelan, and other bronze musical instruments. The
earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BC,
including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or Singing bowls from the 16th to 18th
bone mallet.[36][37] Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and centuries. Annealed bronze
Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and continues to be made in the
Cambodia date back to 3600 BC. Himalayas

Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor

bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content).[38] Bell bronze/B20 is used to make the tone
rings of many professional model banjos.[39] The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb; 1.4 kg) folded or arched
metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is
stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble
register.

Coins and medals

Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are
actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc.[40]

As with coins, bronze has been used in the manufacture of various

types of medals for centuries, and "bronze medals" are known in
contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting
competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third
place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in
part arose from the trio of gold, silver and bronze to represent the
first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology: the Golden Age, when
men lived among the gods; the Silver age, where youth lasted a
hundred years; and the Bronze Age, the era of heroes. It was first
Medal of the Emperor John VIII
adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the
Palaiologos during his visit to
1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-
Florence, by Pisanello (1438). The
up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals.
legend reads, in Greek: "John the
Palaiologos, basileus and autokrator
Bronze is the normal material for the related form of the plaquette,
of the Romans".
normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief, for a
collectors' market.

Biblical references
There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be the Hebrew word used for copper
and any of its alloys. However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to
manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys
with tin, now called bronze.[41] In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and
'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'. Modern translations use 'bronze'. Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in
the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils,
and mirror (Exodus Ch.38). It was mentioned in the account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole
in Numbers Ch.21. In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and
he made many furnishings for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and
plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47). Bronze was also widely used as battle
armor and helmet, as in the battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron. 12:10).

See also
Art object
Bell founding
Bronze and brass ornamental work
Bronzing
Chinese bronze inscriptions
Dezincification resistant brass
French Empire mantel clock
List of copper alloys
Ormolu
Seagram Building, the first office building in the world to use extruded bronze on a facade
General Bronze Corporation
Tiffany lamp
UNS C69100 (Tungum), a bronze alloy of copper, aluminium, nickel, tin, and zinc
Yoruba art

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External links
Bronze (https://curlie.org/Business/Materials/Metals/Alloys/Bronze/) at Curlie
Bronze bells (https://web.archive.org/web/20061216180940/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phas
e-trans/2005/bell/bell.html) (archived 16 December 2006)
"Lost Wax, Found Bronze": lost-wax casting explained (https://web.archive.org/web/2009052
3044615/http://wildlifeart.org/Foundry/index2.html) (archived 23 May 2009)
"Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process" (http://www.jepsculpture.com/bronze.shtm
l). James Peniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
Viking Bronze – Ancient and Early Medieval bronze casting (https://web.archive.org/web/201
60416001549/http://web.comhem.se/vikingbronze/) (archived 16 April 2016)

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