Mapua Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical Engineering

LECTURE

ON

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

 OTTO CYCLE
Process 2-3: isometric heat addition

I. Diagrams T3 P3
  rp
T2 P2

k 1
T2  T1 rk
k 1
T3  T2 rp  T1 rp rk

W2  3  0
Q2 3  mCv T3  T2 

Process 3-4: isentropic expansion

k 1
k 1 k 1
T4  P4  k V  1 
    3    
T3  P3   V4   rk 

k 1
T3  T2 rp  T1 rp rk
 1 
T4  T3  k 1   T1 rp
 rk 

W34  mCv T4  T3 

Q3  4  0

II. PVT Relations

Process 1-2: isentropic compression

k 1
k 1
T2  P2  k V  k 1
    1   rk
T1  P1   V2 

k 1
T2  T1 rk

W1 2   mCv T2  T1 

Q1 2  0
 Process 4-1: isometric heat rejection

T1 P
 1
T4 P4 IV. Heat Rejected, QR

Q R  Q4  1
W4 1  0
Q4 1  mCv T1  T4 
 mCv T1  T4 
 mCv T1  T1 rp 
ratio :  mCv T1 1  rp 
V
rk  1  compression
V2 V. Work net, WKnet
P3
rp   pressure Wknet  Q A  QR
 
P2
V  mCvT1 rp  1 rk  k 1
1
rk  4  expansion
V3

VC  V2  V3  clearance VI. Thermal Efficiency, th

Where: c is the percent clearance Wknet

ηth   100%
QA
VC  cVD   1 
 1  k 1   100%
 rk 
…since VD  V1  V2

 1 
VD  V1  V2    
 V2  VII. Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP

VD Wknet
…then  rk  1 PMEP 
cVD  Vd

Therefore,

 
P1 rk r p  1 rk
k 1
1 
1 c k  1rk  1
rk 
c

III. Heat Added, QA

Q A  Q2  3
 mCv T3  T2 

 mCv T1 rp rk
k 1
 T1 rk
k 1

 mCv T1 rk
k 1
r p  1
 V3  V 2
Sample Problem:
An air std. Otto cycle uses 0.1 kg of air and
has a 17% clearance. The initial conditions V1

are 98 kPa and 37˚ C, and the energy rk
release during combustion is 1600 KJ/kg. 0.0908m 3
Determine the (a) compression ratio, rk, (b) 
pressure, volume and temperature, PVT at 6.8824
the four cycle state points, (c) displacement
volume, Vd and mean effective pressure,  0.0132m 3
PMEP, (d) Work net, WKnet, and (e) cycle
efficiency, th .
k 1
T2  T1 rk
 310K 6.8824 
1.41
(a) compression ratio, rk
 670.6K
1 c  397.6C 
rk 
c

1  0.17 …since QA = Cv (T3-T2)


0.17
qA
T3   T2
Cv
 6.8824

KJ
(b) PVT at the four cycle state points 1600
kg
  670.6K
KJ
0.7176
V4  V1 kg  K


mRT1  2900.25K
P1
T3
 KJ  rP 
0.1kg 0.287 37  273K
kg  K 
T2
 
98kPa
2900.25K

670.6K
 0.0908m 3

 4.325
 k 1 (c) displacement volume, Vd and mean
1 
T4  T3   effective pressure, PMEP
 rk 
1.41
 1 
 2900.25K   Vd  V1  V2
 6.8824 
 0.0908  0.0132 m 3
 1340.72K  0.0776m 3

Wknet
PMEP 
mRT2 Vd
P2 
V2 86.03KJ

 KJ  0.0776m 3
0.1kg 0.287 670.6K   1108.7kPa
 kg  K 

0.0132m 3

 1458.05kPa (d) Work net, Wknet

Wknet  mCv T1  T2  T3  T4 

 86.03KJ
mRT3
P3 
V3
 KJ  (e) cycle efficiency, th
0.1kg 0.287 2900.25K 
 kg  K 
  1 
0.0132m 3 ηth  1  k 1   100%
 rk 
 6305.85kPa  1 
 1  1.41 
 100%
 6.8824 
mRT4
P4  
V4
 KJ 
0.1kg 0.287 1340.72K   53.7%
 kg  K 

0.0908m 3

 423.77kPa
 DIESEL CYCLE Process 2-3: isobaric heat addition

T3 V3
I. Diagrams   rc
T2 V2

k 1
T2  T1 rk
k 1
T3  T2 rc  T1 rc rk

W23  PV3  V2   mRT3  T2 

Q23  mC p T3  T2 

Process 3-4: isentropic expansion

k 1
k 1 k 1 k 1
T4  P4  k V  rV  r 
    3    c 2    c 
T3  P3   V4   V1   rk 

k 1
T3  T2 rc  T1 rc rk
T4  T1 rc
k

W3 4  mCv T4  T3 

Q3 4  0

Process 4-1: isometric heat rejection

T1 P1

II. PVT Relations T4 P4

Process 1-2: isentropic compression

W41  0
k 1
k 1 Q41  mCv T1  T4 
T2  P2  k V  k 1
    1   rk
T1  P1   V2 
ratio :
V V
T2  T1 rk
k 1 rk  1  4  compression
V2 V2
V3
W1 2   mCv T2  T1  rc   cut  off
V2
Q1 2  0 V4 V1
rk    exp ansion
V3 V3
III. Heat Added, QA
Sample Problem:
Q A  Q2  3 A one cylinder Diesel engine operates on
 mC p T3  T2  the air-standard cycle and receives 27
 mC p T1 rk
k 1
rc  1 Btu/rev. The inlet pressure is 14.7 psia, the
inlet temperature is 90°F, and the volume at
the bottom dead center is 1.5 ft3. At the end
of compression the pressure is 500 psia.
IV. Heat Rejected, QR
Determine:
QR  Q41
(a) the cycle efficiency
 mCv T1  T4  (b) the power if the engine runs at 300RPM

 mCv T1  T1 rc
k
 (c) the mean effective pressure
 mCv T1 1  rc  k

Solution:

(a) the cycle efficiency

V. Work net, Wknet

Wknet  Q A  QR P1  14.7 psia , T1  550 R , V1  V4  1.5 ft 3

 mCvT1 krk  k 1
rc  1  rc k  1 P2  500 psia and Q A  27 BTU
rev

1 1
V  P  k  500 1.4
rk  1   2      12.4176
VI. Thermal Efficiency, th V2  P1   14.7 

Wknet
 th   100% lb  in 2 
QA 14.7 
in 2 
144 
ft 2 

 1.5 ft 3
PV
m 1 1   0.1082 lb
ft  lb
 1  r  1 
k
RT1
53.34 550R 
 1  k 1  c lb  R
  100%
 rk  k rc  1 

 55012.41761.41   1506.53R
k 1
T2  T1rk
VII. Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP
QA 27 Btu
Wknet T3   T2   1506.53
PMEP  mC P  Btu 
Vd 0.1082lb 0.24 
 lb  R 


P1rk krk rc  1  rc k  1
k 1

k  1rk  1 T3  2546.27 R
 V3 T3 2546.27
rC     1.6902 DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE
V2 T2 1506.53

 1  rC  1  
k I. Diagrams

TH   1  k 1    100%
 rk  C k r  1 
 

 1  1.69021.4  1 
TH  1   100%  59%
 12.41761.41  1.41.6902  1 

(b) the power if the engine runs at 300RPM

WNET  QA TH  27
Btu
0.59  15.93 Btu or 12,396.09 ft  lb
rev rev rev

ft  lb  rev  min HP 
Power  WNET N  12,396.09  300  
rev  min  33,000 ft  lb 

Power  112.7 HP

(c) the mean effective pressure

II. PVT Relations

PMEP 
 
P1 rk krk k 1 rC  1  rC k  1  Process 1-2: isentropic compression
k  1rk  1
1 1
 P2  k  T2  k 1 V1
       rk
PMEP  14.7 psia
   
12.42 1.4 12.421.41 1.69  1  1.691.4  1   P1   1
T V 2

1.4  112.42  1
Process 2-3: isometric heat addition
PMEP  62.4 psi
T3 P3
  rp
T2 P2

Process 3-4: isobaric heat addition

T4 V4
  rc
T3 V3
 Process 4-5: isentropic expansion T5  T1
 1  100%
1 1
T3  T2   k T4  T3 
 P5 k T  k 1 V4
    5  
 P4   T4  V5 where :
k 1
T2  T1 rk
Process 5-1: isometric heat rejection k 1
T3  T2 rp  T1 rk rp
k 1
T1 P1
 T4  T3 rc  T1 rk rp rc
T5 P5 T4
T5  k 1
 V5 
 
 V4 

V5 V5 V4
III. Heat Added, QA but,  
V3 V4 V3
Q A  Q23  Q34
 mCv T3  T2   mC p T4  T3  V5 V1
 mCv T3  T2   k T4  T3  then,
V5

V4

V2 rk

V 3 V4 rc rc
V3

IV. Heat Rejected, QR

so that…
QR  Q51
 mCv T1  T5  T5  rc rpT1
k

V. Work net, Wknet

and…
Wknet  Q A  QR
 mCv T3  T2   k T4  T3   T1  T5    1 

 th  1  k 1 
rc rp  1
k
  
   100%

  r
  k  p
 r 1   kr r
p c  1  
 

VI. Thermal Efficiency, th

Wknet VII. Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP

 th   100%
QA
Wknet
PMEP 
Vd
mCv T3  T2   k T4  T3   T1  T5 

mCv T3  T2   k T4  T3 
 T1  300 K
T2  300 K 13
Sample Problem 1.4 1
 836.948 K
Given: T 3  836.948 K 1.9   1590.202 K
P1 = 100kPa T 4  1590.202 K 1.73  2751.049 K
T1 = 300K T 5  300 K 1.9 1.73  1227.833K
rk = 13
T4 = 2750K
P4 = 6894kPa 1590.202  836.948 
Cv (air) = 0.7174 Wknet  mCv  1.42751.049  1590.202 

 300  1227.833 
Required: WKnet

Solution:

P4  6894kPa  P3

So…
P3 6894kPa
rp    1.9
P2 3626.78kPa

Also,
V4
rc  ; V2  V3
V3

Then…

mRT4
V P4
rc  \ 4 
V3 mRT2
P2
P2 T4
 
P4 T2


3626.78kPa2750 K 
6894kPa300 K 131.41 
 1.73
 BRAYTON CYCLE
Diagrams

QA
2 3
P=C

s=C s=C
WC WT
1 QR 4

(Open cycle)

QA

2 3
P=C

s=C s=C
WC QR WT
1 4
P=C I. PVT Relations

Process 1-2: isentropic compression

(Closed cycle)
1 1
 P2  k  T2  k 1 V1
       rk
 P1   T1  V2

Process 2-3: isobaric heat addition

T3 V3

T2 V2
 VIII. Mean Effective Pressure, PMEP
Process 3-4: isentropic expansion
Wknet
1 1 PMEP 
 P4  T  k 1 Vd
k V3
    4   Wknet
 P3   T3  V4 
V4  V2
Process 5-1: isometric heat rejection

T1 V1
 Problem:
T4 V4 There are required 2238KN net from a gas
turbine unit for pumping of crude oil. Air
enters the compressor section at 99.975
kPa and 278K. The pressure ratio rp=10.
II. Heat Added, QA The turbine section receives the hot gases
at 1111K. Assume a closed Brayton cycle,
QA  mC p T3  T2  and find (a) required air flow, and (b)
thermal efficiency.

III. Heat Rejected, QR Given:

Wknet = 2238KN
QR  mC p T1  T4  P1 = 99.975kPa
T1 = 278K
T3 = 1111K
rp = 10 = P2/P1

IV. Work net, Wknet

Required:
Wknet  Q A  QR
 mC p T3  T2   T1  T4  (a) mass flowrate, m
(b) thermal efficiency, th

V. Thermal Efficiency, th

Solution:
Wknet
 th   100%
QA (a) mass flowrate, m
  T  T 
 1   4 1    100% 1 1

  T3  T2   T
from…  2
 k 1  P k
  rk   2 
 1   T1   P1 
 1  k 1   100%
 rk 
T2  T1 rp  k
k 1

1.4 1
 278 K 10  1.4
 536.73K
 1 1
(b) thermal efficiency, th
 P3  T 
k k 1
    3 
also…  P 
 4  T4  where : P3  P2  1 
P4  P1 th  1  k 1 
 100%
 rk 
1111K  
T4  1.4 1
 575.44 K 1
 1  k 1   100%
10 1.4  
 rp k 
so,  1 
Wknet  mC p T3  T2   T1  T4   1  1.4 1
  100%
 10  1.4 
 
2238 KJ s  m1.0047 574.27   297.44
 48.21%
 m  8.046 kg s
 COMPARISON OF GASOLINE AND DIESEL ENGINES

Diesel Engine

Advantages
 Lower fuel cost
 Higher efficiency
 Readily available for a wide range of sizes and application
 Lower running speed

Disadvantages
 Maintenance is more expensive
 Heavier and bulkier for a given power
 Higher capital cost
 Pollution

Gasoline Engine

Advantages
 Light – hence more portable
 Lower capital costs
 Cheaper to maintain
 Higher running speeds

Disadvantages
 Not so durable – especially under continuous long term usage
 Lower efficiency for equivalent power
 Fuel is more expensive
 Narrow range of off-the-shelf engines available – smaller engines more readily
available
 Pollution
 ENGINE TYPES IN TERMS OF CHARGING

1st stroke (Intake):

The piston sucks in the fuel-air-
mixture from the carburetor into
the cylinder.

2nd stroke (Compression):

The piston compresses the
mixture.

3rd stroke (Combustion):

The spark from the spark plug
inflames the mixture. The
following explosion presses the
piston to the bottom, the gas is
operating on the piston.

4-stroke engine
4th stroke (Exhaust): The
piston presses the exhaust out
of the cylinder.

2-stroke engine

1st stroke
The compressed fuel-air mixture ignites and
thereby the piston is pressed down. At the same
time the intake port I is covered by the piston.
Now the new mixture in the crankcase becomes
pre-compressed. Shortly before the piston
approaches the lower dead centre, the exhaust
port and the overflow conduit are uncovered.
Being pressurized in the crankcase the mixture
rushes into the cylinder displacing the consumed
mixture (exhaust now).

By means of a crank shaft the up and down motion is converted
into a rotational motion.
2nd stroke
The piston is moving up. The overflow conduit
and the exhaust port are covered, the mixture in
the cylinder is compressed. At the same time
new fuel-air mixture is sucked into the crankcase
For the corresponding power:

Wk
P  Wk x f  Wk x N s
t

f  2 n  N s

where

for four stroke engines:

 
 rev  1 power stroke  2
N s  2 c a  n;    c a n   power stroke/ s
 s  2  4
2 rev x
 1 rev 

For two stroke engines:

 
 rev  1 power stroke
 2
N s  2 c a  n;    c a n   power stroke/ s
 s  2  2
1 revs x
 
1 rev 
 COMBUSTION

 A chemical reaction in which fuel combines with oxygen; liberation of a large amount of heat
energy.

Combustion of Solid Fuel

H2
C
N2

O2 S

Facts:
- when C is burned, it becomes flue gas
- mole (a unit of volume)
- all products of combustion should be released ion the stock
- hot molecules are lighter

a. combustion of Carbon, C

C  O2  CO2
1moleC  1moleO2  1moleCO2
 lb   lb 
1mole 12  C  1mole 16  2O2  1mole44 lb CO2
 mole   mole   mole 
12lbC  32lbO2  44lbCO 2
(12lbC  32lbO2  44lbCO 2 )1 12

2 2
 1 lb of C requires 2 lbs of O2 to produce 3 lbs of CO2
3 3

b. combustion of Hydrogen, H2

2H 2  O2  2H 2 O
2molesH 2  1moleO2  2molesH 2 O
 lb 
2moles 1  2H 2  1mole 16 lb 2O2  2mole 18 lb  H 2 O
 mole   mole   mole 
4lbH 2  32lbO 2  36lbH 2 O
(4lbH 2  32lbO 2  36lbH 2 O)1 4

 1 lb of H2 requires 8 lbs of O2 to produce 9 lbs of H2O

 c. combustion of Sulfur, S

S  O2  SO2
1moleS  1moleO2  1moleSO2
 lb   lb 
1mole 32  S  1mole 16  2O2  1mole64 lb  SO2
 mole   mole   mole 
32lbS  32lbO 2  64lbCO 2
(32lbS  32lbO 2  64lbCO 2 )1 32

 1 lb of S requires 1 lb of O2 to produce 2 lbs of SO2

Generalization:

O 2 lbO 2 lbO2 lbO2

(oxygen-fuel ratio) = 2 8 1
F 3 lbC lbH 2 lbS

…for a given gravimetric analysis of coal

O 2 lbO 2  lbC  lbO 2  lbH 2  lbO 2  lbS 

2  C   8  H 2  1  S 
F 3 lbC  lbfuel  lbH 2  lbfuel  lbS  lbfuel 
2  lbO 2   O  lbO 2  lbO 2 
 2  C   8 H 2  2   1 S 
3  lbfuel   8  lbfuel  lbfuel 

…instead of supplying pure O2, supply air

<gravimetric> <volumetric>
Air = 23.1% O2 + 76.9% N2 Air = 21% O2 + 79% N2

…then
 
 
A  O lbO 2  1 
  
F  F lbfuel  lbO 2 
 0.231 
 lbair 
 
 2  lbO 2   O2  lbO 2  lbO 2  1


 2  C   8 H 2    1 S 
 3  lbfuel   8  lbfuel  lbfuel  lbO 2 
 0.231 
 lbair 
 O  lbair
 11.5C   4.33S 
lbair lbair
 34.63 H 2  2 
lbfuel  8  lbfuel lbfuel
Problem: Given the ultimate/gravimetric analysis of coal as follows:

S = 4.79%; H2 = 5.39%; C = 62.36%; N2 = 1.28%; O2 = 15.5%

Calculate the following:

(a) Theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio
(b) Actual air-fuel ratio at 20% excess
(c) Gravimetric analysis of dry and wet flue gas

Solution:

O
(a) theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio,
F

O 2 lbO 2  lbC  lbO 2  0.155  lbH 2 lbO 2  lbS 

2  0.6236   8  0.0539   1  0.0479 
F 3 lbC  lbfuel  lbH 2  8  lbfuel lbS  lbfuel 
lbO 2
 1.988
lbfuel

A
(b) actual air-fuel ratio,
Fa

A

A
1  e
Fa Ft

A
1  0.2
Ft

  1.998 lbO2
A O  1 
 lbfuel lbair
where :   8.606
Ft F lbO2  0.231 lbO2 lbfuel
 0.231 
 lbair  lbair

…then,

A

A
1  e
Fa Ft
lbair
 8.606 1.20
lbfuel
lbair
 10.338
lbfuel
(c) gravimetric analysis of dry gas

mdg  mCO2  mSO2  mN2  mO2

mwg  mdg  mH 2O

2 lbCO 2  lbC  lbCO 2

mCO2  3  0.6236   2.287
3 lbC  lbfuel  lbfuel
lbSO 2 lbS  lbSO 2
m SO2  2  0.0479   0.0958
lbS  lbfuel  lbfuel
lbN 2 lbair  lbN 2  lbN 2
mN2  0.0128  10.33  0.769   7.9564
lbfuel lbfuel  lbair  lbfuel

 excess   1.988
lbO 2
mO 2
O
0.2  0.3976 lbO 2
F lbfuel lbfuel

lbdg
 mdg  2.287  0.0958  7.9564  0.3976  10.73
lbfuel

2.287
%GCO2   100%  21.3141%
10.73
0.0958
%G SO2   100%  0.8928%
10.73
7.9564
%G N 2   100%  74.1509%
10.73
0.3976
%GO2   100%  3.705%
10.73

…for wet flue gas

lbH 2 O  lbH 2  lbH 2 O

m H 2O  9  0.0539   0.4851
lbH 2  lbfuel  lbfuel

lbwg
 m wg  10.73  0.4851  11.2151
lbfuel
 2.287
%GCO2   100%  20.3921%
11.2151
0.0958
%G SO2   100%  0.8542%
11.2151
7.9564
%G N 2   100%  70.9436%
11.2151
0.3976
%GO2   100%  3.5452%
11.2151
0.4851
%G H 2O   100%  4.3259%
11.2151

Example 2 : Given the ultimate/gravimetric analysis of coal as follows:

S = 0.99%; H2 = 4.76%; C = 80.85%; N2 = 1.8%; O2 = 5.6%; Ash = 6.08%; Moisture = 3.02%

Calculate : (a) The ash and moisture free of fuel

(b) Actual air-fuel ratio at 30% excess
(c) Volumetric analysis of wet flue gas

Solution:

(a) The ash and moisture removal

Moisture Removal Ash and Moisture free
S = 0.0099 0.0099
H2 = 0.0476 – 0.0302(1/9) = 0.04424 0.04424
O2 = 0.056 – 0.0302 (8/9) = 0.02916 0.02916
C = 0.80850 0.80850
N2 = 0.018 0.018
Ash = 0.0608 _______
0.9706 0.9098

Solving for the ash and moisture free analysis:

S = 0.0099/0.9098 = 0.01088
H2 = 0.04424/0.9098 = 0.04863
O2 = 0.02916/0.9098 = 0.03205
C = 0.80850/0.9098 = 0.88866
N2 = 0.018/0.9098 = 0.01978
1.0000
 O
(b) theoretical oxygen-fuel ratio,
F

O 2 lbO 2  lbC  lbO 2  0.032046  lbH 2 lbO 2  lbS 

2  0.88866   8  0.04863   1  0.01881 
F 3 lbC  lbfuel  lbH 2  8  lbfuel lbS  lbfuel 
lbO 2
 2.7376
lbfuel

A
actual air-fuel ratio,
Fa

A

A
1  e 
Fa Ft

A
1  0.2
Ft
  2.7376 lbO 2
 
A O 1  lbfuel lbair
where :   11.8512
Ft F lbO 2  lbO 2 lbfuel
 0.231  0.231
 lbair  lbair
…then,

A

A
1  e 
Fa Ft
lbair
 11.0216  1.3
lbfuel
lbair
 15.4066
lbfuel
(c) Solving of the volumetric analysis:

We solve first the gravimetric analysis of wet gas

mwg  mCO2  mSO2  mN2  mO2  mH 2O

2 lbCO 2  lbC  lbCO 2
mCO2  3  0.888866   3.25841
3 lbC  lbfuel  lbfuel
lbSO 2  lbS  lbSO 2
m SO2 2  0.010881   0.021763
lbS  lbfuel  lbfuel
lbN 2 lbair  lbN 2  lbN 2
m N 2  0.01978  15.4066  0.769   11.86746
lbfuel lbfuel  lbair  lbfuel
lbO 2
mO2  excess   2.7376
O
0.3  0.82129 lbO 2
F lbfuel lbfuel
lbH 2 O  lbH 2  lbH 2 O
m H 2O  9  0.048631   0.437679
lbH 2  lbfuel  lbfuel

lbwg
 m wg  3.25841  0.021763  11.86746  0.82129  0.437679  16.4066
lbfuel

3.25841
%GCO2   100%  19.86035%
16.4066
0.021763
%G SO2   100%  0.13265%
16.4066
11.86746
%G N 2   100%  72.33345%
16.4066
0.82129
%GO2   100%  5.00585%
16.4066
0.437679
%G H 2O   100%  2.6677%
16.4066
Calculating for the volumetric analysis of wet flue gas

VCO2 nCO2 mCO2

solution: %VCO2   ; nCO2 
Vwg nwg MWCO2

mCO2
MWCO2  MWwg 
%VCO2   GCO2  
mwg  MWCO 
 2 
MWwg

where:
m wg
MWwg 
n wg
m wg
 1
mCO2 m SO2 mN2 mO2 m H 2O
   
MWCO2 MWSO2 MW N 2 MWO2 MWH 2O

1

mCO2 m SO2 mN2 mO2 m H 2O
   
m wg MWCO2 m wg MWSO2 m wg MW N 2 m wg MWO2 m wg MWH 2O

1

GCO2 G SO2 GN2 GO2 G H 2O
   
MWCO2 MWSO2 MW N 2 MWO2 MWH 2O

1

0.1986035 0.0013265 0.7233345 0.050058 0.026677
   
44 64 28 32 18

lb
MWwg  29.9274
lbmole
  29.9274 
%VCO2  19.86035   13.50838%
 44 
 29.9274 
%VSO2  0.13265   0.062028%
 64 
 29.9274 
%V N 2  72.33345   77.31256%
 28 
 29.9274 
%VO2  5.005853   4.681637%
 32 
 29.9274 
%VH 2O  2.66768981   4.43503%
 18 

Heating Value – quantity of heat produced by the combustion of fuel under specified condition
per unit weight or unit of volume.

HHV (Higher Heating Value) – accounts for the energy carried by the superheated
water vapor. The products of combustion of fuel with H2 content producing vapor
in superheated state and will usually leaves the system, thus carrying with it the
energy represented by the superheated water vapor.

LHV (Lower Heating Value) – is found by deducting the heat needed to vaporize the
mechanical moisture and the moisture found when fuel burns from HHV.

HHV for Coal: Dulong’s Formula

HHV = 14,600 C + 62, 000 (H2 – O2/8) + 4050 S BTU/lb

HHV = 33,820 C + 144,212 (H2 – O2/8) + 9,304 S kJ/kg

Combustion of Liquid Fuels

Properties of Liquid Fuels

1. Specific Gravity

141.5
0
API   131.5
60 0
S.G.@ 0
60

140
0
BAUME   130
60 0
S.G.@ 0
60

2. Calorific or Heating Value

HHV = 18,440 + 40 (0 API - 10) BTU/lb for kerosene

HHV = 18,650 + 40 (0 API – 10) BTU/lb for gas fuels, oil or distillate light oils

Faragher Marrel & Essax Equation:

HHV = 17,645 + 54 (0 API ) BTU/lb for heavy cracked fuel oil.

Naval Boiler Laboratory Formula:

HHV = 18,250 + 40 (0 Be – 10) BTU/lb for all petroleum products.

Bureau of Standard

HHV = 22,230 – 3,780 (S.G.)2 BTU/lb

3. Viscosity – the measure of the resistance of oil to flow.

4. Flash Point – the maximum temperature of which an oil emit vapor that will ignite.

5. Pour Point – the lowest temperature at which the fuel will flow when it is chilled without
disturbance.

6. Fire point – the temperature at which oil burns.

7. Ignition Quality – the ability of a fuel to ignite spontaneously

a. If Chemical composition is given:

CH 4  air 


products of combustion

where: air = 21% O2 + 79% N2

= 1 volume of O2 + 3.76 volume of N2

CH 4  xO2  3.76N 2  


yCO 2  zH 2 O  x 3.76N 2

Carbon balance: 1 y

4  2z
Hydrogen balance:
z2

2x  2 y  z
Oxygen balance: 21  z
x 2
2

1 vol. CH4 + 2 vol. [O2 + 3.76N2]  1 vol. CO2 + 2 vol. H2O + 2 [3.76N2](1+e)

1 mol CH4 + 2 mol [O2 + 3.76N2]  1 mol CO2 + 2 mol H2O + 2 mol [3.76N2](1+e)

 lb 
Weight of fuel, CH4  1mol 16  16 lb
 lbmol 

 lb 
 3.7628
lb
Weight of air  2mol 32  274.56 lb
 lbmol lbmol 

Therefore…

Air 274.56lb lbair

  17.16
Fuel 16lb lbfuel
 Combustion of Gaseous Fuel

Given the volumetric analysis of a gaseous fuel is given:

CO2  2.4%
N 2  1.8%
CH 4  64.1%
C 2 H 2  31.7%

2.4CO2  1.8N 2  64.1CH 4  31.7C2 H 2   xO2  3.76N 2   yCO2  zH 2O  [( x)(1  e)3.76N 2  N 2 in the fuel ]

Carbon balance: 2.4  64.1  231.7  y  y  129.9

Hydrogen balance: 464.1  231.7  2 z  z  159.9

Oxygen balance: 22.4  2 x  2129.9  159.9  x  207.45

Weight of fuel  2.412  32  1.828  64.112  4  31.724  2  2005.8

Weight of air  207.4532  3.76  28  28,478.44

Therefore…

lb
28,478.44
Air lbmol  14.2 lbair or kgair

Fuel lb lbfuel kgfuel
2005.8
lbmol
 INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

Given the volumetric analysis of fuel:

CO2  2.4%
N 2  1.8%
CH 4  64.1%
C 2 H 2  31.7%

assumption: CO = 20% of CO2

Solution:

2.4CO2  1.8N 2  64.1CH 4  31.7C2 H 2   xO2  3.76N 2   yCO2  0.2 yCO  zH 2O  3.76N 2

2.4  64.1  231.7   y  0.2 y

Carbon balance: y  108.25  CO2 moles
0.2 y  21.65  COmoles

464.1  231.7   2 z
Hydrogen balance:
z  159.9

22.4  2 x  2108.25  0.2  108.25  159.9

Oxygen balance:
x  196.625

Weight of fuel  2.412  32  1.828  64.112  4  31.724  2  2005.8

Weight of air  196.62532  3.76  28  26,992.68

Therefore…

lb
26,992.68
Air lbmol  13.4573 lbair or kgair

Fuel lb lbfuel kgfuel
2005.8
lbmol
…if gravimetric analysis of the products of combustion is required

2005.8 lbs fuel requires 26,992.68 lbs air to produce (108.25 x MW CO2) + (21.65 x MW CO) +
(159.9 x MW H2O) + { 196.625 [3.76(MW N2)+1.8(MW N2)] }

lbCO 2
Thus, 1 lb fuel requires 13.4573 lbs air to produce 2.3856
lbfuel

lbCO 2
 mCO2  2.3856
lbfuel

m products of combustion, mPC = mCO2  mCO  mO2  mH 2O

mCO2
%GCO2   100%
mPC

CHEMICAL FORMULA OF SOME LIQUID AND GASEOUS FUEL

Gaseous Fuel
2) Methane, CH4
3) Ethane, C2H6
4) Propane, C3H8
5) Butane, C4H10

Liquid Fuel
6) Gasoline, C8H18
7) Dodecane, C12H26
8) Diesoline, C14H30
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Source of Energy:
Ec = mf x HV

ma/f mexhaust

IP

FP

BP

where: EC = energy chargeable

mf = mass flow rate of fuel
IP = indicated power
BP = brake power
EP = electrical power

A. Indicated Power  power done in the cylinder; measured by an indicator.

AC 
, m 2 s.s., kPa
m

so that, Pm I
, m
where: AC = area of the indicator card
s.s. = scale of indicator spring
ℓ = length of indicator card

therefore, IP  PmI  A  L  N S in KW
D 2
where: A = area of the bore cylinder, m2 =
4
L = length of stroke
c a  n
2
 60 
Ns = power cycles per second =
s
c – no. of cylinders
a – no. acting
n – rpm
s – stroke
PmI = indicated mean effective pressure
 B. Brake Power / Shaft Power / Developed Power  power delivered to the shaft
*measured by (a) for low speed – prony brake, and (b) for high speed - dynamometer

Standard Prony Brake Arrangement

where: Brake Tare (Tare wt.) is the effective weight of the brake arm when brake band in loose

so that, Torque(T) = net scale x arm, KN-m

 Pn  L  GW  TW   L

Therefore,

2Tn Tn
BP  
60 30 , in kW
 PmB  A  L  N S

where: PmB = brake mean effective pressure

C. Mechanical Efficiency

BP
m   100%
IP
Pm B  A  L  N S
  100%
PmI  A  L  N S
Pm B
  100%
PmI

so, IP = FP + BP
BP = IP – FP

now,
IP  FP
m   100%
IP
 FP 
 1    100%
 IP 

D. Generator Efficiency

EP
g   100%
BP

E. Combined Mechanical and Electrical Efficiency

 ME   m  m
Example 1: An engine has 14 cylinders, with a 13.6cm bore, and a 15.2cm stroke, and develops
2850KW at 250 rpm. The clearance volume of each cylinder is 350cm 3. Determine (a)
compression ratio, and (b) brake mean effective pressure.

Given:
c = 14 BP = 2850KW
D = 13.6cm n = 250rpm
L = 15.2cm V2 = 380cm3

Required:
(a) compression ratio, rk
(b) brake mean effective pressure, PmB

Solution:
Wknet  PmB  VD
BP  PmB  A  L  N S

(a) compression ratio, rk

V1
rk  and V1  V2  VD
V2
then
VD  A  L  N S
V1  380  2208.062  2588.062cm 3
  13.62 
  15.2
 4 
2588.062cm 3
 2208.062cm 3 rk   6.81
380cm 3

(b) brake mean effective pressure, PmB

BP  PmB  A  L  N S

BP
thus, PmB 
A L  NS

KN  m
2850
PmB  s
 250 
2  14  1  2
  0.136m  
0.152m  

60 
 4  4 

 

 44,253.41kPa
Example 2: Calculate the bore and stroke of a six cylinder engine that delivers 22.4KW at
1800rpm with a ratio of bore to stroke of 0.71. Assume the mean effective pressure in the
cylinder is 620kPa, and the mechanical efficiency is 85%

Given:
c=6 n = 1800 rpm
D/L = 0.71 Pmi = 620 kPa
BP = 22.4 KW Mech. Eff. = 85 %

Solution:

BP  PmB  A  L  NS

PmB
where: nm   100%
PmI
PmB  0.85620kPa  527kPa

BP
Also, L A 
PmB  N S

22.4 KW

 1800 
 6  1  60  2 
527kPa 
 4 
 

L  D
  2
  0.0004722m 3
 4 

D
But, L
0.71
Therefore…

 D  D 
2
    0.0004722m 3
 0.71  4 

D 3 1.0619  0.0004722m 3
D  0.0753m  7.53cm
L  0.10606m  10.61cm
F. Specific Fuel Consumption  amount of fuel needed to perform a unit of power

SFC = amount of fuel

Power

m f , kg kg
 hr 
P, KW KW  hr

(1) Indicated Specific fuel Consumption, ISFC

mf
ISFC 
IP

(2) Brake Specific fuel Consumption, BSFC

mf mf
BSFC  
BP IP   m

(3) Combined Specific fuel Consumption, CSFC

mf mf mf mf
CSFC    
EP BP   g IP   m   g IP   ME

G. Heat Rate  is the amount of heat needed to perform a unit of power.

HR = Energy Changeable
Power

EC , KJ KJ
 hr 
P, KW KW  hr

(1) Indicated Heat Rate, IHR

EC m f  HV
IHR    ISFC  HV
IP IP
(2) Brake Heat Rate, BHR

EC m f  HV ISFC  HV IHR
BHR    BSFC  HV  
BP BP m m

(3) Combined Heat Rate, CHR

EC m f  HV m f  HV m f  HV
CHR    
EP EP BP   g IP   m   g

BSFC  HV ISFC  HV
   CSFC  HV
g m

H. Thermal Efficiency  ratio of heat converted to useful power and heat supplied.

 th = Power x 100%
Energy Changeable

KJ
P, KW  3600
 KW  hr  100%
KJ
EC ,
hr

(1) Indicated Thermal Efficiency,  th I

IP  3600
 th I   100%
EC
IP  3600
  100%
m f  HV
3600
  100%
ISFC  HV
3600
  100%
IHR
(2) Brake Thermal Efficiency,  th B

BP  3600
 th B   100%
EC
BP  3600
  100%
m f  HV
3600 3600
  100%   100%
BSFC  HV BHR

(3) Combined Thermal Efficiency,  th C

EP  3600
 th C   100%
EC
EP  3600
  100%
m f  HV
3600 3600
  100%   100%
CSFC  HV CHR

I. Engine Efficiency  ratio of the actual performance of the engine to the ideal.

e = Actual Power x 100%

Ideal Power

(1) Indicated Engine Efficiency, e I

IP
eI   100%
Pi

(2) Brake Engine Efficiency, e B

BP
eB   100%
Pi

(3) Combined Engine Efficiency, eC

EP
eC   100%
Pi
Example:

Given c = 6 PmB = 550 kPa

s=4 P1 = 101 kPa
rk = 9.5 T1 = 308 K
IP = 67.1KW k = 1.32
T = 194 N-m ISFC = 0.353 kg KW  hr
 m = 78% D = 1.1L
HV=43,970 kJ/kg

Required: a. bore and stroke

b. thermal efficiency,  th I
c. engine efficiency, e B

Solution:

(a) L and D = ?

BP  PmB  A  L  N S  eq.1
2Tn
BP   eq.2
60

…equate equation 1 to equation 2

2Tn
PmB  A  L  N S 
60
2T
L A 
c  a  2
PmB 
 4 

 D  D

2
 2 194 N  m 
 

1KN
1000 N

 
 1.1  4   6 1 2 
550kPa
 4 

D  0.1011m  10.11cm
L  0.0919m  9.19cm

D
where : L 
1.1
(b) th I = ?

IP  3600
 th I   100%
EC
IP  3600
  100%
m f  HV
3600
  100%
ISFC  HV
3600
  100%
0.35343,970
 23.19%

(c) em = ?

BP
em   100%
Pi

BP
where: m  100%
IP

BP  0.7867.1KW   52.338KW

Pi
Also,  th   100% ; EC = mf x HV
ideal
EC

mf
From, ISFC  ; mf = IP x ISFC
IP

Also,
 1 
 th  1  k 1   100%
 rk 
id ea l

 1 
 1  1.321   100%
 9.5 

 51.345%
 Therefore,

Pi  0.51345IP ISFC HV 

 0.5134567.1KW  0.353 kg

 KW  hr 

 43,970 KJ  1hr
kg  3600s

 148.54 KW

Finally,

52.338KW
em  100%
148.54 KW
 35.23%

J. Volumetric Efficiency

V  Actual amount of air taken in, m3/s  100%

Volumetric or piston displacement, m3/s

Va
  100%
VD

Where:

 if wet bulb temperature,tw is not given, then use the general gas law equation:

PaVa  ma Ra Ta
ma Ra Ta m 3
Va  ;
Pa s

 if dry bulb temperature,ta and wet bulb temperature, tw, or relative humidity, RH
are given, then use the psychrometric chart

Va  ma spec.vol, va 
VD  A  L  N S
K. Effect on Engines when operated on Higher Altitudes

(1) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) correction formula:

 For spark-ignition engines

 P  T  0.5 
BPS  BPO  S   O  
 PO  TS  

 For compression-ignition engines

 P  T  0.7 
BPS  BPO  S   O  
 PO  TS  

where: BPS , PS , TS  std. rating of engine

BPO , PO , TO  rating at observed conditions

Approximations to be used as temperature and pressure changes at a given altitude:

Pressure: barometric pressure decreases by 1”Hg absolute (83.3mmHg abs) for

every 1000 ft (1000 m) increase in altitude based on 29.92”Hg absolute
(760mmHg abs) sea level.

Temperature: temperature decreases by 3.57˚F (6.5˚C) for every 1000 ft (1000

m) increase in altitude based on a standard temperature of 60˚F (15.6˚C).

(2) Diesel Engine Manufacture’s Association (DEMA) standard rating

2.1) Rated power may not be corrected for altitude up to 1500ft (457.5m).

2.2) For altitudes greater than 1500ft (457.5m), use the following:

 Subtract from std. rating 2% for every 1000ft (305m) above 1500ft
(457.5m) for supercharged engines.
 Subtract from std. rating 4% for every 1000ft (305m) above 1500ft
(457.5m) for naturally aspirated engines.
Example: An engine has the following data when operated at an altitude of 1524ft, with a
temperature of 15˚C:

BPo = 500KW v 0 = 75%

kg A:Fo = 23
BSFCo = 0.28
KW  hr

…when the engine is brought to sea level having a pressure of 101.325kPa, and temperature
of 20˚C. Calculate (a) BPs, (b) BSFCs, and (c)) Pm considering
Is
84.86% mechanical
efficiency

Given
BPo = 500KW To = 15˚C + 273 = 288 K
kg TS = 20˚C + 273 = 293 K
BSFCo = 0.28 PS = 101.325kPa
KW  hr
 m = 84.86% A:Fo = 23

Required:
(a) BPs
(b) BSFCs
(c) PmI
s

Solution:

(a) BPS = ?
 1524 ft  101.325 kPa
PO  29.92" Hg  1" Hg    28.396 " Hg x  96.164kPa
 1000 ft  29.92" Hg

101.325kPa  288 0.7 

BPS  500 KW    
Then,
 96.164 kPa  293  
 520.56 KW

(b) BSFCS = ?
mf
BSFC S  ; m f  m f s  m fo
BP

Therefore, BPO  BSFC O  BPs  BSFC s

 500 KW 
BSFC S  0.28
 520.56 KW 
kg
 0.269
KW  hr
(c) PmIs = ?
IPS
PmI s  ; PmI s  VD  IP
VD

BPS 520.56 KW
where: IPS    613.434KW
m 0.8486

Also, VD  A  L  N S  ?

Va
But, v 
VD

Va Va
Then, VD   ; PaVa = mRTa
v 0.75
A ma o
  23
Fo m f o
m fS  1hr 
 m f o  m f s  520.560.269
kg
BSFC s    0.0389
BPS  3600s  s

mao  0.038923  0.8947

kg
So,
s

Thus,
0.8947 kg s  0.287 KJ kg  K 288 K 
V ao   
96.164 kPa
m3
Vao  0.769
s
0.769 m 3 s
VD   1.0254 m 3 s
0.75
Finally…

613.434 KW
PmI s 
1.0254 m 3 s
 598.24 kPa
 TYPICAL HEAT BALANCE IN ENGINES

Energy Balance

A. Input

Energy Changeable, EC

EC = mf x HV 100%

B. Outputs

1. Useful power, BP 30-32% ( th B )

2. Heat carried by exhaust gas, QH 24-26% (%QE)
3. Heat carried by jacket or cooling water, QC 30-32% (%QE)
4. Friction, Radiation and unaccounted losses 10-16%

Summary

QH (30-32%)

EC (100%) BP (30-32%)

QC (24-26%) others (10-16%)

Percent Cooling Loss

%Qj = Heat carried by the jacket or cooling water x 100%

Energy Changeable

m j  C pw t b  t a 
  100%
m f  HV

…if EC is not given

BP  3600
 th B   100%
EC BP  3600
 m f  HV 
BP  3600  th B
  100%
m f  HV

Now...
m j  C pw tb  t a 
%Q j  100%
BP  3600
th B
th B m j  C p tb  t a 
 w
100%
BP  3600

Solving for the mass of jacket or cooling water, let: %Qj = 32% and th B =30%

%Q j  BP  3600
mj 
 th B  C p t b  t a 
w

0.32  BP  3600 BP kg BP kg
  917.124 ;  0.2548 ;
0.3  4.187t b  t a  t b  t a  hr t b  t a  s

Solving the volume of jacket or cooling water, let  = 1000kg/m3

mj mj
 ; Vj 
Vj 