Topic: NOUN

3. (b) Complete the table.

Reference: Grammar Date:
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Piano Watch
Cargo Dwarf
1. Write a proper noun for each common noun: Kilo Shelf
i. Country __________ Pony Elf
ii. Planet ____________ Hero Self
iii. Month ____________ Half Hoof
iv. Holiday ____________ life Proof
v. President ____________ wolf Negro
vi. City ____________ Cliff Son-in-law
Tooth Step son
2. Circle the noun if it is a concrete noun, and highlight if it is an abstract
Woman Index
noun.
Mouse Radius
i. He was given an award for his courage. Goose Memorandum
ii. The door slammed shut. Chief Axis
iii. She thought that happiness was the most important thing in life. Basis Criterion
iv. He dropped his phone with a crash. Analysis Scarf
hypothesis Knife
v. Time is a great teacher.
vi. His art teacher applauded his creativity.
vii. She moved the chair into place. 3. (c) Complete the table.
viii. He always made his bed before leaving for school. Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine feminine
Boy Dog Earl
3. (a) Fill the given blanks (Make Plurals) Brother Drake Gander
Bull Drone gentleman
i. Mr. Nasir has two ________________ (child) Horse Wizard Lion
ii. A flock of ___________________ just flew overhead (goose) Lord Author Manager
Monk Giant Poet
iii. I saw three ___________ in the kitchen (mouse) uncle host Negro
iv. Mother sharpened all the _________ in the kitchen (knife) Duke Fox Buck
Master Landlord Nephew
v. I heard the pack of __________ in the forest (wolf) Sultan heir Bachelor
vi. He has a dozen of ________ (sheep)
vii. In Japan, there are many ___________ (volcano)
 4. Tell whether the underlined noun is countable or uncountable?

i. Would you like some milk with your cereal? ________________

ii. You will need eggs and sugar for this recipe. ________________
iii. Devon asked for more time to finish his test. ________________
iv. Do you have enough information to write your report? _________
v. Matt should listen to his coach; he gives good advice _________

5. Highlight the nouns in the following sentences:

i. My sister lives in Malaysia.

ii. She works in a software company.
iii. He hung his head in shame.
iv. The editor reprimanded the reporter.
v. My mother hails from an orthodox family.
vi. His brother helped him to prepare for the journey.
vii. My sister says that I am good at solving puzzles.
viii. The doctor told Sue that medicines alone would not help the patient.
ix. All the passengers and the crew are safe.
x. The sun will swallow the earth one day.
xi. The rich merchant divided his wealth among his four children.
xii. The poor widow had to raise the four children on her own.
Topic: PRONOUNS iv. Reflexive Pronoun: A reflexive pronoun functions as the object of a sentence
and comes after the verb, but it refers to noun or pronoun which is
Reference: Grammar Date:
the subject. In a sentence, with a reflexive pronoun, subject and
PRONOUN: The word which is used in place of a noun, is called ‘Pronoun’. The object are the same person.
noun it refers to is called its antecedent. For example: The boy told himself to work hard.
She scolded herself for being so lazy.
1. Underline the pronouns and antecedent/referent in the following sentences:
2. State whether the italicized pronoun is an emphatic pronoun or reflexive
a. The tiger crawled through the jungle; it couldn’t be heard.
pronoun.
b. Ali is a good boy; he respects his elders.
KINDS OF PRONOUN: a. Only those who helped themselves will succeed.
i. Personal pronoun: It is associated primarily with a particular person. b. The maid excused herself and left.
First person Second person Third person c. The leaders themselves did not know what they were doing.
S P S P S P d. Ali is old enough to make the decision himself.
Subject I We You You He/she/it They
Object Me Us You You Him/her/it Them v. Demonstrative pronoun: Demonstrative pronoun points the object to which
Possessive Min Ours Yours Yours His/hers Theirs they refer.
Pronoun e Examples are given below:
Possessive My Our Your Your His/her/its Their i. This is a beautiful garden.
adjective ii. That is an old house.
myself Ourselves Yourself themselves
Reflexive Yourself Himself iii. Those are new clothes.
pronoun herself
iv. These are good books.
itself
NOTE: This, that, these, those are called demonstrative adjectives when they
occur before nouns.
ii. Possessive pronouns: (unlike possessive adjectives) Possessive pronouns can
Examples are:
stand alone and are not followed immediately by a noun.
i. This is a beautiful garden.
For example: This umbrella is hers.
ii. That is the house where I used to live.
A frog uses its long legs for jumping.

vi. Interrogative Pronoun: These are used to introduce questions.

iii. Emphatic pronoun: An emphatic pronoun is used to emphasize the noun or
Examples:
pronoun which it refers to. Is usually follows immediately upon that noun or
i. What is your father’s name?
pronoun. (It may come at the end of the sentence)
ii. Who has done this?
For example: The singer himself wrote the song.
iii. Whom do you hate?
They cleared the garden themselves.
iv. Whose book is that?
v. Which is your diary?
vii. Indefinite pronoun: These pronoun used to refer things in general. We use
indefinite pronouns for people or things exactly what they are.
Examples are, some, others, one, none, anybody, anyone, anything, everybody,
everyone, everything, nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone,
something…

viii. Reciprocal pronouns: Reciprocal pronouns refer to persons or things

mutually affected by the action of the verb.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another.

ix. Relative pronoun: A relative pronoun is one which introduces a subordinate

clause. It relates the subordinate clause to the noun to which it refers in the
main clause.

Examples:
i. Everyone cheered the player who scored three goals.
ii. This is the person whom I talked to you about.
iii. We saw a film which was very amusing.

x. Distributive pronoun: Distributive pronouns refer to each individual of a

class and not to the class collectively. They are each, every, either, neither etc.

3. Pick out indefinite/distributive/reciprocal pronouns from the following sentences.

i. These oranges are sweet and juicy. Would you like some?
ii. The couple met each other a year ago.
iii. Somebody has been in the room.
iv. Each has to make a speech.
v. Each student has a free ticket.
Topic: ADJECTIVES  Which — to make a choice between options.
 What — to make a choice (in general).
Reference: Grammar Date:  Whose — who something belongs to.
Adjectives are words that are used to describe or modify nouns or pronouns. Example: “What pet do you want to get?”
“Whose child is this?”
Types:
Distributive adjectives describe specific members out of a group. These
Descriptive adjectives are used to describe nouns and pronouns. adjectives are used to single out one or more individual items or people. Some of
Example: The beautiful flowers have a nice smell. the most common distributive adjectives include:
 Each — Every single one of a group (used to speak about group members
“The cat is hungry,” or “The hungry cat.” (In both cases, the word hungry is an individually).
adjective describing the cat.)  Every — Every single one of a group (used to make generalizations).
 Either — One between a choice of two.
Quantitative adjectives describe the quantity of something.
 Neither — Not one or the other between a choice of two.
Examples: “How many children do you have?” “I only have one daughter.”  Any — One or some things out of any number of choices. This is also used
when the choice is irrelevant, like: “it doesn’t matter, I’ll take any of them.”
“Do you plan on having more kids?” “Oh yes, I want many children!” These adjectives are always followed by the noun or pronoun they’re modifying.
Examples:
Demonstrative adjective describes “which” noun or pronoun you’re referring
“Which of these two songs do you like?” “I don’t like either song.”
to. These adjectives include the words:
 This — used to refer to a singular noun close to you.
 That — used to refer to a singular noun far from you. Indefinite Adjectives: Similar to indefinite articles, these adjectives point to non-
 These — used to refer to a plural noun close to you.
specific items.
 Those — used to refer to a plural noun far from you. Examples: I don't want any backtalk.
Do this tube has many openings?
Example: “Which bicycle is yours?” “This bicycle is mine, and that one used to be There are no books in this library.
mine until I sold it.”
Q. Underline the adjectives and state their kinds.
Possessive adjectives show possession. They describe “to whom a
I. Solomon was a wise king.
thing belongs.” Some of the most common possessive adjectives include:
 My — Belonging to me II. The foolish crow opened his mouth to sing.
 His — Belonging to him
 Her — Belonging to her III. You have no sense
 Their — Belonging to them
 Your — Belonging to you IV. She has little intelligence
 Our — Belonging to us
Example: “Whose dog is that?” “He’s mine. That’s my dog.” V. Each hand has five fingers.

Interrogative adjectives interrogate, meaning that they ask a question. These VI. Whose bag is this?
adjectives are always followed by a noun or a pronoun, and are used to form vii. Which way shall we go?
questions. The interrogative adjectives are:
Topic: ADVERBS Adverbs of purpose, sometimes called adverbs of reason, help to
describe why something happened. They can come in the form of individual words
– so, since, thus, because
Reference: Grammar
 I was sick, thus didn’t go to work today.
 I started jogging so that I wouldn’t be late.
An adverb is a word that is used to change, modify or qualify several types of  Because I was late, I jogged a little faster.
words including an adjective, a verb, another adverb or any other type of word or  Since it’s your birthday, I will buy you a gift
phrase, with the exception of determiners and adjectives that directly modify
nouns. Q. Underline the adverbs in the following sentences and state their kind.
TYPES:
1. I went to the market in the morning.
An adverb of manner will explain how an action is carried out.
2. The dog sat lazily in the shade of the tree.
 She passed the exam easily.
 They walk quickly to catch the train.
3. The man grumbled loudly while cleaning the table.
 The boys had worked hard.
 She dances well.
4. I often visit my grandparents.
An adverb of place, sometimes called spatial adverbs, will help explain where an
action happens.
5. It is extremely hot today.

 They travelled down the mountainside.

6. Please wait patiently.
 First, I looked here, and then I looked there, but I can’t find
them anywhere.
 There is love in the air. 7. The technician fixed the problem easily.
 Here you are!
8. They serve hot pan cakes there.
Adverbs of frequency are used to express how often something occurs.
9. I am waiting here for my daughter.
 The adverb is usually placed before the main verb.
 I can normally make the shot.
 The situation seems to change monthly. 10. He laughed merrily.
 The newspaper is bought daily
11. We will leave today.
Adverbs of time tell us when something happens. Adverbs of time are usually
placed at the end of a sentence.
12. She is standing outside.

 Nasir forgot his lunch yesterday and again today.

 I have to go now.
 We first met him last year.
Topic: VERBS (Transitive /Intransitive)  I invited.
 I invited Ali.
You cannot just say I invited because the sentence is incomplete. The
Reference: Grammar Date: person who is listening would probably ask “Whom did you invite?” So we
need an object (in this case a person) after the transitive verb invite.
A VERB is an action word in a sentence.
 I cut my finger.
Example: He walks. You cannot just say I cut because the sentence is incomplete. The person
Ali is dozing. who is listening would probably ask “Cut what?”
They sold some books. Cut is a transitive verb because you need to cut something (an object, a
We sat on the beach. thing).
Ali went to school.
Ali worked day and night.  The man stole a bike.
We need to say WHAT the man stole in order to understand the
TRANSITIVE VERBS: sentence/situation. Steal (stole is the past tense of steal) is a transitive verb.
Transitive verbs require an object to complete their meaning. The object in this sentence is the bike.
Consider the following example: So we have seen that transitive verbs need an object after them.
This object receives the action of the verb.
 I bought. Transitive verbs always ask “what?” or “whom?”
This sentence is incomplete. There is information that is missing.
Why is this sentence incomplete?  What did you buy? – I bought a car.
Because BOUGHT (the past of buy) is a transitive verb and a transitive  What did you cut? – I cut my finger.
verb needs an object after it to complete the sentence. The object after a  Whom did she invite? – I invited Angelica.
transitive verb can be a noun or a pronoun.
Transitive Verbs – Passive Form
 I bought a car. Transitive verbs can have a passive form.
Now the sentence is complete and we can understand it. We added the Active: Subject + transitive verb + object
object “a car” after the verb. Passive: Object + was/were + transitive verb (+ by subject)
Let’s look at some other examples.
If someone says:  Thieves stole his car. (active)
 His car was stolen. (passive)
 She likes. (incomplete)  Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. (active)
You probably think … She likes WHAT? (What does she like?)  The light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison. (passive)
Like is a transitive verb so we need an object after the verb.  They sold some books. (active)
 Some books were sold by them. (passive)
 She likes chocolate.
Now we know what she likes so this sentence is complete and correct.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS:  I walk to work every day.
Intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object after them.  We sat on the bench.
 I opened the door.
The subject is doing the action of the verb and nothing receives the action.  He stood in the corner.
An intransitive verb does not pass the action to an object.  We waited but nobody came.
 I saw an accident.
 He arrived.  She kicked the ball.

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb arrive.
You cannot “arrive something” (incorrect).
An intransitive verb expresses an action that is complete in itself and it
doesn’t need an object to receive the action.
 The baby smiled.
VERBS THAT ARE TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE
Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
They can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another sentence.
 You have grown since I last saw you. (intransitive)
 You have grown a beard since I last saw you. (transitive)

Here we cannot have an object after the intransitive verb smiled. Sometimes the meaning changes depending on whether the verb
You cannot “smile something” (incorrect). is transitive or intransitive

 The apple fell from the tree.  He runs along the beach every morning (intransitive: run – the
action/sport)
You cannot “fall something” so the verb is intransitive.  He runs a small grocery store (transitive: run = manage)
“From the tree” is not an object, it is an adverbial phrase ( = it acts like an  The plane will take off in five minutes. (intransitive: take off = to
adverb and tells us where it happened). leave the ground and begin to fly)
 Please take off your shoes before entering the house. (transitive:
Q. Tell whether the highlighted verb is a transitive verb or an take off = to remove something)
intransitive verb:
Example sentences of verbs that are both transitive and intransitive
 We arrived around midday.
(transitive) - (intransitive)
 He copied my answer.
 He took me to a restaurant. I stopped the car. – The car stopped.
 She sneezed loudly. I broke my coffee mug. – My coffee mug broke.
 Your baby cries a lot. The summer heat melted my ice cream. – My ice cream melted.
 We enjoyed the concert. She speaks Arabic. – She speaks very quickly.
 His grandfather died last year. Mike is reading a book. – Mike is reading.
 The rain fell heavily. New Zealand won the match. – New Zealand won.
 I was waiting but nothing happened.
 The jokes were not funny and nobody laughed. A good dictionary will tell you whether a verb is transitive
(usually vt. or tr. next to the verb in dictionaries) or intransitive (vi. or intr.)
Topic: VERBS [Auxiliary (or Helping) Verbs and Linking verbs]

Reference: Grammar Date:

AN AUXILIARY VERB adds functional or grammatical meaning to the
clause in which it occurs, so as to express tense, aspect, modality, voice,
emphasis, etc.The most common auxiliary verbs are have, be, and do.

1. Does Ali write all his own reports?

2. The secretaries haven’t written all the letters yet.
3. Asim is writing an e-mail to a client at the moment.

A LINKING VERB connects the subject with a word that gives information
about the subject, such as a condition or relationship. Linking verbs do not
show any action; they simply link the subject with the rest of the sentence.
For example, in the sentence "They are a problem," the word "are" is the
linking verb that connects "they" and "problem" to show the relationship
between the two words.
The most common linking verbs are forms of the verb to be: am, is, are,
was, were, being, been.
Linking Verb Examples
Here are some examples of linking verbs used in sentences with the linking
verbs in bold:
 William is excited about his promotion.
 She appears upset about the announcement.
 The eggs smell rotten.
 He went red after tripping on the rug.
 Your plans for the wedding sound nice.
 You look exhausted after studying all night.
 I am putty in his hands.
 Maria might have been more forthcoming with the news.
 Tom acted nervous when the teacher found the note.
 The audience fell silent when the conductor walked on stage.
 Dreams come true when we believe in them.
Topic: VERBS (Regular and Irregular verbs) Q. Highlight the irregular words and write their past form.

Reference: Grammar Date: Go, listen, do, make, bring, buy, teach, cook, open, lose

An English verb can be regular or irregular.

REGULAR VERBS form their past and past participle forms by

adding –ed.
Examples are given below.

Walk – walked – walked

Dance – danced – danced
Paint – painted – painted
Work – worked – worked

IRREGULAR VERBS form their past and past participle forms in

different ways.

There are mainly three types of irregular verbs.

Verbs in which all the three forms are the same (e.g. put – put – put)
Verbs in which two of the three forms are the same (e.g. sit – sat – sat)
Verbs in which all three forms are different (e.g. drink – drank – drunk)

NOTE: Some verbs can be both regular and irregular.

Example:
Burn-burned-burned
Burn-burnt-burnt

Dream-dreamed-dreamed
Dream-dreamt-dreamt
 Topic: VERBS (Finite/Non-finite)
INFINITIVES:
Reference: Grammar Date:
An infinitive is a verb form (often preceded by to) which can function as a
noun, an adjective or an adverb.
Non-finite Verbs:
 To win was everything.
A non-finite verb (also known as a verbal) is the term used to describe a (Here, the infinitive is functioning as a noun.
verb that is not showing tense. In other words, it a verb form that does not  It is the competition to win.
act like a verb (or, at least, the type of verb you need to form a sentence). (Here, the infinitive is functioning as an adjective.
Therefore, a non-finite verb is never the main verb in a sentence. (That's  The man paid to win.
a finite verb) (Here, the infinitive is functioning as an adverb. It is modifying
the verb paid.
There are three types of non-finite verbs:
 Gerunds (e.g., baking, singing). Types of Infinitives:
 Infinitives (e.g., to bake, to sing). An infinitive can be a to-infinitive or bare infinitive (without to). There is
 Participles (e.g., baking/baked, singing/sung). no difference between them. So we can classify them as follow.
1. Bare infinitive
Gerund The -ing ending Lee likes playing rugby. (noun) 2. Full infinitive
Infinitive Has a BASE He wants to play rugby. (noun) 3. Split infinitive
FORM and He wants a game to play. 1. BARE INFINITIVE:
Usually preceded (adjective) The word ‘to’ is frequently used with an infinitive, but when an infinitive is
by to (but not He begged to play. (adverb) used without ‘to’ it is called bare infinitive.
ALWAYS) Let me go. (bare infinitive) 2. FULL INFINITIVE:
Participle Present Ali was the playing rugby. When an infinitive is used with the word ‘to’ or to + infinitive is called full
Participle: (adjective) infinitive.
The -ing ending We watched Ali playing rugby. To + infinitive = full infinitive.
(adjective) Uses of Full Infinitives:
Past Participle: He is playing badly. (verb Full infinitives can function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in a
Usually ends -ed, - tense) sentence.
d, -t, -en, or -n A) As Subject
The set-piece played failed.  To call, after all difficulties doesn’t seem worthwhile. (‘To call’ is the
(adjective) action that drives the sentence)
He has played two games. B) Direct Object
(verb tense)  They all want to go. (‘To go’ is the direct object that can be substitute
The set-piece was played by of a noun that receives the action of the verb in the sentence)
Ali. (verb tense)
C) Subject Complement  The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund.
 The purpose is to win. (‘To win’ is the subject complement. A Subject  One of life’s pleasures is having breakfast in bed.
complement looks like a direct object, click on the link to read D) AFTER PREPOSITIONS.THE GERUND MUST BE USED WHEN A
more: Basic Sentence structure) VERB COMES AFTER A PREPOSITION:
D) Adjective  Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
 He wasn’t allowed to participate. (‘To participate’ modifies allowed, it  She is good at painting.
describes what type of allowance is being discussed, so the phrase  They’re keen on windsurfing.
serves as an adjective)  She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road.
E) Adverb  We arrived in Madrid after driving all night.
He nominated his name in the team to try to practice hard. (‘To try practice  My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.
hard’ explains why the nominating of his name happened, so it’s an adverb E) AFTER A NUMBER OF ‘PHRASAL VERBS’ WHICH ARE
modifying the verb nominated) COMPOSED OF A VERB + PREPOSITION/ADVERB:
Examples: to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put
3. SPLIT INFINITIVES: off, to keep on:
When you place an adverb or adverbial phrase between the ‘to’ and the verb  I look forward to hearing from you soon. (at the end of a letter)
and split the infinitive from ‘to’ is called split infinitive.  When are you going to give up smoking?
Examples: To carefully walk, to boldly go, to seriously play etc.  She always puts off going to the dentist.
 The coach urged the players to seriously play and win the match.  He kept on asking for money.
 The teacher told us to quickly complete the assignment. NOTE: There are some phrasal verbs and other expressions that include the
 We are here to persuasively teach infinitives and its types word ‘to’ as a preposition, not as part of a to-infinitive: – to look forward
Using split is condemned in most cases; however, they are common in to, to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. It is important to recognize
writing of all kinds. But remember when you are in doubt; avoid using split that ‘to’ is a preposition in these cases, as it must be followed by a gerund:
infinitives in your sentences.  We are looking forward to seeing you.
 I am used to waiting for buses.
GERUND:  She didn’t really take to studying
The present participle (Verb+ing) functioning as a noun that does not It is possible to check whether ‘to’ is a preposition or part of a to-infinitive:
belong to any tense is called gerund. if you can put a noun or the pronoun ‘it’ after it, then it is a preposition and
A) AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE: must be followed by a gerund:
 Laughing is good for health.  I am accustomed to it (the cold).
 Hunting tigers is dangerous.  I am accustomed to being cold.
 Flying makes me nervous. F) AFTER THE EXPRESSIONS:
B) AS THE OBJECT OF THE SENTENCE. can’t help, can’t stand, it’s no use/good, and the adjective worth:
 I like Jogging.  he couldn’t help falling in love with him.
 We enjoyed swimming in the pool.  I can’t stand being stuck in traffic jams.
 They should stop fighting.  It’s no use/good trying to escape.
C) AS THE COMPLEMENT OF THE VERB ‘TO BE’:  It might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.
 One of his duties is attending the class. PARTICIPLES
A participle is a non-finite verb form that has some of the characteristics AS AN ADJECTIVE: The past participle is used as an adjective to tell us
and functions of both verbs and adjectives (and sometimes, adverb) the state/ condition of a noun.
KINDS OF PARTICIPLE  These are polished shoes.
There are three kinds of participle.  They brought a used car.
1. PRESENT PARTICIPLE: When first form of the verb with “ing”  He is retired manager.
works as a verb, as an adjective or as an adverb is called present  This is a broken chair.
participle.
USE: 3. THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE: The perfect participle shows that
AS A MAIN VERB: The present participle is used as a main verb with someone completed an action and started another action in the past.
“ing” form in continuous tenses with “be” forms.
 She was offering pray. FORMULA: Having + 3rd form of the verb + obj. + simple past tense.
 They are helping him.
 They were coming to academy.  Having seen the principal, they became quiet.
 He will be studying a book.  Having done the work, we went outside.
AS AN ADJECTIVE: The present participle can be used as an adjective to  Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts.
modify the nouns or pronouns. Also called participle phrase.  Having played the match, they immediately left the ground.
 They will hear shocking news. Note: We can use past continuous tense also in second clause.
 They bought some fishing boats. Having seen the police, they were running a way.
 He saved the life of dying patient. Having been criminal, they were excusing
 A winning participant is stronger than a losing participant.
AS AN ADVERB: Here the participle works as an adverb, it modifies the
action of the subject.
 She was coming smiling.
 He is coming running.
 He was eating food laughing.
 They were going weeping.

2. THE PAST PARTICIPLE: The third form of the verb is called past
participle, it works both as a verb and as an adjective.
USE:
AS A MAIN VERB: The past participle is used as a verb in all the active
perfect tenses to tell us the completion of an action. It is also used in all the
tenses of passive voice. They have various endings, usually -ed, -d, -t, -en,
or -n. Look at these examples:
 She tells she must have worked hard.
 She believes that she has finished it.
 They have cooked the food. Topic: CONJUNCTIONS
Reference: Grammar
Conjunctions are words which join together two words or two phrases or
two sentences.
Ali and Raza are good writers. (It is a short way of saying, Ali is a
good writer and Raza is a good writer).
Ali and Wali are good boxers. It is a short way of saying, Ali is a
good boxer and Wali is a good boxer.
KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS
There are three kinds of conjunctions which join different kinds of
grammatical structures.
1. Coordinating conjunction
2. Subordinating Conjunction
3. Correlative conjunction
Each of the three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating and
correlative conjunctions serve a unique purpose.
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS:
Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with
similar values. They may connect two words, two phrases, two independent
clauses or two dependent clauses.
In each of the following sentences the coordinating conjunction “and”
connects equal words or groups of words:
John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.
(Connects two words)
They sent the items over the river and through the woods. (Connects
two phrases)
Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could almost hear
them snickering at us lowly workers. (Connects two clauses)
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language,
and they are often remembered by using the acronym “FANBOYS”: for,
and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
I. Thomas will be late to work, for he has a dental appointment.
II. His two favourite sports are football and tennis.
III. Bill refuses to eat peas, nor will he touch carrots
IV. You can eat your cake with a spoon or fork.
V. I am a vegetarian, so I don’t eat any meat.
2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS:
Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one
into a subordinating clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge
adverb, answering the questions “when” or “why” about the main clause, or
imposing conditions or opposition on it.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause
into adverbial subordinating clauses in different ways:
I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)
Because the knight was young, he decided to take a walk. (why)
I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)
Although he never figured out why, Hanna winked on her way out
the door. (opposition)
Note: The subordinating conjunction does not always come between the two
clauses it connects. Often, it comes at the beginning of the first clause.
3. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS:
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They are similar to
coordinating conjunctions because they join sentence elements that are
similar in importance.
Following are some examples of coordinating conjunctions:
Both John and Max made the football team this year. (Both, and)
Neither John nor Max made the football team this year. (Neither,
nor)
Not only did John make the football team, but he also became one of
the strongest players. (Not only, but also)
Topic: TYPES OF SENTENCES
Reference: Grammar
SIMPLE SENTENCES - A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb. -
It expresses a single complete thought that can stand on its own.
Examples:
i. The baby cried for food. (There is a subject and a verb that expresses a
complete thought.)
ii. Asim and Ali ate too much and felt sick. (Although there are two subjects
and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because both verbs share the
same subjects and express one complete thought.)
COMPOUND SENTENCES - A compound sentence has two independent
clauses. An independent clause is a part of a sentence that can stand alone
because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Basically, a compound sentence contains two (or more) simple sentences.
The independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, so).
Examples:
i. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
COMPLEX SENTENCES - A complex sentence is an independent clause
joined by one or more dependent clauses. A dependent clause either lacks a
subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does not express a
complete thought. A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as,
because, since, after, although, when) or relative pronouns (who, that,
which).
Examples:
i. After eating lunch at Bread N Butter, Ali went to the gym to exercise.
(The independent clause is ‘Ali went to the gym to exercise.” The
subordinating clause before it is dependent on the main, independent clause.
If one were to say “after eating lunch at Bread N Butter,” it would be an
incomplete thought.)
ii. The woman who taught Art History was fired for stealing school
supplies. (The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History”
because if removed, the rest of the sentence would stand as an independent
clause. “Who taught Art History” is an adjective clause that provides
necessary details about the subject, woman.)
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES - A compound-complex sentence
has two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Examples:
1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other
teammates for lunch, and they went to the movies. (If we remove the
dependent clause “after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a
compound sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-
complex.)
2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail
after the murderer was sent to jail.
CONCLUSION: In terms of structure, sentences can be classified in four
ways:
one independent clause
at least two independent clauses
an independent clause and at least one dependent clause
two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause
Q. Underline the independent clause once, and underline the dependent
clause twice. Circle the letter below each sentence which correctly
identifies the sentence structure.
S: simple sentence 14. I ate country steak, yet I also ate sausage balls which were filled with
C: compound sentence cheese.
CX: complex sentence
S C CX CCX
CCX: compound complex sentence
15. I hope that you will study for your test on Friday.
1. Anna plays defence, and Amber plays offense.
S C CX CCX
S C CX CCX
2. Anna plays defence, yet Amber, who is a good shooter, plays offense.
S C CX CCX
3. The kitty pounced over the fence, and she landed on a bald guy’s head.
S C CX CCX
4. When the kitty pounced over the fence, she landed on a bald guy’s head,
so he squealed like a little girl.
S C CX CCX
5. I liked the cheese.
S C CX CCX
6. I liked the cheese, yet ham tastes better.
S C CX CCX
7. Hannah fell down when Kellie pushed her.
S C CX CCX
8. Hannah fell down when Kellie pushed her, but she wasn’t hurt.
S C CX CCX
9. I ate my peas so that I could eat my dessert.
S C CX CCX
10. I ate my peas, yet I could not eat my dessert, so I ate it later.
S C CX CCX
11. Billy went to the store, and he bought a ham sandwich.
S C CX CCX
12. Billy went to the store, and he bought a ham sandwich that was mouldy.
S C CX CCX
13. While my dad ate country ham, I ate country steak.
S C CX CCX