Will The Real Swarnabhoomi Please Stand Up BOOK

Dr UDAY DOKRAS Author
WILL THE REAL SUVARNABHUMI PLEASE STAND UP ?
The El Dorado of South East Asia
Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm
i
CONTENTS page 2
BOOKS ON CAMBODIA & South East ASIA by Dr UDAY DOKRAS page 3
CHAPTER I- WILL THE REAL SUVARNABHUMI PLEASE

STAND UP ? page 5
The Periplus text offers several other clues regarding the
nature of trade between India and Chrysê/Suvarnabhumi.
CHAPTER II Ishanapura the temple lost in the forest page 38
THE NEW SUVARNABHOOMI page 45
CHAPTER III The curvilinear temples page 52
CHAPTER IV-The Tortoise and Angkor Design page 66
CHAPTER 5-Angkor & Nortre Dame Cathedral- Hetrotopic

designs in art and literature page 88
CHAPTER VI-The new finding for SUVARNABHUMI TERRA

INCOGNITA page 111
ii
BOOKS ON CAMBODIA & South East ASIA by Dr UDAY DOKRAS
Temple Mountain
Book V on
The Lands of Ganesh Mandala of the DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-
Oriental Kingdoms Cambodia. Book I of a Trilogy of 3 books
Cosmology of lotus
Selected Essays on
some Celestial HINDU CAMBODIA
Mysteries
Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur

Temple
HYDROLOGY of
ANGKOR
Potpurri of Research
of Dr Uday Dokras,
Book
Hindu tempels of Bharat Cambodia and

Indonesia
Mathematics in
Temple Designs
New Essays on
ANGKOR
The Great Marco Polos of Ancient Trade- The

Civilizations of Tamilians
South East Asia
-HINDU Era BOOK
THE BATTLES for II
Preah Pisnulok-
iii
Srijijay the Kingdom of the Winds- booK
Devraja and Raj

Newer Essays on Scientific Borobudur
Dharma -God King
Khemer inspired by
and Kingly
Jayavarman II
Religion The
-
HINDU Era of
Great Civilizations
of Khemer
GRAPHIC Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

BUDDHIST-STUPA
- BOOK
Scientific Angkor I
ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

VANISHED- Angkor
Suvarnabhoomi
Scientific Angkor II BOOK
Khemer Timeline
Prambanan
South East Asian Temple-BOOK
Architecture BOOK II
DEVRAJA BOOK III

South East Asian Complete Essays
Architecture BOOK I of Architect
SRISHIT DOKRAS
VOLUME II
iv
CHAPTER I
WILL THE REAL SUVARNABHUMI PLEASE STAND UP ?
The location of Suvarnabhumi has been the subject
of much debate, both in scholarly
and nationalistic agendas. It remains one of the
most mythified and contentious toponyms in the
history of Asia. Scholars have identified two regions
as possible locations for the ancient Suvarnabhumi:
Insular Southeast Asia or Southern India. In a study
of the various literary sources for the location of
Suvannabhumi, Saw Mra Aung concluded that it
was impossible to draw a decisive conclusion on
this, and that only thorough scientific research
would reveal which of several versions of
Suvannabhumi was the original.
Some have speculated that this country refers to
the Kingdom of Funan. The main port of Funan
was Cattigara Sinarum statio (Kattigara the port of
the Sinae).
Due to many factors, including the lack of historical
evidence, the absence of scholarly consensus,
various cultures in Southeast Asia identify
Suwannaphum as an ancient kingdom there and
claim ethnic and political descendancy as its
successors.[18] As no such claim or legend existed
prior to the translation and publication of the Edicts,
scholars see these claims as based in nationalism or
attempts to claim the title of first Buddhists in
South-East Asia
v
There are numerous ancient historic Asian

designations for Southeast Asia, none are
geographically consistent with each other. Names
referring to Southeast Asia
include Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum (Golden
Land) and Suvarnadvipa (Golden Islands) in Indian
tradition, the Lands below the Winds
in Arabia and Persia, Nanyang (South Seas) to the
Chinese and Nanyo in Japan. A 2nd-century world
map created by Ptolemy of Alexandria names
the Malay Peninsula as Avrea Chersonesvs, (Golden
Peninsula).
The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by
American pastor Howard Malcolm in his
book Travels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only
included the Mainland section and excluded the
Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.
The term was officially used to designate the area of
operation (the South East Asia Command, SEAC) for
Anglo-American forces in the Pacific
Theater of World War II from 1941 to 1945. Since
around 500 B.C. Asia's expanding land
and maritime trade had led to socio-economic
interaction and cultural stimulation and diffusion of
mainly Hindu beliefs into the regional cosmology
of Southeast Asia. Iron Age trade expansion caused
regional geostrategic remodelling. Southeast Asia
was now situated in the central area of convergence
of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade
routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth.
The concept of the Indianised kingdoms, a term
vi
coined by George Coedès, describes Southeast

Asian principalities that since the early common era
as a result of prolonged interaction had incorporated
central aspects of Indian institutions, religion,
statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy,
writing and architecture
Territorial extent of the Kingdom of Funan (1st to 7th century) covering much of

mainland Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and
Vietnam.RIGHT Shiva statue, Champa (modern Vietnam)
The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged

in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities
such as Funan and Champa. Selective adoption of
Indian civilisation elements and individual suitable
adaption stimulated the emergence of centralised
states and development of highly organised societies.
Ambitious local leaders realised the benefits of
Hindu worship. Rule in accord with universal moral
principles represented in the concept of
vii
the devaraja was more appealing than the Chinese

concept of intermediaries.
The exact nature, process and extent of Indian
influence upon the civilisations of the region is still
fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. Debated
are most claims over whether it was Indian
merchants, Brahmins, nobles or Southeast Asian
mariner-merchants who played a central role in
bringing Indian conceptions to Southeast Asia.
Debated is the depth of the influence of traditions for
the people. Whereas early 20th-century scholars
emphasised the thorough Indianisation of Southeast
Asia, more recent authors argued that this influence
was very limited and affected only a small section of
the elite.
Sea trade from China to India passed Champa,
Funan at the Mekong Delta, proceeded along the
coast to the Isthmus of Kra, portaged across the
narrow and transhipped for distribution in India.
This trading link boosted the development of Funan,
its successor Chenla and the Malayan states
of Langkasuka on the eastern and Kedah on the
western coast.
Numerous coastal communities in maritime
Southeast Asia adopted Hindu and Buddhist
cultural and religious elements from India and
developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties.
Early Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia are 4th
century Kutai that rose in East
viii
Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java

and Kalingga in Central Java
Cambodia
Funan (1st–7th century) was the first kingdom in

Cambodian history and it was also the first
Indianized kingdom that prospered in Southeast
Asia. Both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished in
this kingdom. According to the Chinese records, two
Buddhist monks from Funan, named Mandrasena
and Sanghapala, took up residency in China in the
5th to 6th centuries, and translated several
Buddhist sūtras from Sanskrit (or a Prakrit) into
Chinese.
The oldest archaeological evidence of Indianized
civilization in Southeast Asia comes from central
Burma, central and southern Thailand, and the
lower Mekong delta. These finds belong to the period
of Funan Kingdom or Nokor Phnom, present day
Cambodia and South Vietnam including part of
Burma, Lao, and Thailand, which was the first
political centre established in Southeast Asia. Taking
into account the epigraphic and archaeological
evidence, the Suvarnabhumi mentioned in the early
texts must be identified with these areas. Of these
areas, only Funan had maritime links with India
through its port at Oc Éo. Therefore although
Suvarnabhumi in time became a generic name
broadly applied to all the lands east of India,
particularly Sumatra, its earliest application was
probably to Funan. Furthermore, the Chinese name
ix
"Funan" for Cambodia, may be a transcription of the

"Suvaṇṇa" of "Suvaṇṇabhumī".
The oldest Southeast Asian inscription from Cambodia, dated to the 7th century, issued
during the reign of King Isanavarman I, identifies Suvarnabhumi with the kingdom
of Chenla (6th-9th century), the successor of Funan (1st-7th century).
In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal

University of Phnom Penh, discovered a Pre-
Angkorian stone inscription in the Province
of Kampong Speu, Basedth District, which he
tentatively dated to 633 AD. According to him, the
inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the
Khmer Empire.” The inscription was issued during
the reign of King Isanavarman I (616–637 AD) of the
Cambodian Kingdom of Chenla, the successor of
Funan and the predecessor of Khmer Empire. The
inscription, translated, read:
“The great King Isanavarman is full of glory and
bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules
over Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the
x
border, while the kings in the neighbouring states

honour his order to their heads”.
The Inscription is the oldest evidence ever found in
Southeast Asia, mentioning Suvarnabhumi and
identified it with Chenla. The inscription is now
exhibits in the National Museum of Cambodia in
Phnom Penh. However, his claim and the findings
are yet to be peer-reviewed, and they are remained
in doubt with other historians and archaeology
experts across the region.
Thailand
In Thailand, government proclamations and national

museums insist that Suwannaphum was somewhere
in the coast of central plain, especially at the ancient
city of U Thong, which might be the origin of
the Mon Dvaravati Culture. These claims are not
based on any historical records but on
archaeological evidences of human settlements in
the area dating back more than 4,000 years and the
findings of 3rd century Roman coins. The Thai
government named the new Bangkok
airport, Suvarnabhumi Airport, after the mythic
kingdom of Suwannaphum, in celebration of this
tradition. This tradition, however, is doubted by
scholars or the same reason as the Burman
claim. Suphan Buri (from the
Sanskrit, Suvarnapura, "Golden City") in present day
west/central Thailand, was founded in 877-882 as a
city of the Mon-Khmer kingdom of Dvaravati with
the name, Meuang Thawarawadi Si
Suphannaphumi ("the Dvaravati city of
xi
Suvarnabhumi"), indicating that Dvaravati at that

time identified as Suvarnabhumi.
Insular Southeast Asia
The Golden Chersonese - details from the eleventh map of Asia (southeast Asia). Details
from Nicolaus Germanus' 1467 copy of a map from Ptolemy's Geography, showing the
Golden Chersonese, i.e. the Malay Peninsula. The horizontal line represents the Equator,
which is misplaced too far north due to its being calculated from the Tropic of Cancer
using the Ptolemaic degree, which is only five-sixths of a true degree.
The strongest and earliest clue referring to the Malay

Peninsula came from Claudius Ptolemy's Geography,
who referred to it as Golden Chersonese (literally
'golden peninsula'), which pinpointed exactly that
location in South East Asia.
The term Suvarnabhumi ('land of gold') is
commonly thought to refer to the Southeast Asian
Peninsula, including lower Burma and the Malay
Peninsula. However there is another gold-referring
term Suvarnadvipa (the Golden Island or Peninsula,
where dvipa may refer to either a peninsula or an
island),[ which may correspond to the Indonesian
Archipelago, especially Sumatra. Both terms might
refer to a powerful coastal or island kingdom in
present-day Indonesia and Malaysia, possibly
centered on Sumatra or Java. This corresponds to
xii
the gold production areas traditionally known in

Minangkabau highlands in Barisan Mountains,
Sumatra, and interior Borneo. An eighth century
Indian text known as the "Samaraiccakaha"
describes a sea voyage to Suvarnadvipa and the
making of bricks from the gold rich sands which
they inscribed with the name dharana and then
baked.These pointing out to the direction of western
part of insular Southeast Asia, especially Sumatra,
Malay Peninsula, Borneo and Java.
Benefitting from its strategic location on the narrow
Strait of Malacca, the insular theory argued that
other than actually producing gold, it might also be
based on such a kingdom's potential for power and
wealth (hence, "Land of Gold") as a hub for sea-trade
also known from vague descriptions of contemporary
Chinese pilgrims to India. The kingdom referred to
as the center of maritime trade between China and
India was Srivijaya. Due to the Chinese writing
system, however, the interpretations of Chinese
historical sources are based on supposed
correspondences of ideograms – and their
possible phonetic equivalents – with known
toponyms in the ancient Southeast
Asian civilizations. Hendrik Kern concluded
that Sumatra was the Suvarnadvipa mentioned in
ancient Hindu texts and the island of Chryse
mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and
by Rufius Festus Avienius.
The interpretation of early travel records is not
always easy. The Javanese embassies to China in
xiii
860 and 873 CE refer to Java as rich in gold,

although it was in fact devoid of any deposits. The
Javanese would have had to import gold possibly
from neighbouring Sumatra, Malay Peninsula or
Borneo, where gold was still being mined in the 19th
century and where ancient mining sites were
located.[30] Even though Java did not have its own
gold deposits, the texts make frequent references to
the existence of goldsmiths, and it is clear from the
archaeological evidence such as Wonoboyo Hoard,
that this culture had developed a sophisticated gold
working technology, which relied on the import of
substantial quantities of the metal.
The Padang Roco Inscription of 1286 CE, states

that an image of Buddha Amoghapasa Lokeshvara
was brought to Dharmasraya on the Upper Batang
Hari - the river of Jambi - was transported
from Bhumi Java (Java) to Suvarnabhumi (Sumatra),
and erected by order of the Javanese
ruler Kertanegara: the inscription clearly identifies
Sumatra as Suvarnabhumi
There is actually new evidence that gold was more
abundant in the Philippines than in
Sumatra.Spanish chroniclers, when they first
arrived at Butuan, remarked that gold was so
abundant that even houses were decorated with
gold; "Pieces of gold, the size of walnuts and eggs are
found by sifting the earth in the island of that king
who came to our ships. All the dishes of that king
are of gold and also some portion of his house as we
xiv
were told by that king himself...He had a covering of

silk on his head, and wore two large golden earrings
fastened in his ears...At his side hung a dagger, the
haft of which was somewhat long and all of gold, and
its scabbard of carved wood. He had three spots of
gold on every tooth, and his teeth appeared as if
bound with gold."[ As written by Antonio Pigafetta on
Rajah Siagu of Butuan during Magellan's voyage.
Rajah Siagu was also a cousin of Rajah Humabon of
the Rajahnate of Cebu, thus suggesting that the two
Indianized kingdoms were in an alliance together
with Hindu Kutai against the Islamic Sultanates of
Maguindanao and Sulu.[
Butuan was so rich in treasures that a museum
curator, Florina H. Capistrano-Baker, stated that it
was even richer than the more well-known western
maritime kingdom of Srivijaya; "The astonishing
quantities and impressive quality of gold treasures
recovered in Butuan suggest that its flourishing port
settlement played an until recently little-recognized
role in early Southeast Asian trade. Surprisingly, the
amount of gold discovered in Butuan far exceeds
that found in Sumatra, where the much better
known flourishing kingdom of Srivijaya is said to
have been located." This despite that most of the
gold of Butuan were already looted by invaders
Seldom has the world seen such a protracted and
pervasive cultural diffusion. It stands a
monument to the vitality and magnetism of
Indian civilization.
xv
1. Thailand - Suvarnabhumi. Suvarnabhumi,

which means “The Land of Gold”, is an ancient
term for Southeast Asia, found in early
Buddhist and Hindu literature. There were also
legends, religious accounts, and foreign traders'
written accounts dating to the first millennium
AD that mentioned the name “Suvarnabhumi.
2. suvarna bhoomi in Tamil literature referred
to Suwannaphum District.
3. The term Suvarnabhumi ('land of gold') is commonly thought to
refer to the Southeast Asian Peninsula, including lower Burma
and the Malay Peninsula.
4. Suvarnabhumi, which means “The Land of Gold”, is an ancient
term for Southeast Asia, found in early Buddhist and Hindu
literature. There were also legends, religious accounts, and
foreign traders' written accounts dating to the first millennium
AD that mentioned the name “Suvarnabhumi”.
Shree Jain Shwetamber Murtipujak Temple, Yangon
The Jain Agamas refer to Southeast Asia

as Suvarnabhumi. Kalakacharya, a Jain monk,
is said to have visited Burma. About 5000 Jain
families lived in Burma before World War II.
Almost all of the families have now left. There
are three or four Jain families and a Jain
temple in Yangon. It was built with romanesque
architecture and is located on 29th Street
xvi
in Latha Township in Old Rangoon. The Yangon

Heritage Trust has been lobbying to preserve
this temple, along with other prominent
landmarks of Old Rangoon.
5. Fraud of Suvanabhoomi in Madhya Ptradesh, India. Where
government-owned land, was sold as suvarnabhoomi on a
“Swarna Bhoomi” deed. He has only now realised that it was a
bogus deed, which has no legal ownership or market value. ...
And at whatever the price, selling a land which belongs to the
government is illegal.1000 ds were duped.
6. Only Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि) is the name of an

island, as mentioned in the Kathāsaritsāgara,
chapter 52. Accordingly, “... then the merchant
Hiraṇyagupta got together wares and went off to
an island named Suvarṇabhūmi to trade, and
he took that Anaṅgaprabhā with him, out of fear
of being separated from her, and journeying on
his way he at last reached the city of
Sāgarapura. There he fell in with a chief of
fishermen, a native of that place, Sāgaravīra by
name, whom he found in that city near the sea”.
7. The Kathāsaritsāgara (‘ocean of streams of
story’), mentioning Suvarṇabhūmi, is a famous
Sanskrit epic story revolving around prince
Naravāhanadatta and his quest to become the
emperor of the vidyādharas (celestial beings).
The work is said to have been an adaptation of
Guṇāḍhya’s Bṛhatkathā consisting of 100,000
verses, which in turn is part of a larger work
containing 700,000 verses.
8. Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि) or “golden island” is
where the blind sailor Dāsa was buried,
xvii
according to the 2nd

century Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra (chapter
XX). Accordingly, “They came to the craggy
shore and according to Dāsa’s advice, the
bodhisattva tried to grab a branch and
succeeded in saving himself. He took Dāsa’s
body and buried it in the Golden Island
(Suvarṇabhūmi). Then he went on alone
according to the instructions previously given”.
9. Mahayana (महायान, mahāyāna) is a major branch

of Buddhism focusing on the path of a
Bodhisattva (spiritual aspirants/ enlightened
beings). Extant literature is vast and primarely
composed in the Sanskrit language. There are
many sūtras of which some of the earliest are
the various Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.
xviii
10. Sanskrit dictionary- Suvarnabhumi

in Sanskrit glossary
Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries:
Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English
Dictionary.Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि):—[=su-varṇa-
bhūmi] [from su-varṇa] f. = -dvīpa,
[Kathāsaritsāgara; Jātakamālā]
11. Relevant Definitions; Partial
matches: Bhumi, Suvarna.
12. Full-text: Atisha, Shona, Nagadatta, Sagara
pura, Tamralipti, Sagaravira, Gavampati.
Search found 5 books and stories containing
Suvarnabhumi, Suvarna-bhumi, Suvarṇa-
bhūmi, Suvarṇabhūmi; (plurals include:
Suvarnabhumis, bhumis, bhūmis,
Suvarṇabhūmis). You can also click to the
full overview containing English textual
excerpts. Below are direct links for the most
relevant articles:
Maha Prajnaparamita Sastra (by Gelongma
Karma Migme Chödrön)
Appendix 2 - The location of Suvarṇabhūmi
or Suvarṇadvīpa < [Chapter XVI - The Story
of Śāriputra]
Part 2 - Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana at
Sañjaya < [Chapter XVI - The Story of
Śāriputra]
xix
Appendix 1 - Teaching the Rādhasutta at

mount Makula < [Chapter X - The Qualities
of the Bodhisattvas]
+ 1 more chapters / show preview
Buddhist records of the Western world
(Xuanzang) (by Samuel Beal)
Chapter 28 - Country of Po-ho or Fo-ho-lo
(Balkh) < [Book I - Thirty-Four Countries]
show preview
Settlement in Early Historic Ganga
Plain (by Chirantani Das)
Part 7 - Nalanda’s Rise of a Multi-functional
Nodal Centre < [Chapter III - Nālandā:
Evidence for rise and progress of the
settlement]
show preview
Kathasaritsagara (the Ocean of Story) (by
Somadeva)
Chapter LXXXVI < [Book XII - Śaśāṅkavatī]
Foreword to volume 9 < [Forewords]
Chapter LII < [Book IX - Alaṅkāravatī]
show preview
A Dictionary Of Chinese Buddhist
Terms (by William Edward Soothill)
Part 8 - Eight Strokes
show preview
13. The seas across the India – ASEAN region
presented a unique environment to the sailor in
xx
antiquity. The monsoon winds not only

determined the basic rhythm for seafaring
activity in much of tropical and equatorial Asia,
but also influenced agricultural activity in the
region. One way of understanding this complex
web of interactions of the past is through a
deeper engagement with the markers of
maritime regions and the communities that
inhabited these spaces.Boats and ships were
sculpted on Buddhist monastic sites and Hindu
temples
14. Owing to the wealth gained from the spice
trade, during the Portuguese domination, Goa
came into its golden age. It became the largest
city in the East, boasting of no less than 300
churches within town, and having a population
of over 40,000 people.
15. Before the term Southeast Asia became
common usage, the region was often described
as Further or Greater India, and it was common
to describe the Indonesian region or Malay
Archipelago as the East Indies. The reason may
be found in the fact that, prior to Western
dominance, Southeast Asia was closely allied to
India culturally and commercially. The history
of Indian expansion covers a period of more
than fifteen hundred years.
16. The emergence of the cult of the Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara as a saviour of mariners and
xxi
travellers in distress is generally associated with

the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra (chapter 24),
though an enumeration of dangers of travel is to
be found in earlier texts as well such as the
Anguttara Nikāya (Kessivagga 119-20;The
worship of bodhisattvas (beings of
enlightenment) is one of the most distinctive
features of Mahāyāna Buddhism. ... Of the
many bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara is identified
specifically as the embodiment of
compassion and as such has been worshipped
throughout Buddhist Asia.
17. Goa Dourado, (Golden Goa, Roma do
Oriente, (Rome of the East) so has Goa been
described over the last 500 years by conquerors,
travelers, poets and evangelists. The Gods of the
Hindu Pantheon and the Ancient Sages had
known Goa for three millennia before the dawn
of the Christian era as the heart of Aparanta, a
mythical province. Aparanta was what the name
says in Sanskrit, a place 'beyond the end' exotic
and beautiful, where time stands still.
Although Goa is prevailing as a legacy of the

Portuguese colonial era, in fact, its history dates
back to as early as in the antiquity, during
which facts were mingled with mythology.
However, the evident history of Goa is that it
was part of the Mauryan Empire (the 3rd
century. For the next 700 years, Goa was ruled
xxii
by the succession of Hindu dynasties such as

the Shillaharas, the Kadambas, and the
Chalukyans. Until 1312, Goa was controlled by
the Muslims, and it began to rise as an
important landing place for ships carrying
horses to Hampi.
By the late 15th century, upon the discovery of

a new route to India by the band of Portuguese
adventurers, including Vasco de Gama, Goa
became the ideal base for the seafaring
Portuguese who determined to overcome the
manipulation of the spice route from the East.
In the meantime, the Portuguese also took the
occasion to spread Christianity, accordingly
resulting in the expansion, and consolidation of
Portuguese cultures, languages, and other
legacies of values of the Christian world into
Goa. Owing to the wealth gained from the spice
trade, during the Portuguese domination, Goa
came into its golden age. It became the largest
city in the East, boasting of no less than 300
churches within town, and having a population
of over 40,000 people. To,day the Goan people
still retain a distinctive Southern European
flavor, yet, combine their native culture, making
Goa one of the multi-cultural showcases in
India.
18. Since World War II has the term Southeast

Asia been used to describe the area to the east
xxiii
of India and to the south of China, which

includes the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, the Malay
Archipelago and the Philippines, roughly
forming a circle from Burma through Indonesia
to Vietnam.This region was broadly referred to
by ancient Indians as Suvarnabhumi (the Land
of Gold) or Suvarnadvipa (the Island of Gold),
although scholars dispute its exact definition.
Sometimes the term is interpreted to mean only
Indonesia or Sumatra. Arab writers such as Al
Biruni testify that Indians called the whole
Southeast region Suwarndib (Suvarnadvipa).
Hellenistic geographers knew the area as the
Golden Ghersonese. The Chinese called it Kin-
Lin; Kin means gold. During the last two
thousand years, this region has come under the
influence of practically all the major civilizations
of the world: Indian, Chinese, Islamic, and
Western. Of these, Indian culture appears to
have blended best with the indigenous culture.
19. The name Java comes from the Sanskrit
Jawadwip, which means a (dvip) island (yawa)
shaped like a barley corn. The Vedic Indians
must have charted Java, Yawadvip, thousands
of years ago because Yawadvip is mentioned in
India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. The
Ramayana reveals some knowledge of the
eastern regions beyond seas; for instance
Sugriva dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the
island of Java, in search of Sita. It speaks of
xxiv
Burma as the land of silver mines. The Agni

Purana, along with many other Puranas, calls
India proper as Jambudvipa as distinguished
from Dvipantara or India of the islands or
overseas India. Towards the end of the fifth
century, Aryabhatta, the Indian astronomer,
wrote that when the sun rose in Ceylon it was
midday in Yavakoti (Java) and midnight in the
Roman land. In the Surya Siddhanta reference
is also made to the Nagari Yavakoti with golden
walls and gates.
Suvarnabhumi was there!

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea also known
by its Latin name as the Periplus Maris Erythraei,
is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine
Greek that describes navigation and trading
opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports
like Berenice Troglodytica along the coast of the Red
Sea, and others along Horn of Africa, the Persian
Gulf, Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, including
the modern-day Sindh region of Pakistan and
xxv
southwestern regions of India. Hre we find the most

solid evidence of what we call( and they Called) the
land of GOLD or Suvarnabhoomi a mandala of
trading Harbours in countries or Kingdoms of extra-
ordinary wealth.Here is the Full story:
The text has been ascribed to different dates
between the first and third centuries, but a mid-first
century date is now the most commonly accepted.
While the author is unknown, it is clearly a first
hand description by someone familiar with the area
and is nearly unique in providing accurate insights
into what the ancient Hellenic world knew about the
lands around the Indian Ocean.
Periplus and Erythraean Sea
A periplus (Greek: περίπλους, períplous, lit. "a
sailing-around") is a logbook recording
sailing itineraries and commercial, political, and
ethnological details about the ports visited. In an era
before maps were in general use, it functioned as a
combination atlas and traveller's handbook.
The Erythraean Sea (Greek: Ἐρυθρὰ
Θάλασσα, Erythrà Thálassa, lit. "the Red Sea") was
an ancient geographical designation that always
included the Gulf of Aden between Arabia Felix and
the Horn of Africa and was often extended (as in this
periplus) to include the present-day Red
Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean as a single
maritime area.
The 10th-century Byzantine manuscript which
forms the basis of present knowledge of
xxvi
the Periplus attributes the work to Arrian, but

apparently for no better reason than its position
beside Arrian's much later Periplus of the Black Sea.
One historical analysis, published by Schoff in 1912,
narrowed the date of the text to AD 59–62,[1] in
agreement with present-day estimates of the middle
of the 1st century. Schoff additionally provides an
historical analysis as to the text's original
authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the
author was a "Greek in Egypt, a Roman subject".By
Schoff's calculations, this would have been during
the time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus (who
coincidentally also was an Egyptian Greek).
John Hill maintains that "the Periplus can now be
confidently dated to between AD 40 and 70 and,
probably, between AD 40 and 50."
Schoff continues by noting that the author could not
have been "a highly educated man" as "is evident
from his frequent confusion
of Greek and Latin words and his clumsy and
sometimes ungrammatical constructions".[5] Because
of "the absence of any account of the journey up
the Nile and across the desert from Coptos", Schoff
prefers to pinpoint the author's residence to
"Berenice rather than Alexandria"
xxvii
1597 map depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
The work consists of 66 sections, most of them

about the length of a long paragraph. For instance,
the short section 9 reads in its entirety:
From Malao (Berbera) it is two courses to the mart of
Moundou, where ships anchor more safely by an
island lying very close to the land. The imports to
this are as aforesaid [Chapter 8 mentions iron, gold,
silver, drinking cups, etc.], and from it likewise are
exported the same goods [Chapter 8 mentions
myrrh, douaka, makeir, and slaves], and fragrant
gum called mokrotou (cf. Sanskrit makaranda). The
inhabitants who trade here are more stubborn.
In many cases, the description of places is
sufficiently accurate to identify their present
locations; for others, there is considerable debate.
For instance, "Rhapta" is mentioned as the farthest
market down the African coast of "Azania", but there
are at least five locations matching the description,
ranging from Tanga to south of the Rufiji River delta.
The description of the Indian coast mentions
the Ganges River clearly, yet after that it is
ambiguous, describing China as a "great inland city
Thina" that is a source of raw silk.
xxviii
The Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the

Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open
ocean was discovered by Hippalus (1st century BC).
Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus, but
some of the words naming trade goods are found
nowhere else in ancient literature, leading to
guesswork as to what they might be. For example,
one trade good mentioned is "lakkos chromatinos".
The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient
Greek or Roman literature. The name re-surfaces in
late medieval Latin as lacca, borrowed from medieval
Arabic lakk in turn borrowed from Sanskritic lakh,
meaning lac i.e. a red-coloured resin native to India
used as a lacquer and used also as a red colourant.
[7]
Some other named trade goods remain obscure.
Himyarite kingdom and Saba
Coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, in

which ships stopped when passing between Egypt and India. This is an
imitation of a coin of Augustus, 1st century
Ships from Himyar regularly travelled the East

African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea describes the trading empire of Himyar
and Saba, regrouped under a single ruler,
"Charibael" (probably Karab'il Watar Yuhan'em II),
who is said to have been on friendly terms
with Rome:
xxix
23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the

metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of
two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to
them, called the Sabaites; through continual
embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors.
— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §23
Frankincense kingdom
The Frankincense kingdom is described further east

along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula,
with the harbour of Cana (South Arabic Qana,
modern Bir Ali in Hadramaut). The ruler of this
kingdom is named Eleazus, or Eleazar, thought to
correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I:
27. After Eudaemon Arabia there is a continuous
length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand
stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and
Fish-Eaters living in villages; just beyond the cape
projecting from this bay there is another market-
town by the shore, Cana, of the Kingdom of Eleazus,
the Frankincense Country; and facing it there are
two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the
other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia
from Cana. Inland from this place lies the metropolis
Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All
the frankincense produced in the country is brought
by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on
rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of
the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade
also with the far-side ports,
xxx
with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana and the
neighboring coast of Persia.
Somalia
Ras Hafun in northern Somalia is believed to be the

location of the ancient trade centre
of Opone. Ancient Egyptian, Roman and Persian
Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by
an archaeological team from the University of
Michigan. Opone is in the thirteenth entry of
the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which in part
states:
And then, after sailing four hundred stadia along a
promontory, toward which place the current also
draws you, there is another market-town called
Opone, into which the same things are imported as
those already mentioned, and in it the greatest
quantity of cinnamon is produced, (the arebo and
moto), and slaves of the better sort, which are
brought to Egypt in increasing numbers; and a great
quantity of tortoiseshell, better than that found
elsewhere.
In ancient times, Opone operated as a port of call for

merchants
from Phoenicia, Egypt, Greece, Persia, Yemen, Nabat
aea, Azania, the Roman Empire and elsewhere, as it
possessed a strategic location along the coastal route
from Azania to the Red Sea. Merchants from as far
afield as Indonesia and Malaysia passed through
xxxi
Opone, trading spices, silks and other goods, before

departing south for Azania or north
to Yemen or Egypt on the trade routes that spanned
the length of the Indian Ocean's rim. As early as
AD 50, Opone was well known as a center for the
cinnamon trade, along with the trading of cloves and
other spices, ivory, exotic animal skins and incense.
The ancient port city of Malao, situated in present-
day Berbera in north central Somaliland, is also
mentioned in the Periplus:
After Avalites there is another market-town, better
than this, called Malao, distant a sail of about eight
hundred stadia. The anchorage is an open
roadstead, sheltered by a spit running out from the
east. Here the natives are more peaceable. There are
imported into this place the things already
mentioned, and many tunics, cloaks from Arsinoe,
dressed and dyed; drinking-cups, sheets of soft
copper in small quantity, iron, and gold and silver
coin, not much. There are exported from these
places myrrh, a little frankincense, (that known as
far-side), the harder cinnamon, duaca, Indian copal
and macir, which are imported into Arabia; and
slaves, but rarely.
— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §8[
Kingdom of Aksum
xxxii
Coins of king Endybis, AD 227–235. British Museum. The left one reads in

Greek "ΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ", "King of Axum". The right one reads in Greek:
"ΕΝΔΥΒΙϹ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ", "King Endybis".
Aksum is mentioned in the Periplus as an important

market place for ivory, which was exported
throughout the ancient world:
From that place to the city of the people called
Auxumites there is a five days' journey more; to that
place all the ivory is brought from the country
beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum,
and thence to Adulis.
According to the Periplus, the ruler of Aksum

was Zoscales, who, besides ruling in Aksum also
held under his sway two harbours on the Red
Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and Avalites (Assab). He
is also said to have been familiar with Greek
literature:
These places, from the Calf-Eaters to the other
Berber country, are governed by Zoscales; who is
miserly in his ways and always striving for more, but
otherwise upright, and acquainted with Greek
literature.
xxxiii
Rhapta
Rhapta-(Dar es Salaam)
Supposed location of Rhapta in Africa
Recent research by
the Tanzanian archaeologist Felix A. Chami has
uncovered extensive remains of Roman trade items
near the mouth of the Rufiji River and the
nearby Mafia island, and makes a strong case that
the ancient port of Rhapta was situated on the
banks of the Rufiji River just south of Dar es
Salaam.
The Periplus informs us that:
Two runs beyond this island [Menuthias
= Zanzibar?] comes the very last port of trade on the
coast of Azania, called Rhapta ["sewn"], a name
derived from the aforementioned sewn boats, where
there are great quantities of ivory and tortoise shell.
[12]
xxxiv
Chami summarizes the evidence for Rhapta's

location as follows:
The actual location of the Azanian capital, Rhapta,
remains unknown. However, archaeological
indicators reported above suggest that it was located
on the coast of Tanzania, in the region of the Rufiji
River and Mafia Island. It is in this region where the
concentration of Panchaea/Azanian period
settlements has been discovered. If the island of
Menuthias mentioned in the Periplus was Zanzibar,
a short voyage south would land one in the Rufiji
region. The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy locates
Rhapta at latitude 8° south, which is the exact
latitude of the Rufiji Delta and Mafia Island. The
metropolis was on the mainland about one degree
west of the coast near a large river and a bay with
the same name. While the river should be regarded
as the modern Rufiji River, the bay should definitely
be identified with the calm waters between the
island of Mafia and the Rufiji area. The peninsula
east of Rhapta would have been the northern tip of
Mafia Island. The southern part of the bay is
protected from the deep sea by numerous deltaic
small islets separated from Mafia Island by shallow
and narrow channels. To the north the bay is open
to the sea and any sailor entering the waters from
that direction would feel as if he were entering a bay.
Even today the residents identify these waters as a
bay, referring to it as a 'female sea', as opposed to
the more violent open sea on the other side of the
island of Mafia.[13]
xxxv
In recent years, Felix Chami has found

archaeological evidence for extensive Roman trade
on Mafia Island and, not far away, on the mainland,
near the mouth of the Rufiji River, which he dated to
the first few centuries. Furthermore, J. Innes
Miller points out that Roman coins have been found
on Pemba island, just north of Rhapta.[14]
Nevertheless, Carl Peters has argued that Rhapta
was near modern-day Quelimane in Mozambique,
[15]
citing the fact that (according to the Periplus) the
coastline there ran down towards the southwest.
Peters also suggests that the description of the
"Pyralaoi" (i.e., the "Fire people") – "situated at the
entry to the [Mozambique] Channel" – indicates that
they were the inhabitants of the volcanic Comoro
Islands. He also maintains that Menuthias (with its
abundance of rivers and crocodiles) cannot have
been Zanzibar; i.e., Madagascar seems more likely.
The Periplus informs us that Rhapta, was under the
firm control of a governor appointed by Arabian king
of Musa, taxes were collected, and it was serviced by
"merchant craft that they staff mostly with Arab
skippers and agents who, through continual
intercourse and intermarriage, are familiar with the
area and its language".[12]
The Periplus explicitly states that Azania (which
included Rhapta) was subject to "Charibael", the
king of both the Sabaeans and Homerites in the
southwest corner of Arabia. The kingdom is known
to have been a Roman ally at this period. Charibael
xxxvi
is stated in the Periplus to be "a friend of the

(Roman) emperors, thanks to continuous embassies
and gifts" and, therefore, Azania could fairly be
described as a vassal or dependency of Rome, just as
Zesan is described in the 3rd-century Chinese
history, the Weilüe.
Bharuch
Coin.of Nahapana (AD 119–124).
Obv: Bust of king Nahapana with a legend in Greek script "ΡΑΝΝΙΩ
ΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑϹ ΝΑΗΑΠΑΝΑϹ", transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshaharatasa
Nahapanasa: "King Kshaharata Nahapana".RIGHTBarygaza
(Bharuch)
Location of Barygaza in India.
Trade with the Indian harbour of Barygaza is

described extensively in the Periplus. Nahapana,
ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps is
mentioned under the name Nambanus,[17] as ruler of
the area around Barigaza:
41. Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that
of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca,
which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus
xxxvii
and of all India. That part of it lying inland and

adjoining Scythia is called Abiria, but the coast is
called Syrastrene. It is a fertile country, yielding
wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter,
cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the
coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there,
and the men are of great stature and black in color.
The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from
which much cotton cloth is brought down to
Barygaza.
Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the

main centres of Roman trade in the subcontinent.
The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:
49. There are imported into this market-town
(Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred,
also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead;
coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all
kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax,
sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and
silver coin, on which there is a profit when
exchanged for the money of the country; and
ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for
the King there are brought into those places very
costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful
maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of
the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There
are exported from these places spikenard, costus
[Saussurea costus], bdellium, ivory, agate
and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk
xxxviii
cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such

other things as are brought here from the various
market-towns. Those bound for this market-town
from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the
month of July, that is Epiphi.
Goods were also brought down in quantity

from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps:
48. Inland from this place and to the east, is the city
called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this
place are brought down all things needed for the
welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many
things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian
muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.
Early Chera, Pandyan, and Chola kingdoms
Muziris-(Kodungallur)
Location of Muziris in India.
xxxix
The lost port city of Muziris (near present

day Kodungallur) in the Chera kingdom, as well as
the Early Pandyan Kingdom are mentioned in
the Periplus as major centres of trade, pepper and
other spices, metal work and semiprecious stones,
between Damirica and the Roman Empire.
According to the Periplus, numerous Greek seamen
managed an intense trade with Muziris:
Then come Naura (Kannur) and Tyndis, the first
markets of Damirica or Limyrike, and then Muziris
and Nelcynda, which are now of leading
importance. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra;
it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the
same kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with
cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located
on a river (River Periyar), distant from Tyndis by
river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river
from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant
from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred
stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This
place also is situated on a river, about one hundred
and twenty stadia from the sea ...
— The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 53–54
Damirica or Limyrike is Tamilagam (Tamil தமிழகம்) –

the "Tamil country". Further, this area served as a
hub for trade with the interior, in the Gangetic plain:
Besides this there are ex-ported great quantities of
fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the
Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the
interior, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds
xl
and sapphires, and tortoise-shell; that from Chryse

Island, and that taken among the islands along the
coast of Damirica (Limyrike). They make the voyage
to this place in a favorable season who set out from
Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi.
— The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 56
Indo–China border
The Periplus also describes the annual fair in

present-day Northeast India, on the border with
China.
Every year there turns up at the border of Thina a
certain tribe, short in body and very flat-faced ...
called Sêsatai ... They come with their wives and
children bearing great packs resembling mats of
green leaves and then remain at some spot on the
border between them and those on the Thina side,
and they hold a festival for several days, spreading
out the mats under them, and then take off for their
own homes in the interior.
— Periplus, §65
Sêsatai are the source of malabathron. Schoff's

translation mentions them as Besatae: they are a
people similar to Kirradai and they lived in the
region between "Assam and Sichuan".
The [? locals], counting on this, then turn up in the
area, collect what the Sêsatai had spread out,
extract the fibers from the reeds, which are
called petroi, and lightly doubling over the leaves
and rolling them into ball-like shapes, they string
xli
them on the fibers from the reeds. There are three

grades: what is called big-ball malabathron from the
bigger leaves; medium-ball from the lesser leaves;
and small-ball from the smaller. Thus three grades
of malabathron are produced, and then they are
transported into India by the people who make
them.
— Periplus, §65[
Remains of the Indo-Greek kingdom
The Periplus explains that coins of the Indo-Greek king Menander I were

current in Barigaza.
The Periplus claims that Greek buildings and wells

exist in Barigaza, falsely attributing them
to Alexander the Great, who never went this far
south. This account of a kingdom tracing its
beginnings to Alexander's campaigns and the
Hellenistic Seleucid empire that followed:
The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from
which much cotton cloth is brought down to
Barygaza. In these places there remain even to the
present time signs of the expedition of Alexander,
such as ancient shrines, walls of forts and great
wells.
— Periplus, §41
The Periplus further claims to the circulation of
Indo-Greek coinage in the region:
xlii
To the present day ancient drachmae are current in

Barygaza, coming from this country, bearing
inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of
those who reigned after Alexander, Apollodorus [sic]
and Menander.
— Periplus, §47
The Greek city of Alexandria Bucephalous on
the Jhelum River is mentioned in the Periplus, as
well as in the Roman Peutinger Table:
The country inland of Barigaza is inhabited by
numerous tribes, such as the Arattii, the Arachosii,
the Gandaraei and the people of Poclais, in which is
Bucephalus Alexandria
The Periplus was originally known only through a

single manuscript dating from the 14th or 15th
century, now held by the British Museum. This
edition proved to be a corrupt and error-ridden copy
of a 10th-century Byzantine manuscript in
minuscule hand. The 10th-century manuscript
placed it beside Arrian's Periplus of the Black
Sea and (apparently mistakenly) also credited Arrian
with writing it as well. The Byzantine manuscript
was taken from Heidelberg to Rome during
the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), then
to Paris under Napoleon after his army's conquest of
the Papal States in the late 1790s, then returned to
Heidelberg's University Library in 1816[25] where it
remains.
xliii
The British manuscript was edited by Sigmund

Gelen (Czech: Zikmund Hruby z Jeleni) in Pragueand
first published by Hieronymus Froben in 1533. This
error-ridden text served as the basis for other
editions and translations for three centuries, until
the restoration of the original manuscript to
Heidelberg in 1816.
Schoff's heavily annotated 1912 English translation
was itself based on a defective original, as late as the
1960s, the only trustworthy scholarly edition
was Frisk's 1927 French study.[
There is no suggestion that the Greek-Egyptian
author of the Periplus had direct knowledge of land
to the east of India, or even, perhaps, of much of the
eastern coast of India itself. His sources would have
been Indian merchants with more direct experience,
and we can assume that the names Chrysê and
Chrysê Island were his translations into Greek for
‘golden land,’ Suvarnabhumi, and ‘golden island,’
Suvarnadvipa, geographical terms for lands to the
east of India known already from Jataka tales, some
dating as early as the 4 c. BCE. In any case, the
th
Periplus confirms that the names Suvarnabhumi and

Suvarnadvipa were in current use by the mid-1st c.
Further, to the author of the Periplus and his Indian
colleagues, these were not mythical locations, but
rather an ‘established trading area that happened to
lie as far east as current geographical knowledge
extended’ (Casson 1989, 235), and, from both areas, the
main export to India was high quality tortoise shell
xliv
(Casson 1989, 89). Based on the Periplus text, Seland’s

network analysis of sites mentioned in the Periplus
(Seland 2016, 200) suggests at least four probable
connections between Chrysê/Chrysê Island and the
eastern coast of India, namely Kamara, Podukê,
often equated with Arikamedu, Sôpatma, location
unknown but perhaps south of Chennai, and
Gangês, possibly Tamralipti, a port at the mouth of
the Ganges River (Casson 1989, 229).
While the mid-1st century CE Periplus Maris Erythraei

(Casson 1989) provides the first discussion in a
western language for trade between India and
territories to the east, such links were well developed
at least several centuries earlier. Some of the best
evidence comes from the Thai/Malay Peninsula sites
of Khao Sam Kaeo, with calibrated radiocarbon
dates from the 4th to 2nd or 1st c. BCE, and the related
Khao Sek (Dussubieux and Bellina 2018). At both
sites, and possibly others yet undiscovered, raw
glass produced in northern India, with a
characteristic chemical composition including very
high levels of uranium, was transformed into
finished objects, primarily beads and bangles, that
were culturally valued in Southeast Asia. These
ornaments were most likely used locally at other
Peninsular sites, and were certainly exchanged with
such Dong Nai, or southern Sa Huynh, sites as
Giong Ca Vo in southern Vietnam. The Periplus gives
us not only a name, Chrysê and Chrysê Island
(Casson 1989, 235), for these ports east of India, but
xlv
also a notion of possible mechanisms for trade in the

1st century CE.
The Periplus text offers several other clues regarding the

nature of trade between India and Chrysê/Suvarnabhumi .
The first, discussed by Casson in his notes on

Periplus 60:20.10-13 (Casson 1989, 230), highlights the
market along the eastern coast of India for goods
sent by sea from Mediterranean ports- the various
commodities, including glass, mentioned in the
Periplus- as well as goods produced in the
hinterlands of such ports as Barygaza and Muziris.
Further, in contrast to the yearly arrival of western
goods to the west coast of India, constrained by the
pattern of monsoon winds, the imported and locally
produced goods could be transferred to east coast
ports all year long using smaller local boats such as
sangara, large ‘dugout canoes held together by a
yoke’ (Periplus 60:20.8 in Casson 1989, 229). While Indian
merchants were no doubt important in the
Chrysê/Suvarnabhumi trade, Periplus 60:20.9-10,
mentioning ‘the very big kolandiphonta’ (Casson 1989,
230, translated as ‘large ocean-going ships of South-
east Asia’), is evidence that at least some of the
sailing vessels were Southeast Asian rather than
Indian. If so, this would presume an important role
for Southeast Asians in selecting both the types and
quantities of goods to be sent back to their home
ports. Also important is the apparent lack of Indian
knowledge for points beyond Suvarnabhumi,
xlvi
meaning that any trade beyond this point must have

been out of Indian control. The evidence for Khao
Sam Kaeo fits very well into this framework. While
Indian goods, including raw glass and very likely
Indian craftsmen, including glassworkers, traveled
to Peninsular Thailand, the uses of the raw
materials and the types of objects produced by the
glassworkers were under local influence and perhaps
control The further exchange of finished objects to
southern Vietnam as early as the 4th-2nd c. BCE would
have been entirely a Southeast Asian enterprise,
since even several centuries later, Indian merchants
had no direct knowledge of what lay beyond
Suvarnabhumi.
What changed in the late 1st c. BCE/1st c. CE was not the nature of the trade,
nor even necessarily the trade routes, but rather the entry of western materials
into what had been an exclusively Indian/Southeast Asian enterprise. One of
these new materials would have been western or ‘Roman’ glass produced in
glass workshops in Egypt and along the Levantine coast, the most important
areas for both primary and secondary glass production in the 1st c., Roman
Empire.
xlvii
More than a million people lived around the region of Angkor Wat (Siem
Reap) during its peak. Today, the Hindu population of Cambodia (population
approximately 14 million) is not even measurable. The majority belongs to the
Buddhist religion. Though mainly based on Hinayana (lesser Vehicle), a unique
potpourri of Buddhism that is currently practiced. Its pantheon of gods
includes many Hindu idols. They have not forgotten their history and still pay
their obeisance to god Vishnu and Shiva as well as worship Buddha.
The lost Hindu empire of Cambodia is marked by hundreds of temples. It is the

product of sweat and blood of devoted subjects of many rulers with a passion
for building. Many of the temples have crumbled from neglect and vandalized.
Many have not withstood the onslaught of centuries of harsh weather.
But the memory of the glory of the empires left behind by its temple-
building rulers is lasting. Its vibrant former civilization and culture are firmly
etched in stone sculptures, and in their ancient scripts. The beautiful bas-
reliefs depicting Hindu puranas are delicate as well as delightful. The sculpted
figures of lovely apsaras on its temple walls, with their modern appearing
hairdo and dresses are esthetically pleasing to the eyes. The neglected temples
of Ta Prohm and Preah Khan, with their overgrown roots of Kapok trees are
sights to behold. The rooftops appear to be strangled by giant talons of some
mythical birds in a vise-like grip. Tree roots snake around the temple walls like
Anacondas lazily bathing in the sun.
xlviii
Palace city of Angkor Thom with its Elephant Terrace and the Leper King
(which actually is a sculpture of Yama which came to be known as the Leper
King because of its damaged sculpyured fingers), and the rows of giant statues
at the entrance with the large gate are majestic. One trip is not enough to see
all the ruins but a student of history or not and anyone with curiosity about
the eastward spread of the Indian Diaspora in yesteryears must pay at least a
visit to Cambodia. It is testimony to the widespreads recognition of the value
of the HIndu tradition. Countries name their airport as Suvarnabhumi,
Indonesia calls its airlines as Garuda, its police academy emblem is after
Hanuman, even the USA has made a beginning of starting its Senate
proceedings with Vedic mantras….it is a matter of pride and happiness.
xlix
Suvarnabhumi Airport (BKK) - Churning of the Milk Ocean

If you've ever departed from the new Bangkok airport - Suvarnabhumi Airport,
you will be greeted by an impressive statue the moment you clear immigration.
The statue depicts one of the famous scenes from Puranas (Hindu literature) -
Samudra manthan aka the churning of the ocean of milk. This story is
celebrated in a major way every twelve years in the festival known as Kumbha
Mela.
The Churning of the ocean of milk tells of the story where demons and gods
cooperated to churn the sea for thousands of years in order to extract the elixir
of immortality, coveted by both groups.
As you can see from the pictures, the Devas (demigods) are engaged in a tug of
war with the Asuras (demons). Each team is holding onto one end of the king of
serpent - Vasuki (aka Naga). The centre of the serpent is coiled around Mt.
Mandara (which is a pivot) and at the base of this pivot would be Vishnu,
incarnated as a huge turtle.
l
Asuras (demon) holding onto the head end of the

Naga (3 headed king of serpent). Also with colourful
painted body and demonic faces
Naga wrapped around Mt Mandara as a pivot and

supported by turtle (Vishnu)
Devas (demigods) holding the tail end of the serpent.
You can see that the demigods are depicted in
human form.
As the ocean churned, a deadly poison known as
halahala emerged. Shiva drank this poison and his
wife stopped it in his throat with her hands, causing
the throat to turn blue. (explaining why Shiva is
sometimes called Nīlakantha meaning Blue Throat).
li
From the churning, numerous opulent things were

also produced including Dhanvantari (Heavenly
Physician) carrying the pot of Amrita - the heavenly
nectar of immortality.
In the end, the cooperation between Devas and

Asuras was shattered with Vishnu taking the form of
Mohini - a beautiful and enchanting damsel who
served to distract the Asuras while distributing the
nectar to the Devas. (a little cheating and disception
seems to be happening here). The Devas having
fulfilled their plan of acquring all the Amrita
banished the Asuras out of Heaven and into the
underworld. (tsk tsk)
Of course, as all Hindu literature, there is many
versions of the story.
One interesting twist to the story that I like was that:
A particular Asura, Rahu, had disguised himself as a
Devas, and managed to drink some of the nectar.
But before the Nectar could pass his throat, Mohini
cut off his head. The head, due to its contact with
the amrita, remained immortal. It is believed that
this immortal head occasionally swallows the sun or
the moon, causing eclipses. Then, the sun or moon
passes through the opening at the neck, ending the
eclipse.
Thre lanfs of Gold? Gold is fairly widely, though irregularly, distributed
throughout Southeast Asia as it is in the Hindu traditions of India. It is
igneous and metamorphic hard rock deposits and in sedimentary placer
deposits. What we are writing about is a region known to the Indian merchants
of the 1st millennium BPE as Suvarnabhumi: ‘Land of Gold’, which is thought to
refer to the mainland, including lower Burma and the Thai Malay Peninsula,
lii
and Suvarnadvipa: ‘Islands of Gold’, which may correspond to the Indonesian

Archipelago, including Sumatra.
Historical sources inform us that the Chinese were clearly impressed by the
quantities of gold present, and there is evidence to suggest that the gold
deposits were one of the stimulating factors in the development of early
contacts with India and China. Gold first appears in the archaeological record
in 400 BPE, at about the same time as iron, semiprecious stone polishing and
glass working, suggesting that the techniques of gold extraction and working
were quite plausibly introduced to Southeast Asia via Indian and/or Chinese
1
merchants seeking gold ores. Gold in early Southeast Asia.
The term Suvarnabhumi appears in three contexts

in its original linguistic form, either in the Pali or
Sanskrit languages:
1. As a location in mythical or religious stories;
2. As a reference in short and vague accounts of
trade;
3. As a comparative political narrative for a local
audience with no access to the actual location of
Suvarnabhumi.
The same applies to the term Aurea Regio in medieval sources allegedly copied
from Classical sources, as well as to the ongoing quest to take Ptolemy’s map
as an actual exploration account.Mentions
of the Golden Land
appear in South Asian, Chinese, and the often-cited
Greek and Roman sources. Analysis of Chinese and
Greco-Roman sources echoes a borrowing and
matching method from studies on Pali and Sanskrit
sources; for example, Chin-Lin uses the Chinese
character “golden city” and subsequently equates it
to the golden land: Suvarnabhumi. From religious
preachings, airport names and popular archaeology coverage in newspapers,
the idea of finding the El Dorado of Asia is a continuing obsession.
liii
-----------------------------------------------------------------
------------
1. L’or dans le Sud-Est asiatique ancien.Anna T. N. Bennett.p. 99-
Finding relics attached to the fabled

Suvarnabhumi, the so-called Golden Land that has
appeared through centuries of oral tradition and
religious narratives, never gets old for the
archaeology and history enthusiasts of Southeast
Asia. Suvarnabhumi, is a literary reference to a land
that appeared in Sanskrit and Pali texts. The term
often appears in Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina
traditions, with attempts by scholars to link its
literal meaning, the golden peninsula, to other
textual sources in Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Chinese.
The location of Suvarnabhumi is highly disputed
among scholars and governments. Some of the
contending locations include: South India, Sri
Lanka, Eastern Bengal, and various locations in
Southeast Asia.
This land Suvarnabhumi. Identifying the so-called
land of wealth and mystery, goes as far back as
Ashoka (c. 268 BCE) and then attracted missionaries
and merchants from India, China, and Europe.
While we have to appreciate the profound work of
scholars like O.W. Wolters, H.G. Wales, Georges
Coédes, and the impeccable work on Chinese texts
by Paul Wheatley, historians have gotten used to
treating Suvarnabhumi or its synonyms in other
languages as a historical-geographical fact.Instead,
liv
Suvarnabhumi is a literary creation. We need to work

together as archaeologists, linguists, local and
international, art historians, historians and heritage
scholars to get rid of the idea of Suvarnabhumi as a
physical location. I am not saying we should stop
studying Suvarnabhumi, but perhaps it is time we
stop treating it as a piece of empirical source
material.
In light of recent attempts to de-colonise and review Eurocentric narratives,
Suvarnabhumi is the colossus of colonial historiography. It exoticises and
orientalises the landscape into shrouds of myths and legends, but more
importantly, it subjects Southeast Asian historical narratives to the
significance of non-Southeast Asian actors. According to this view, the
historicity of Southeast Asia began with the diffusion of trade, technology, and
statecraft from an external agency. Chronology also becomes a big debate every
time a discussion on early ‘states’ in Southeast Asia emerges. Some scholars
dance around this gaping hole by ignoring the issue altogether and avoid
contextualising their studies into a broader landscape. Archaeology and history
often struggle to break away from national or site-specific studies within
modern national boundaries. The baggage that accompanies Suvarnabhumi as
a historical concept is its very absence of historicity, the lack of a cultural
context in which it is to be placed. In other words, the problem is the claim
that cultural complexities in Southeast Asia does not exist without the roles of
external agencies and identities.
The Origins of Suvarnabhumi
lv
A 19th-century text depicting Jataka or Buddha previous lives stories. Mahajanaka Jataka refers to
Suvarnabhumi as an intended destination before a shipwreck. The story is highly popularised in
Thai and Burmese Buddhist communities. Photo Credit: British Library, Or.14559, f. 5.
Southeast Asian historical identity continues to

grapple with its colonial legacy and decolonisation
narratives. In many countries, it has been a
constant challenge to pull away from the idea that
mainstream religion from South and East Asia
triggered state development in Southeast Asia. Few
scholars have dared venture into the realm of
mentioning local technological development when it
comes to discussing bricks and masonry in the
archaeological record. This deeply entrenched theory
of external agency culminates from a century of
treating Southeast Asian history as an extended part
of South Asian and East Asian stories. We cannot
deny the Eurocentric origins of history as a subject.
The Victorian fascination with understanding the
world under empire continues to permeate through
orientalist and antiquarian approaches to regional
history. Southeast Asian material culture becomes
an orphan, adopted by the identities of its better-
understood South Asian and East Asian parents.
Polities in Southeast Asia could not be
conceptualised as existing without being treated as
Suvarnabhumi and therefore in terms of trade with
its parental cultures.
While a visit to Cambodia is recommended or may even be de rigueur for any
Indian with an interest in the erstwhile history of India. For nowhere in the
world outside India one can see the glory of its past splendor so well exhibited
as in Cambodia. There are several hundred Hindu and Buddhist temple ruins
throughout the countryside, especially around the town of Siem Reap near the
large lake Tonle Sap. Siem Reap is the heart of the country. Here is where the
lvi
splendid temple Angkor Wat has stood for nearly nine hundred years.
Mostly neglected for centuries and then ransacked and looted by occupying
forces, the treasures of Cambodia are scattered all over the world now, mostly
taken by Europeans. Smuggling of artifacts continues to this day. Cambodia
has a very checkered history of war and destruction. It is only in the last one
hundred years that attempts have been made to preserve, excavate and study
the chronology of history, first by the French, and now by the rest of the world
community. Indian and United States governments are also assisting in
refurbishing and preserving the temples.
Many of the temple ruins appear like they are right out of pages of Rudyard
Kipling’s books. Many with crumbling walls and roofs have seen better days.
Giant trees hover over many temple walls, threatening their very foundations.
Large roots of Kapok trees twine around the temples like giant mythical birds
gripping them in their talons. Yet there is an indescribable charm that one
immediately imbibes at first sight. Many ruins may look similar but one is
drawn to see more. Those, which are preserved, demonstrate exquisite works of
art.and.sculpture.
The people of this impoverished country are graceful and charming. They are
simple, honest people, (mostly fishermen and farmers. There are not many
towns outside a few larger cities. Once you leave the city limits of Phnom Penh
there are not many homes or buildings of significant magnitude. Two-wheelers
are the main modes of transportation, often attached to trailers that are used
to transport families and goods. The vendors selling books, shawls and skirts
are mostly beautiful children at temple sites, who surprise the tourists with
better English than one would expect them to speak. These children are not
scrappy, but not pushovers either and they can drive a hard bargain.
The scattered temples are mostly deserted reminders of the former glory of the
Khmer people, the dominant people of the region. Their kingdoms waxed and
waned, to include parts of Thailand (Siam), Vietnam (Champa) and Laos at
various times. There have been wars and skirmishes between the Khmer people
and their neighbors for centuries. The most recent involvement of Cambodia in
the larger war in Vietnam, when the country was carpet bombed by the might
of the American military, was just one of several wars in its history to cause
much death and destruction. Following the American exit, civil war had kept
the country impoverished and desperate until the year 2000 when it gained
independence and now has a nascent socialist democracy.
The early history of Cambodia is best studied as Pre- Angkor era and Angkor
era. Angkor is a ‘Khmer-ization’ of the Sanskrit word Nagara, meaning city.
Pre-Angkor-History
Pre-history of Cambodia starts with the legendary Khambujaraja, a

Brahmanical king of India, who had come to the region and faced adversity
lvii
from a beautiful lady on the mountain. After a brief fight between them, a truce
was drawn and the beautiful lady, Mero by name, married Khambuja. The
country they jointly ruled was called Khambujadesa and their descendants
were called the Khmer people. Khambujadesa later became Kampuchea and
then Cambodia. The original language spoken was Mon-Khmer. Later in the
6th century the ‘Mon’ people moved further west to Thailand and the Khmer
remained in current day Cambodia.
Indian influence in the region began in the first century C. E. They traded
goods with Khmer by way of sea, when spice and silk trade had flourished.
Both Indians and Chinese exerted their influences on the local people but
Indian culture took a firm foothold, perhaps through the efforts of Brahmin
priests. The rulers of the time had a suffix of ‘Varman’ to their names, similar
to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Whilst the Cholas of Tanjavur in India
eventually defeated the Pallava Varmans in the 8th century, the Khmer
kingdoms flourished well into the 14th century. Though all the rulers of
Cambodia bore the name ‘Varman,’ they did not necessarily belong to the same
dynasty. At various periods in their history, the rulers and usurpers came from
Siam (Thailand) or Champa (Vietnam) as well as Khambujadesa (Cambodia or
Kampuchea).
There are historical references suggesting that Cambodia had been inhabited in
the 3rd millennium B.C.E. Chinese travelers later chronicled the first
established kingdom. The first kingdom was called Funan (an alteration of the
word bnam or mountain in Khmer language). A certain Kaundinya, inspired by
a dream, traveled from India and married a local princess Soma, belonging to
the naga (cobra) tribe. He established the first Kaundinya dynasty of Funan.
Later in the 5th century a second traveler from India - Kaundinya Jayavarman
(478-514) arrived and focused on re-establishing the Indian culture. He
established a more defined Funan kingdom and was later followed by
Rudravarman in the sixth century. He was responsible for the first sculptures,
mostly.of.Vishnu.
After the decline of Funan kingdom Khmer people established Chenla kingdom,
where the names of kings Shrutavarman and Sheshthavarman are mentioned.
They established their capital in Shreshthapura. Later Ishanavarman, from the
Khmer kingdom of Bhavapura, defeated the remnants of Funan, and
established his capital in Ishanapura.
Jayavarman I followed him and then his successor Pushkaraksha again united
the splintered principalities in the year 716. His capital was Shambhupura
(currently Sambor). His heirs maintained control over the kingdom until the
end of 8th century, when Malayans and Javanese (Jayavarman II) gained
dominion over many Khmer principalities. During this pre-Angkor period many
temples were built, though they did not demonstrate the same style of
architecture or the confidence of the later builders.
lviii
The.Golden.Period
------------------------
The glory of Cambodia and its temples began in earnest during the rule of
Jayavarman II beginning 802 C. E. It is thought that he came from the royal
court in ‘Java’ to conquer smaller Khmer states. He declared a unified and
sovereign Khambujadesa, independent of Javanese influence. This was when
the Angkor era in the history of Cambodia was born. He named his capital city
Hariharalaya and introduced ‘linga-cult.’ to his kingdom. The cult of Devaraja
or the God King (the terrestrial counterpart of the celestial being) was also
introduced by Jayavarman II. The capital stayed around the large Lake Tonle
Sap, in and around the city of Siem Reap (until the 15th century, well after the
demise of Hindu empires, when it was moved to Phnom Penh).
Thirty years after Jayavarman II’s death, his successor Indravarman I

constructed the first major temple in his honor (one of the so called Rolous
group of temples). From then on the rulers busied themselves in building
temples using bricks, sandstone and laterite. Often they were painted in bright
colors. They also built large water reservoirs called barays. Following
Indravarman I, his son Yasovarman I built many more temples and barays.
Rajendravarman in the 10th century was a ruler busy building another half a
dozen temples, the best preserved and an architectural masterpiece at Bantay
Srei.
During the rule of Udayadityavarman II, several lingas were carved in the
riverbed on Phnom Kulen (called Mahendraparvata at the time). Today it is
known as the ‘River of thousand lingas’ and is a tourist attraction in its own
right. It was believed that the water that flowed over the countless lingas of the
river would fertilize the rice fields below. A short hike up the mountain will take
a visitor to the place of thousand lingas at Kbal Spean.
The first inscriptions found on temple walls, dating back to 5th century,
resembled the script used by Pallavas of South India. Later, the Khmer
developed their own unique script and carved them into the walls mostly
describing the temple and its deity but sometimes the inscriptions were just
mundane details like a list of inventory. There are as many inscriptions in
Sanskrit language as in Khmer language.
The first decade of 11th century witnessed the ascent to the throne of a
powerful king Suryavarman I (1010-1050), who unified almost all of Khambuja
and southern Thailand. He was also a busy builder of temples and royal
palaces. Following his rule, Suryavarman II (1113-1150) further expanded the
kingdom. He also built the glorious temple Angkor Wat (from the Indian words
Nagara Vata - City Temple), the pinnacle of temples built in Cambodia.
The sprawling temple spreads over a one square mile area. Long walls with
stories of Hindu mythology are sculpted as bas-reliefs. It is a magnificent
lix
temple complex, constructed in the form of mythological Mount Meru - the

Hindu center of the Universe. The temple is surrounded by a large moat,
representing the ocean surrounding Mt. Meru. The brilliant paint used to
enhance the reliefs has faded but the architecture and beauty are still
preserved. The sheer magnitude of the temple complex is impressive.
All the gods of the Hindu pantheon are represented in temple sculpture. Shiva
and Vishnu were held in high esteem. Ramayana and Kurukshetra war are
depicted on entire walls of stone sculptures. A masterpiece bas-relief is that of
the legendary churning of the ocean by the gods and demons.
Sculptures of Vishnu on the back of his vessel Garuda or reclining on the

serpent Ananta and Shiva with his consort Parvati are repeated in many
temples. Also seen are Hanuman and Ganesh, along with many seductive
figures of Apsaras - reminiscent of Dev-dasis, the consorts of the Gods.
Another colorful king Jayavarman VII (1181-1220) followed Suryavaramn II.

The kingdom had briefly fallen into the hands of the Chams of Champa, but
the warrior-like Jayavarman VII reclaimed it and united Khambuja once again.
He expanded his kingdom to include southern Malaya and northern Laos as
well as Champa. Burmese kingdoms including Java became subsidiaries.
Jayavarman VII was married to a Buddhist woman and later became a

Buddhist himself. Builder of dozen or more significant temples and palaces
including the great Angkor Thom, he built many Buddhist monasteries and
converted many Hindu temples into Buddhist shrines. The elephant terrace
and the statue of the Leper King are in Angkor Thom. The statue when first
found with blunted fingers, was first thought to be of a leper (the French
mistook the weather damaged fingers to be that of a leper), but in fact is that of
Yama, the king of death. The Elephant Terrace is a ceremonial altar in facing
the Royal Square, supported by beautifully carved figures of elephants and
mythical creatures. At the entrance to Angkor Thom is a large tower, large
enough to admit elephants. On either side of the road near the entrance are
rows of large statues, with angelic face on one side and the scornful evil face on
the other.
Jayavarman VII declared himself to be Bodhisattva (as opposed to Devaraja -

God-king - introduced by Jayavarman II). His delusions of grandeur are evident
in the sculptures of colossal facial images of himself on temples, especially at
the towers of Bayon. Thus Mahayana Buddhism (higher vehicle) had been
introduced to Khambuja, which in turn marked the beginning of the end of a
glorious Hindu era.
Following Jayavarman VII’s death, skirmishes arose again both within the
kingdom and in its bordering regions. Brahmins tried to reassert their
authority with the help of Jayavarman VIII and tried to usurp Buddhist power.
However, their influence did not last too long. Soon after his death Buddhism
lx
returned once again, though it was the Hinayana Buddhism ((Theravada or

lesser vehicle) that took final foothold and still remains the dominant religion of
Cambodia today. The advent of Buddhism effectively put a stop to the building
spree in Cambodia. Some of the existing Hindu temples were converted to
Buddhist temples and monasteries. Gods of Hindu pantheon were removed and
replaced with statues of Buddha.
Statues of Buddha had already appeared in the pre-Angkor period. These were
mostly ushnisha Buddha (with the knot in the head, denoting enlightenment
and Nirvana) in the standing position. Later Buddha statues appeared in many
other positions of the hands of giving, preaching and blessing. Bodhisattvas
and Avalokiteshvara – Lord of the World (Lokeshvara in Khmer) also are seen.
The last king of record from the lost empire is Jayavarman Parameshvara
(1327 - ?). In the meantime, the first large Thai state, Sukhothai, had occupied
much of the northern and western territories of Khmer empire. In 1430 a Thai
king, Paramaraja II of Ayuthya laid siege on the capital and conquered it in
seven months. From then on the decline, abandon and decadence set in.
Discussion of the upheaval and the tumult in the ensuing history of the
kingdom in the following centuries is beyond the scope of this article.
During medieval times the capital was moved to Phnom Penh. Today it is a city
with orderly traffic with clean air and streets, with none of the typical hustle
and bustle of a mega-city in South East Asia. There are many Pagodas and
Buddhist monuments with larger than life sized statutes of Buddha (including
the Emerald Buddha), adorned with gold and decorated with diamonds. The
use of jewels on the statue of Buddha, who had taken a vow of poverty, is
curious. This is explained by the desire to emphasize the pre-eminence of the
Enlightened one, who is the chakravartin - a sovereign of the Universe - worthy
of jewels and riches.
There is an interesting story about Phnom Penh. The word Phnom means
mountain. Penh is a Khmer word, meaning woman. This is where a beautiful
woman sitting on the mountaintop had confronted the wandering king from
India, and eventually became his consort. The place came to be known as
Phnom Penh - mountain woman. Interestingly the word Penh (or Pen – reflexive
n) means a woman in the Tamil language as well.
The epic story of Ramayana plays an important part in the philosophical and
cultural life in Cambodia. The Khmer version, referred to as Reamker, is carved
into the walls of Angkor Wat. Reamker follows the characters depicted in the
Indian Ramayana with some of its own twists. It is a philosophical allegory that
combines Hinduism with Buddhism. Though written in the 16th or 17th
century, a full half a millennium after the sculptures of Angkor Wat, it formed
the basis of Khmer life and philosophy from the time of its origing. It is the
foundation of the Royal Ballet repertoire and classical theater and dance.
lxi
The protagonist of the story is Preah Ream whose

wife is called Neang Seda. His brother is Preah Leak
and his antagonist Ravana is called Krong Reap.
Hanuman even has a love interest in a mermaid
princess called Sovanna Maccha (translates to
Golden Fish). Interestingly the Thai version of Ramayana (called
Ramakien) is actually an adaptation of Reamker rather than the Indian
original.
. CHAPTER II
Ishanapura-Sambor Prei Kuk -Hindu Temples Lost in

the Forest:
Ishvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर,Īśvara) is a concept

in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that
depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.
Ishana is the short form of Ishvara. Therefore In
ancient texts of Hindu philosophy, depending on the
context, Ishvara can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord,
king, queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu
texts, depending on the school of
lxii
Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being,

personal God, or special Self.
The hugely popular name is of Sanskrit origin and means 'possessing, rudras,
lord, master, light, wealthy, reigning'. ... The name is given to the Lord
Ganesha and Lord Vishnu. Ishan also refers to the eternal form of Lord Shiva.
Ishana (Sanskrit: ईशान, IAST: Īśāna), is a deity in Indian mythology. He is often
considered to be one of the forms of the Hindu god Shiva and is also often
counted among the eleven Rudras. In Hinduism, some schools of Buddhism
and Jainism he is the dikpala of the northeast direction. It is a Hindu name of
Sanskrit origin and one of the names given to the deity Shiva (the Supreme
Being within one of the major branches of Hinduism). Īśāna finds its roots in
“Isha” which is the Sanskrit word for “lord, master” as in all powerful and all
knowing. Ishaan is Sikh/Punjabi name and meaning of this name is "The Sun,
One who Bestows Wealth".
Meaning of Ishan.
Name : Ishan
Rashi : Mesha
Nakshatra : Krithika
Numerology : 6
Religion : Hindu
What is the meaning of the name Ishan? The name Ishan is primarily a male
name of Indian origin that means Son; Lord Of Wealth. East Indian/Sanskrit
-From the Hindi element "ish," an invisible power that rules the universe. The
name of a part of Shiva.
Ishvara is primarily an epithet of Lord

Shiva. In Shaivism and for most of the
Hindus, Ishvara is synonymous with Shiva. For
many Vaishnavites, it is also synonymous
with Vishnu. In
traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or
more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-
devatā) from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of
deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such
lxiii
as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the

form of a monotheistic God. In the Yoga school of
Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual
inspiration".
Varman or its
variants, Varma, Verma, Varman, Burman or Barma
n, are surnames that are used in India & South-East
Asia.
According to Avvai Su Duraisamy, it is derived from
the Tamil word Varamban as in the royal titles
"Vaana Varamban" (One whose kingdom bounds the
sky) and Imaya Varamban (an epithet of
the Chera king Nedum Cheralathan). According
to Radhakanta Deb, the surname is derived from
the Sanskrit word for "Shield, Defensive armour".
Ishanavarman would mean- THE SHIELD OF SHIV
and ISHANAPURA would mean the City of Shiva.
An inscription dating from the reign of Isanarvarman I claimed
that he was, “the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi”.
Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh,
claimed that the inscription would “prove
that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.”
The Hindu Temples Lost in the Forest now discovered in the interiors of the
middle Mekong Valley -a part of the city of Ishanapura, identified with the
ruins of Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodia, and listed as UNESCO World
Heritage site on Saturday, the 8th July 2017 by the 41st world heritage
committee, held at Krakow (Poland).
Sambor Prei Kuk , Prasat Sâmbor Prei Kŭ is an

archaeological site in Cambodia located in Kampong
Thom Province, 30 km (19 mi) north of Kampong
Thom, the provincial capital, 176 km (109 mi) east
lxiv
of Angkor and 206 km (128 mi) north of Phnom

Penh. The now ruined complex dates back to the
Pre-Angkorian Chenla Kingdom (late 6th to 9th
century), established by king Isanavarman I as
central royal sanctuary and capital, known then as
Isanapura. In 2017, Sambor Prei Kuk was declared
a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The archaeological
site of Sambor Prei Kuk, “the temple in the richness
of the forest” in the Khmer language, has been
identified as Ishanapura, the capital of the Chenla
Empire that flourished in the late 6th and early 7th
centuries AD. The property comprises more than a
hundred temples, ten of which are octagonal, unique
specimens of their genre in South-East Asia.
Decorated sandstone elements in the site are
characteristic of the pre-Angkor decorative idiom,
known as the Sambor Prei Kuk Style. Some of these
elements, including lintels, pediments and
colonnades, are true masterpieces. The art and
architecture developed here became models for other
parts of the region and lay the ground for the unique
Khmer style of the Angkor period.
The official religion at Sambor Prei Kuk city

was Shaivism, one of the four most widely followed
sects of Hinduism, which reveres the god Shiva as
the Supreme Being and the Lingam (in Sanskrit लिङ्गं ,
liṅgaṃ, meaning "mark", "sign", or "inference")
or Shiva linga representing Shiva to be worshiped
in temples as an erect penis. In Cambodia as it is
in India, the lingam is a symbol of the energy and
lxv
potential of god Shiva himself and this phallic

symbol is often represented with the Yoni (Sanskrit:
योनि yoni, literally "vagina" or "womb"), symbol of
goddess Shakti, female creative energy.
Shaivism was the religion of Chenla (ca. 550 - ca.
800 AD), including elements of
Hinduism, Buddhism and indigenous ancestor
cults. In the Sambor Prei Kuk temples, it is possible
to contemplate stone inscriptions in
both Sanskrit and Khmer, naming both Hindu and
local ancestral deities with Shiva and several altars
with the lingam.
Water fort: The unique aquatic landscape of the site has Ishanapura
functioning as a water-fort.The divine triad is formed by the
1. God Ishana (Shiva), his protégé

2. King Ishanavarman and his
3. city Ishanapura,
lxvi
After explaining the Over hundred fascinating temples, still standing above the
ground in various stages of preservation, on the either side of the O Kru Kae
River, the unique Octagonal temples, the flying places carved on the walls of
the temples, the architectural motifs such as the beautiful human figures in
the ornamental windows (Kudu), the mythical crocodile (makara) the divinized
time (Kala) and the beautiful Hamsa birds contribute to the uniqueness of the
brick architecture of Ishanapura. Other interesting themes are-the cult of
multiple Ishvara (Lord Shiva), the crafting of smile and seriousness on the
faces of the Gods and the humans, using the cult of Hari-hara and Hari-Hara-
linga as reconciliatory devices and the patronage to the Pashupata Shaiva sect.
Durgasvami, an Indian Saka Brahmin, born in Dakshinapatha (Southern
India) and settled in Ishanapura, resurrects through the pages of this
monograph. The Brahmin married the daughter of King Ishanavarman, and as
the royal son-in-law, he contributed to the development of Ishanapura,
bringing Indo Saka-Scythian elements to the Khmer capital. Hindu Temples
Lost in the Forest is a rare and profound book which describes the contours of
Ishanapura as a knowledge seeking city, and as an influential diplomatic hub
of Asia, interacting with China through diplomatic mission, with Indian
through deep cultural discourse, and with Champa (Central Vietnam) through
strategic matrimonial alliance. As the monograph convincingly shows, the rise
of Ishanapura marked the passage of mainland Southeast Asia form the state
of chiefdom to the status of statehood. This holistic study, presenting the
temples of Ishanapura in an art-historical, socio-cultural perspective, is an
indispensible companion to every one interested in unraveling the mystery
behind the forests of Sambor Prei Kuk. Without listening to these temples,
which carry their message in the shape of Sanskrit and or Khmer language
inscriptions, the knowledge of both Khmer and Indian civilizations will remain
incomplete and the dynamics of Asian civilization will continue to be nebulous.
Located on the Eastern bank of the Tonle Sap lake,

close to the Steung Saen River, the central part of
Sambor Prei Kuk is divided into three main groups.
Each group has a square layout surrounded by a
brick wall. The structures of the overall
archaeological area were constructed at variable
times: the southern and north groups (7th century)
by Isanavarman I, who is considered a possible
founder of the city and the central group (later
date). The buildings of Sambor Prei Kuk are
characteristic of the Pre-Angkorean period with a
simple external plan. The principal material is brick,
lxvii
but sandstone is also used for certain

structures. Architectural features include numerous
prasats, octagonal towers, shiva lingams and yonis,
ponds and reservoirs, and lion sculptures. Sambor
Prei Kuk is located amidst mature sub-tropical
forests with limited undergrowth. The area has been
mined and could still contain unexploded ordnance.
A temple in Sambor Prei Kuk
The whole compound is made of three clusters

classified as group C for Central, N for North and S
for South (Michon & Kalay, 2012. They are enclosed
in a double-walled encircling 1,000 acre in which
there were 150 Hindu temples today mostly in ruins.
1. Group N: Prasat Sambor is considered the main temple and it dates
from the 7th century. It was dedicated to one of
lxviii
the reincarnations of Shiva known
as Gambhireshvara (from Sanskrit गम्भीर - gambhir, profound, deep,
solemn - and शिव, shvara, Shiva, Śiva, The Auspicious One).
2. Group S: Prasat Yeah Puon (ប្រាសាទយាយព័ន)្ធ includes 22 sanctuaries
dated from the 7th century (600 - 635 AD) during the reign of
Isanavarman I in dedication to Shiva.[7]
3. Group C: It is occupied by the Central Sanctuary or Prasat
Boram (ប្រាសាទបុរាម) with lion sculptures that had inspired the popular
name of Prasat Tao (The Lions' Temple). It is, however, the newest group
dating the 9th century. The other main feature is the Tower of Ashram
Issey, but there were also other constructions (18 temples) now in ruined
(Palmer, 2011).[8]
7th century
Isanavarman I reigned over the Chenla

Kingdom between 616 and 637 AD, taking
Isanabura as his capita and it is argued that he built
the main temple Prasat Sambor (Group N), as there
is an inscription on the site attributed to his reign
and dated 13 September 627 AD. The king is also
known for sending his first embassy to the court of
the Sui Dynasty in China (616-617).
Chenla conquered different principalities in the

Northwest of Cambodia after the end of the Chinese
reign period yǒnghuī (i. e. after 31 January 656),
which previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China.
An inscription dating from the reign of Isanarvarman
I claimed that he was, “the King of Kings, who rules
over Suvarnabhumi”. Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal
University of Phnom Penh, claimed that the
inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was
the Khmer Empire.”
The last important king in Isanapura
was Jayavarman I, whose death caused turmoil to
lxix
the kingdom at the start of the 8th century, breaking

it in many principalities and opening the way to a
new time: Angkor. This site is also claimed as an
early capital of Jayavarman II (O'Reilly & Jacques,
1990).
20th century
After the Lon Nol's coup d'état to Prince Norodom

Sihanouk in 1970, US President Richard
Nixon ordered a secret bombing of Cambodia to fight
the Khmer Rouge guerrillas and any influence
of North Vietnam in the country. The US aircraft
bombed positions inside the archaeological site,
causing craters near the temples, while the
guerrillas left several mines on the land that were
cleared only in 2008.
lxx
lxxi
lxxii
lxxiii
THE NEW SUVARNABHOOMI

ASEAN officially the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations, is an economic union comprising 10
member states in Southeast Asia, which
promotes intergovernmentalcooperation and
facilitates economic, political, security, military, edu
cational, and sociocultural integration between its
members and other countries in Asia. ASEAN's
primary objective was to accelerate economic growth
and through that social progress and cultural
development. A secondary objective was to promote
regional peace and stability based on the rule of law
74
and the principle of United Nations charter. With
some of the fastest growing economies in the world,
ASEAN has broadened its objective beyond the
economic and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN
moved along the path of the European Union by
agreeing to establish an ASEAN community
comprising three pillars: the ASEAN security
community, the ASEAN economic community, and
the ASEAN socio-cultural community. The ten stalks
of rice in the ASEAN flag and insignia represent the
ten southeast Asian countries bound together in
solidarity.
ASEAN also regularly engages other countries in
the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. A major partner
of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, ASEAN
maintains a global network of alliances and dialogue
partners and is considered by many as a global
powerhouse, the central union for cooperation
in Asia-Pacific, and a prominent and influential
organization. It is involved in numerous
international affairs, and hosts diplomatic missions
throughout the world.
ASEAN members by
Human Development Index
Country HDI (2019)
Singapore 0.938 (highest) very high
Brunei 0.838 very high
75
Malaysia 0.810 very high
Thailand 0.777 high
Indonesia 0.718 high
Philippines 0.718 high
ASEAN 0.713 (average
high
)
Vietnam 0.704 high
Laos 0.613 medium
Cambodia 0.594 medium
Myanmar 0.583 (lowest) medium
Founding-ASEAN Declaration and ASEAN Charter
ASEAN was preceded by an organisation formed on

31 July 1961 called the Association of Southeast
Asia (ASA), a group consisting of Thailand,
the Philippines, and the Federation of Malaya.
ASEAN itself was created on 8 August 1967, when
the foreign ministers of five
countries: Indonesia, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, signed
the ASEAN Declaration. As set out in the
Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are to
accelerate economic growth, social progress, and
cultural development in the region, to promote
76
regional peace, collaboration and mutual assistance
on matters of common interest, to provide assistance
to each other in the form of training and research
facilities, to collaborate for better utilization of
agriculture and industry to raise the living
standards of the people, to promote Southeast Asian
studies and to maintain close, beneficial co-
operation with existing international organisations
with similar aims and purposes.
The creation of ASEAN was motivated by a common
fear of communism. The group achieved greater
cohesion in the mid-1970s following a change in the
balance of power after the end of the Vietnam War in
1975. The region's dynamic economic growth during
the 1970s strengthened the organization, enabling
ASEAN to adopt a unified response to Vietnam's
invasion of Cambodia in 1979. ASEAN's first summit
meeting, held in Bali, Indonesia in 1976, resulted in
an agreement on several industrial projects and the
signing of a Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, and a
Declaration of Concord. The end of the Cold
War allowed ASEAN countries to exercise greater
political independence in the region, and in the
1990s, ASEAN emerged as a leading voice
on regional trade and security issues.[25] On 15
December 1995, the Southeast Asian Nuclear-
Weapon-Free Zone Treaty was signed to turn
Southeast Asia into a nuclear-weapon-free zone. The
treaty took effect on 28 March 1997 after all but one
77
of the member states had ratified it. It became fully
effective on 21 June 2001 after the Philippines
ratified it, effectively banning all nuclear weapons in
the region.On 7 January 1984, Brunei became
ASEAN's sixth member and on 28 July 1995,
following the end of the Cold War, Vietnam joined as
the seventh member. Laos and Myanmar (formerly
Burma) joined two years later on 23 July
1997. Cambodia was to join at the same time as
Laos and Myanmar, but a coup in 1997 and other
internal instability delayed its entry. It then joined
on 30 April 1999 following the stabilization of its
government.
In 2006, ASEAN was given observer status at the
United Nations General Assembly. In response, the
organisation awarded the status of "dialogue
partner" to the UN.
78
Selection of GDP PPP data (top 10 countries and blocks) in no particular

order
79
CHAPTER3
……………………………………………………………………
Curvilinear Roof Temples
How do those desiring liberation make a temple for you, O God? 25
And what is the rule for the protectors of the mūrti of the ācārya? And [what is] the regulation for a sacrifice to the
vāstu? And [what is] the rule for the giving of arghya? 26
What is the regulation for the placing of the stones? As well as [what is] the [regulation for] the preparation of the
sacred ground etc.? And [what is] the rule for the temple? And [what is] the rule for the image? 27
[What is the rule with regards to] the entire fivefold temple? Thus also, what is the method of erecting the flag-staff?
And whatever else that would be additional to the temples that [too I] asked about, O Sureśvara. 28
(Hayaśīrṣa Pañcrātra, 1.25cd-28)
At the end of the first chapter of a text called the Hayaśīrṣa Pañcarātra, the god Brahmā asks Viṣṇu the questions
quoted above. These questions are then answered in the rest of the work.
The fundamental of the curved architectural design is based on blending the architect
ure with the surrounding environment. Architects and engineers have been inspired t
he curved forms such as arch; vault and dome from nature, where they have been use
it in their designs to create large spans. The architects developed the curved forms by
integrated the curved forms to create unique form and to pass larger spans than previ
ous, where the “curvilinear” term has been launched to describe these forms. But prof
essionals have already faced a challenge in the construction of the curvilinear forms,
because of the difficulty of implementing them. Architects have been used the curvilin
ear forms by different materials, strategies, styles, and other diversities, which give ea
1
ch architect his/her own features.
The temples with curvilinear roof (shikhara) appeared towards the 8th century (e.g.
the brick sanctuary of Lakshmana in Sarpur (Rajasthan) and the temples of
Papanatha and
__________________________________________________________________________
Jambulinga).
80
1. Valuation of curvilinear structural systems used by Zaha Hadid’s architecture,
Rasha Tarboush, Ayten Akçay 2019
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336799616_Evaluation_of_curvilinear_
structural_systems_used_by_Zaha_Hadid's_architecture
The Lakshmana temple (Mahasamund district, state of Chhattisgarh, India), a 7th-

century brick temple, mostly damaged and ruined. Except for the sanctum
(garbhagriha) and the tower, much it is in ruins.The Papanatha temple is located in
the Pattadakal complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in
northern Karnataka (India). This temple in particular has been dated towards mid 8th-
century. The temple is noted for its novel mixture of Dravida, and Nagara, Hindu
temple styles . Like the other temples, the Papanatha temple faces east towards the
sunrise.Also located in the Pattadakal monument complex, is the small temple of
Jambulinga or Jambulingeshwara, probably completed between mid 7th and early 8th
century. The temple was built around a square garbhagriha. This temple also faces
east, greeting the sunrise.
Curvilinear forms of architecture have vital influence on environment-bahaviour in

terms of promoting communication, encouraging movement, lifting the spirit, aiding
orientation, changing perception, enhancing social experience, increasing pleasure,
supporting the sense of community, relieving sense of distance and dissolving social
2
boundaries.
Shikhara, (Sanskrit: “mountain peak”) also spelled shikara, also called shikar, in
North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the
sanctuary and also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most
dominant and characteristic feature of the Hindu temple in the north. Why are Hindu
temples shaped mountains?
Many of them are shaped like mountains because the main deity image, and this
varies with each temple and scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape
is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of
gods according to its ancient mythology.
81
____________________________________________________________________________-
2. 1st National Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies, Faculty of Architecture, Planning

& Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, 14-15 November 2009
The Influence of Curvilinear Architectural Forms on Environment-Behaviour Faridah Adnan* and
Rodzyah Mohd Yunus https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/277811/1-s2.0-
Brahmanism
Nearly three decades ago, Peter Van der Veer and Steven Vertovec (1991:164)
concluded their precursory article on Brahmanism overseas by arguing that “the
anthropology of Hinduism [could] no longer be exclusively tied to the anthropology of
India” due to the “constant flow of persons, goods, and information between India and
the rest of the world which now makes Hinduism transnational.” Here one may note
that Brahmins first established themselves as ‘ numero Unos’ of Hinduism providing
religious guidance and interpretations and advice to the regants and then became well
established in the temple building activity of the Hindu Kings. Hence, to ignore their
role in temple design is to cast a death knell to study of the Hindu temple evolution.
From the beginning of the ninth century, the use of these curvilinear roofs
extended to the northern kingdoms, where its use was perpetuated until the
contemporary era, at the same time that it diversified following regional styles. Within
these temples with curvilinear roofs, six main styles can be discerned. In first place we
must mention the two most beautiful, not only for their aesthetic value, but because
their study can be done following a continuous progression from the 9th to the 14th
century thanks to a large number of examples grouped in the same place; the style of
Odisha (from northeastern India) under the Somavarpśí and Gangâ dynasties,
represented by the holy city of Bhubaneswar (end of the 9th century to the middle of
the 13th) and the neighboring sanctuaries: the temples of Surya in Konark (mid-13th
century) ) and Jagannatha in Puri (early 12th century, although modified until the
contemporary era).
82
In the article From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great
Tradition-Social ScientistVol. 29, No. 3/4 (Mar. - Apr., 2001), pp. 19-50 (32 pages) author
Vijay Nath argues that assimilation to a different culture typically the dominant one
occurred due to agrarian expansion just before and during the Gupta Period in India’s
history typically from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE and this process
of acculturation ihad an impact both social and psychological well-being.
The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said
to have attained enlightenment./RIGHDashavatara Temple is a Vishnu Hindu temple built during the Gupta period. EXTREME RIGHT
A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at Sanchi besides the Apsidal hall with Maurya foundation, an example of Buddhist architecture.
5th century CE.
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the
major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving
works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic
carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure
and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great
centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-
Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves
at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including
Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the
monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most
significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a
mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting
palaces. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and
its ministers,[ and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the
earliest to survive, with important sculpture.
The Temple of Surya (Sun God) in Konark (about 35 km northeast from Puri on the
coastline of Odisha, India) from the 13th-century CE. The remains of the temple
83
complex have the appearance of a (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and
horses, all carved from stone. Once over 61 m high, much of the temple is now in
ruins, in particular the large shikhara tower over the sanctuary.The Jagannatha
Temple of Puri (Puri, state of Odisha, eastern coast of India) is dedicated to Lord
Jagannatha, a form of lord Vishnu. This temple is an important pilgrimage
destination. The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, on the
site of an earlier temple.
The other style of an even more refined aesthetic quality is the style of Bundelkhand
(from central India) developed under the Chandela dynasty, whose religious capital,
Khajuraho, was one of the most prestigious in medieval India (9th century to the
beginning of the 14th century). The other four styles are divided between Rajputana
(the present-day Indian state of Rajasthan, as well as parts of Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat) and central India, where, since the 11th century, the Muslim
invasion interrupted (as happened in Gwalior) the development of the Hindu religious
architecture; and finally, the Deccan, where this type of curvilinear roofs persisted
from the 11th to the 13th century.
Despite the diversity of regional styles, it is possible to sketch the general evolution of
these temples with curvilinear roofs and, at least, to highlight their essential
characteristics, studying first their floor plans and second the shape and arrangement
of their roofs. Regarding the floor plan, it should be noted first that, in the ancient
phase (7th to 9th centuries), the temple with shikhara is only composed of the
sanctuary (garbhagriha) preceded by a portico and crowned by the curvilinear roof.
Then, in the 9th to 10th centuries, the sanctuary, the vestibule and the pavilion
destined to the faithful were located one after the other; this whole was enclosed
within an enclosure with a door delimited by two large pillars joined at the top by a
decorated arch, thus forming a porch (torana). The most perfect example of this type
is the small temple of Mukteshvara in Bhubaneswar (Odisha) mainly decorated with
beautiful female sculptures. Here, the three elements of the temple are crowned each
by a different type of roof: a shikhara for the sanctuary, a lower pyramidal roof with
close and decreasing cornices for the vestibule, and an even lower, stepped roof for the
pavilion.
From the beginning of the 11th century and throughout the 12th this last type
reaches its peak. The three indispensable architectural elements of the Hindu cult are
thus united in a single sequence and with the passing of time supplementary rooms
were attached to them, arranged one after another on the same axis from East to West
and forming a single block. Its multiplication is a testimony to the prosperity of the
Hindu sanctuaries of this era. The best examples of this style are seen in
Bhubaneswar and in Khajuraho. Above a high base -with a molding- and decorated
with low bas-reliefs, the floor plan of these temples often evokes the cross of Lorraine*,
with multiple arms. In general, this type of temple was accessed by a wide staircase
that led to a portico, then it was followed successively, and at the same level, by a pre-
vestibule (ardhamandapa*) and then a vestibule (mundiupa), illuminated by windows
overlooking the sides and provided with balconies. These elements were followed by a
square hall called the great hall (mahimandapa* or juganbhana), whose roof was
84
usually pyramidal and which gave access through an intermediate small room
(antarala) to the sanctuary itself (garbhagriha). A corridor allowed the rite
of circumambulation* (pradaksiná*) around the hall and the sanctuary.
The temple thus became an imposing ensemble characterized by the roof types of
unequal heights, which were largely dominated by the shikhara of the sanctuary. The
main bodies of the different buildings were adorned externally with characters carved
in very sharp relief, cleverly arranged in registers or sheltered in more or less deep
niches; their presence animate the walls thanks to the dynamic play of shadows and
lights, an almost exclusive characteristic of this style and which also increases its
artistic perfection.
The Vishvanatha Temple (Madhya Pradesh, India) is also located among the western
group of Khajuraho Monuments. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, who is also known
as “Vishvanatha”, meaning “Lord of the Universe”. The temple is believed to have been
commissioned by the Chandela king Dhanga, and was probably completed in 999 CE
or 1002 CE. The Vishvanatha temple is characteristic of the Central Indian
architectural style that begins with Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE) and
culminates with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE). These three temples
represent the most fully developed style at Khajuraho. The Lakshmana Temple
(Khajuraho monuments complex) was built in the 10th-century and dedicated to
Vaikuntha Vishnu – an aspect of Vishnu. The entire temple complex stands on a high
platform (Jagati). The structure consists of all the elements of Hindu temple
architecture.
Hindu (or Brahmanical) Architecture varies in its three special styles. All three
have the small shrine-cell and preceding porches, the same excessive carving and
sculpture, which are impressive by this evident tribute of labour to the gods. The
principal Brahmanical Temples, like those of Egypt, show progressive additions of
sanctuaries and inclosures, grouped around or attached to the original shrine.
Beyond this, the grandeur of their imposing mass produces an impression of
majestic beauty. The effect depends almost wholly on richness of surface and
outline, rather than on abstract beauty of form, and contrasts very strongly with
85
Grecian architecture. (a.) The Northern Brahman, in comparison with the
Dravidian style, has a curved pyramidal roof to the “vimana” instead of a storied
one, and is without columns to the preceding porch. (b.) The Chalukyan style is
affected by its northern and southern rivals, taking features from each without
losing its special character. The starshaped plan and curved pyramidal tower are
in contrast with the storied towers of the Dravidian style. (c.) The Dravidian
The normal type of plan consists of the vimana or cell crowned with curved
pyramidal roof, and the porch without columns crowned with stepped roof in
stories. Each façade has rectangular projections in the centre, which increased in
depth as the style developed, until they formed the points of a square on plan. In
addition to these two chambers, others were added in more important examples.
The large inclosures and gateways of the Dravidian style are wanting. Orissa, on
the east coast, contains a remarkable series of monuments dating from A.D. 500-
1200. The ancient city of Bhuvaneswar contains some hundreds of examples. The
best known is the Great Temple (A.D. 617-657), quoted as the finest in India. It is
a four-chambered example ; every stone on its facades is carved, the courses being
deeply rusticated. The principal vimana is crowned with the usual northern high
curved pyramidal roof with melon ornament and finial.
86
Other examples are at Kanaruc (No. 266e: see at right) (the Black Pagoda, ninth
century), and Puri (the four-chambered temple of Juganât, A.D. 1174), the latter
being placed in a large double inclosure surrounded by a wall 20 feet high.
In Dharwar, on the western coast, are examples in which pillars are employed, as
the Temple of Papanetha, a.d. 500, influenced by Dravidian architecture.
Important groups exist at Chandravati, in Rajputana (a.d. 600), Baroli (a.d. 750),
and Udaipor (a.d. 1060). At Khajuraho (a.d. 954-1000) is a group of thirty
important temples, of which that dedicated to Kandarya Mahadeo is the most
important. It is a two-chambered example, placed on a well-proportioned stylo-
bate, with three rows of sculptured figures, half life-size, nearly one thousand in
number. The sikra is enriched by the addition of sculptured representations of
itself — a favourite Indian method.
Modern monuments exist at Chittore, Gwalior, Kantonugger (a.d. 1704), and

Amritzar (a.d. 1704), the sacred metropolis of the Sikhs.
Civil Architecture
Palaces, tombs, and ghats (landing places) abound. The ghats lining the great
rivers, such as the Ganges, are typical Indian features; they are used by the
Hindus as bathing places, and consist of long ranges of steps, stopped by kiosks
and backed by buildings with ornamental facades, used as shelters, or temples.
MOUNT MERU
What is Mt Meru representing According to Hindu and Buddhist cosmology?
Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the centre of the
universe and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its foothills are the
Himalayas, to the south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of
Bharata”), the ancient name for India. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by
various circles was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with
a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak." Early
examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath
Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept also
continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest example of
the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples took on this form,
such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar.
This type architecturally translates the traditional theme of the divine residence:
the Mount Meru, the “axis of the World”, endowed with five peaks; a theme that was
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transmitted to the countries of the South Seas (the countries of the Indochina
Peninsula, Philippines and Indonesia) where it gave rise to great constructions, among
which the most notable is undoubtedly the temple of Angkor Wat, in the Khmer
empire (the predecessor state of modern Cambodia, first half of the 12th century).
Mount Meru: The sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist

cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and
spiritual universes. Many famous Hindu and similar Jain as well as Buddhist temples
have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain.
Shikara
View of the Angkor Wat (meaning “Capital Temple”) temple complex in Cambodia and
one of the largest religious monuments in the world, on a site measuring 162.6
hectares. It was originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu
for the Khmer Empire, gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple towards the end
of the 12th century. The temple has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its
national flag, and it is the country’s prime attraction for visitors.
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Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount Sumeru/
meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his consort Parvathi/ A Buddhist prang in Wat
Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru
If we now study the shikhara itself, we can draw its evolution in its main lines. During
the ancient period (7th-9th centuries), it was composed of superimposed cornices that
gave the whole building a horizontally striated appearance that was accentuated in the
course of its evolution; in the angles they alternate, in a vertical superimposition,
cornices adorned with decorative windows (gavaksha*, in Tamil: kudu*) and with the
flattened “pillow” (amalaka*). Each face of the roof is vertically divided into three
segments (triratka), of which the one at the center, which forms a protrusion, always
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received a denser decoration than the other two, and at its base there was sometimes
a large kudu forming a pediment. As examples of this type we can cite the temples of
Pattadakal, in particular those of Jambulinga and Papanatha (8th century)
This style was maintained until about the 9th-10th centuries, a time of transition
during which the shikhara becomes increasingly elevated and is heavily decorated (see
the Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneswar, 10th century, see pictures above); the
vertical segments on each side of the roof changed from three to five (pancharatha*).
The apogee of the shikhara occurred in the 11th and 12th centuries; it was

characterized simultaneously by its much more daring elevation and by the decorative
use, on the shikhara itself, of reduced towers (ańga shikhara), whose disposition was
varied according to the local types and centuries. However, it must be taken into
account that the shikhara without reduced towers was used at the same time and
even became higher (e.g. the temple of Parshvanatha in Khajuraho).
The Lingaraja Temple dedicated to Shiva, is one of the oldest temples in

Bhubaneswar (Odisha, India). To this day, the temple is the most prominent landmark
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of Bhubaneswar and the largest temple in the city. The central tower of the temple is
55 m tall. The temple represents the quintessence of the architectural tradition at
Bhubaneswar. The temple complex has 50 other shrines and is enclosed by a large
compound wall.
The second category show an excess of the ańga where the shikhara are arranged
on the central projection of each face; first in few numbers (one, then two or three),
and later reaching up to four in the largest constructions with some
smaller ańga shikhara framing them at the base of the roof. Several temples of
Khajuraho (mainly the Kandariya Mahadeva temple) are the best examples of this
category; the central shikhara is more slender than in the preceding category and
the ańga shikhara seem to climb, by their ascending progression, towards the top of
the main tower. This arrangement conferred a surprising dynamism to the whole
building.
The main shikhara of the Kandariya Mahadeva temple with its 84 mini spires.
The third category, from the 12th century onwards, used the reduction of structures
in a more systematic way, filling with their silhouettes, regularly aligned in several
overlapping registers, the intervals between the protrusions of each face (e.g. the
temple of Nilakhapteśvara in Udaypur, Gwâlior).
Although during medieval times the temple with shikhara was widespread throughout

Northern India, other architectural types also existed. The most notable example is
perhaps the Vimala temple on Mount Abu (Rajasthan), one of the oldest and most
complete examples of the Jain* architecture.
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The “dome” at the Vimala Vasahi Temple.The central “domed” room surrounded by the hypostyle
cloister of the Vimala Vasahi temple.
The Vimala Vasahi temple of mount Abu (Abu town),

southwestern Rajasthan state, India), built in marble about 1031.
With a cruciform floor plan, it was built in 1031 in white marble over an equally
cruciform platform. The central body, surmounted by a false dome, is surrounded by a
hypostyle cloister with domes.
An example of the decorative elements at the interior of the Vimali Vasahi temple.
The center is octagonal and rests on eight pillars joined together by jagged arches
(which can be also seen elsewhere, especially in the temple of Surya in Modhera, State
of Barod, from the 11th century, and which may have been influenced by the Indo-
Muslim architecture); a circular dome with a central pinjabe and with rays in the
form of characters unfolds under the tower.
Although the external appearance of this building is relatively simple, the heavy use of
sculptures on the pillars, arches and roofs is excessive, and illustrates however a
typically medieval style, whose taste for over-decoration is also seen in certain
southern styles.
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Amalaka: A segmented or notched stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits
on the top of a Hindu temple’s shikhara or main tower. The amalaka either represent
a lotus, and thus the symbolic seat for the deity below, or the sun, and is thus the
gateway to the heavenly world. Other interpretations relate that the shape of the
amalaka has been inspired by the fruit of Phyllanthus emblica, the Indian gooseberry,
or myrobolan fig tree.This is called āmalaki in Sanscrit, and the fruit has a slightly
segmented shape, though it is much less marked than in the architectural shape. The
amalaka itself is crowned with a kalasam or finial, from which a temple banner is
often hung.
Ardhamandapa: (meaning “half-open hall”). In a Hindu temple architecture, a

passage in front of the Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) whose proportions are
relative to those of the Garbhagriha itself. Apart from being used as a passage it is also
used to keep the articles of worship including food offerings on special occasions.
Circumambulation: (from the Latin circum meaning

“around” and ambulātus meaning “to walk”). Refers to the act of moving around a
sacred object or idol. Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part
of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in Sanskrit
as pradakśina or pradakshinaṇā). It is also present in other religions, including
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
Cross of Lorraine: A heraldic two-barred cross, consisting of a vertical line crossed by

two shorter horizontal bars. In most renditions, the horizontal bars are “graded” with
the upper bar being the shorter, though variations with the bars of equal length are
also seen.
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Gavaksha: (from the Sanskrit meaning “bull’s or cow’s eye”). (Also known as kudu in
Tamil). In Indian architecture, is a term used to describe the motif centered on
an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut
architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. In its original
form, the arch is shaped like the cross-section of a barrel vault. In Hindu temples,
their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendor of the central
icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the
deity to gaze out into the world.
Jain architecture: (Or Jain temple). The place of worship for Jains, the followers

of Jainism, an ancient Indian religion in which the devotees see a path of victory in
crossing over life’s stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life. The word is
generally used in South India. Its historical use in North India is preserved in
the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples of Mount Abu.
Mahimandapa: (Mahi or Maha, meaning “big”). In Hindu temple architecture, when a

temple has several Mandapas, Mahimandapa refers to the biggest and the tallest of
them all. It is used for conducting religious discourses.
Pancharatha: (From Snaskrit Pancha meaning “five” and Ratha meaning “Chariot”).

A Hindu temple is referred to a Pancharatha when there are five rathas (on plan) or
pagas (on elevation) on the tower of the temple (generally a shikhara). The rathas are
vertical offset projection or facets. There are also temples with three rathas (triratha),
seven rathas (saptaratha) and nine rathas (navaratha).
Pradakśina: The act of circumambulation in the Hindu devotional practice. It refers to

the marching round the temple towards the right hand, which is done three times.
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The presence of God, according to Burckhardt, in, Sacred Art in East and West: its
Principles and Methods, ( translated [from the French] by Lord Northbourne.
Middlesex, Eng. Perennial Books, 1967:17).is expressed in the design of the temple by
emphasizing cardinal directions, proportions and symmetry. The design represents the
world. By the architectural construction, the movement within the universe is
rendered by a (relatively) permanent form. The South Asian temple, through its
square form, has been understood to symbolize the completed world (as opposed to
the circular form, which represents the world driven onward by cosmic movement). 3
Indeed the square is perhaps the most basic form for architectural construction. From
the square, the grid is easily developed. Though the grid is arguably a cumbersome
tool13, it has been used throughout history in multiple cultures to plan the layout of
.3
buildings and cities, and it is still used today
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Motilal Banarasidass Publ., Delhi, 1946/2007:21-
22.
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CHAPTER IV
The Tortoise and Angkor Design
A unique box with hinged lid made as a lucky tortoise carrying Mount Meru (looks like
The Sri Yantra or Sri Chakra) on its back narrates in the Hindu legend of the
Churning of the Milky Ocean.The gods and the demons churned the Milky Ocean in
order to acquire the Nectar of Immortality. In this grand spectacle, Vishnu, the
preserver of the cosmic order, had taken the form of a massive tortoise (Kurma Avatar)
in the middle of the Milky Ocean. His humped shell acted as a pivot for Mount
Mandara or Mount Meru, which served as the churning stick, while the serpent
Vasuki was the cord for the churn. Sri Yantra is a form of mystical diagram (yantra)
used in the Shri Vidya school of Hindu tantra. It consists of nine interlocking triangles
that surround a central point known as a bindu. This beautifully crafted piece
personifies the event in a magnificient way.
If one looks at the Khemer Architecture, then the most constant aspect of it whether
individual structure, sanctuary complex, or city, is that of “architecture-image,” that
is, the representation in architectural form of images provided by the texts. All forms
of religious architecture in Angkorian Cambodia must therefore be as close as possible
to the image suggested by the texts.
Khmer epigraphy often refers to a monument’s precise place in Indian cosmography.

As mentioned above, in the Indo-Khmer religious perspective the sanctuary could be
likened to a mountain. In the case of Phnom Bakheng, the quincuncial arrangement of
the five sanctuary towers at the summit corresponds in a very concrete way to the
peak of Mount Meru buttressed by four other strong mountains.
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Consecrated in A.D. 967-968 near Angkor, the Banthey Srei projects the image of a
divine home, - that of Siva, and is shown in what seems to have been its most
important form in two famous bas-reliefs on the Banteay Srei temple. The reliefs
occupy the tympana of the pediments on the southern library in the monument’s first
enclosure. They show us Siva surrounded by many divine or semi-divine personages
in his private celestial home of Kailasa; he is seated at the summit of a stepped
pyramid. It is thus perfectly appropriate to designate the stepped pyramid
monuments at Angkor as temple-mountains, even if it hints of redundancy in that
every sanctuary in the Indian tradition is akin to a mountain. In building their
pyramids, the Khmer simply solidify this image.
The bas-reliefs of the library present another picture of the inhabitants of Siva’s home:
hybrid figures with human bodies and animal heads. These figures are also found on
the stairs leading to the monument’s three sanctuary towers and, again, permit us to
regard these temples just as though they were divine mountains. Such temples are
also found in India,Sri Kurmam Temple in Srikakulam, Gavi Ranganatha Swamy
Temple in Hosadurga and Sri Kurma Varadharaja Swamy Temple in Chittor are the
three prominent temples where Lord Vishnu is worshipped in the form of tortoise.
Kurma literally means ‘the tortoise’.
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Kurma
The devas (gods) and the dānavas (demons) started churning the kṣīrasamudra, the
ocean of milk, for obtaining amṛta or ambrosia on the suggestion of Mahāviṣṇu. The
mount Meru was the churning rod and Vāsuki, the serpent king was the rope. During
the process of churning, the mount Meru started sinking. Hence at the request of the
two parties, Mahāviṣṇu took the form of a huge kurma or tortoise and supported the
Meru mountain on his back. This is considered as the Kurmāvatāra or Kurma
incarnation of Mahāviṣṇu.
1. Iconographically, he is shown either as a tortoise or with the lower part as a
tortoise and the upper part in the human form. The human form exhibit four
hands. These hands display having:
2. Two hands carrying the emblems of Viṣṇu - śañkha or conch and cakra or the
discus
3. Two hand showing the poses of abhaya (protection from fear) and varada (giving
of boons
4. Sometimes the gadā (mace) is shown in the right hand instead of the discus
5. Kurma, an upaprāṇas
6. Kurma is also the name of one of the five upaprāṇas[1] responsible for opening
the eyelids.
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7. Kurma, a Mudrā
8. Kurma is also the name of a handpose used in pujā or worship.
The role of Kurma in the Samudra manthan is essentially the same in all cited
versions of the Ramayana, whereby after the mountain-churning-rod begins to sink
into the ocean, Vishnu assumes the form of the gigantic tortoise, Kurma, as a pivot to
hold it, while in another simultaneous incarnation also helps to turn the tide in favour
of the Gods in the warring factions. He is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu.
Originating in Vedic literature such as the YajurVeda as being synonymous with
the Saptarishi called Kasyapa, Kurma is most commonly associated in post-Vedic
literature such as the Puranas with the legend of the churning of the Ocean of Milk,
referred to as the Samudra manthan. Also synonymous with Akupara, the world-
turtle supporting the Earth, Kurma is listed as the second incarnation of
the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.
Kurma avatar at Saptashrungi of Shaktism// Kurma Avatar on a brass chariot of

Searsole Rajbari, West Bengal, India
Iconography
Kurma is depicted either zoomorphically as a tortoise, or more commonly
in murtis and images anthropomorphically as half-man (above the waist) and half-
tortoise (below the waist).
Locations
There are four temples dedicated to this incarnation of Vishnu in India:
 Kurmai (Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh)

 Sri Kurmam (Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh)
 Gavirangapur (Chitradurga District of Karnataka)
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 Swarupnarayan (Goghat village in Hooghly district of West Bengal).
The name of the village mentioned above originates from the historical temple of
Kurma called Varadarajaswamy (Kurmavatar of Lord Vishnu), regarding the deity of
this village.
The Kurma Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, and a medieval

era Vaishnavism text of Hinduism. The text is named after the tortoise
avatar of Vishnu.
The manuscripts of Kurma Purana have survived into the modern era in many
versions. The number of chapters vary with regional manuscripts, and the critical
edition (edited by Anand Swarup Gupta, and published by the All-India Kashiraj
Trust, Varanasi) of the Kurma Purana has 95 chapters. Tradition believes that
the Kurma Purana text had 17,000 verses, the extant manuscripts have about 6,000
verses.
The text, states Ludo Rocher, is the most interesting of all the Puranas in its
discussion of religious ideas, because while it is a Vaishnavism text, Vishnu does not
dominate the text Instead, the text covers and expresses reverence
for Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti with equal enthusiasm. The Kurma Purana, like other
Puranas, includes legends, mythology, geography, Tirtha (pilgrimage), theology and a
philosophical Gita. The notable aspect of its Gita, also called the Ishvaragita, is that it
is Shiva who presents ideas similar to those found in the Bhagavad Gita.
The original core of the text may have been composed about the start of the 8th-
century CE, and revised thereafter over the centuries.
The Kurma Purana, like all Puranas, has a complicated chronology. Dimmitt and van
Buitenen state that each of the Puranas is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to
ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written:
As they exist today, the Puranas are a stratified literature. Each titled work consists of
material that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no
Purana has a single date of composition. (...) It is as if they were libraries to which new
volumes have been continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf, but
randomly.
— Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A.B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in

the Sanskrit Puranas[
The Kurma Purana exists in many versions, but all of them consist of two parts -
the Purva-vibhaga (older part) and Upari-vibhaga (upper part). The number of chapters
vary with the manuscripts. The critical edition of the different manuscripts contains
fifty one chapters in Purva-vibhaga and forty four in Upari-vibhaga.
The Padma Purana categorizes Kurma Purana as a Tamas Purana. Scholars consider
the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas classification as "entirely fanciful" and there is nothing in this
text that actually justifies this classification.
100
Kurma is, states Rocher, the most interesting religion-themed Purana, because even
though it is named after one of the Vishnu avatar, it actually contains a combination
of Vishnu and Shiva related legends, mythology, Tirtha (pilgrimage) and theology. The
stories are similar to those found in the other Puranas, but neither Vishnu nor Shiva
dominate the text. The text presents a tour guide to medieval Varanasi (also known as
the holy city of Banaras or Kashi), but mostly about the Shaiva sites, while
elsewhere Pancharatra stories present Vishnu prominently but with Sri as the
Supreme Shakti who is energy and power of all gods including Vishnu,
Shiva, Brahma.
The Kurma Purana, like other Puranas, includes a philosophical Gita. It is titled
Ishvaragita, and its eleven chapters are an adaptation of Bhagavad Gita in a Shiva-as-
spokesman format. These eleven chapters are in the Uttaravibhāga.
The Ishvara-gita borrows and refers to the Upanishads such as the Katha
Upanishad and Shvetashvatara Upanishad. It presents yoga and vrata like the
Bhagavad Gita, but as a discourse from Shiva. The discourse begins after Vishnu and
Shiva give a hug to each other, according to the text, and then Vishnu invites Shiva to
explain the nature of the world, life and self. Shiva explains Atman (soul,
self), Brahman-Purusha, Prakriti, Maya, Yoga and Moksha. The philosophical theme,
states Rocher is built on Advaita Vedanta ideas, that is emphasizing the identity of the
Atman (individual soul) and the Ultimate Reality concept of Brahman. The text is
notable for asserting that anyone from any varna can achieve liberation through
Bhakti yoga.
The Nārada Purāṇa (I.106. 1-22) gives a brief overview of the sections of the Kurma
Purana, along with summaries of other Puranas. [Whether the text influenced those
who created the temple, or whether the temple—well-known, important and
prestigious—influenced the description in the Kurrnapurana matters relatively little,
given the text’s uncertain date.
According to Professor Jean Filliozat, the conformity of the architecture to the texts is
such that some of the texts may have been inspired by the architecture (1961).
Professor Filliozat concludes that the description of the Hari (Vishnu) Temple in the
Indian text KurmaPurana may have been purely and simply inspired by the temple-
mountain of Angkor Wat. Its builder, the great king Stuyavarman II (A.D. 1113 to at
least 1145), was a fervent devotee of Vishnu.
An Example of a Hindu temple based on the Tortoise

concept is the:
The Kurmanathaswamy temple, also known as the Kurmanatha
temple or Srikurmam temple, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Kurma – the second
avatar of Vishnu. It is located in Srikurmam village, Srikakulam district in Andhra
Pradesh, India. Built in the 11th-century in the Eastern Chalukyan style, this Dravida
architecture temple was expanded in later centuries, and it is dedicated to Vishnu as
Kurmanathaswamy and his consort Lakshmi as Kurmanayaki.
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Srikurmam is the only known pre-14th-century Indian temple that is dedicated to the
Kurma avatar. The sanctum of Kurmanatha temple has both a tortoise image and the
anthropomorphic Vishnu with Lakshmi. The temple was an important centre
of Vaishnavism in the medieval period along with Simhachalam. Later Naraharitirtha,
a disciple of Madhvacharya, was instrumental in making Srikurmam the seat of
Vishnavite religious activities. The temple has two dhvajasthambas, 108 ekasila
(single-stone) pillars, with none resembling each other. These bear numerous
inscriptions. A tortoise park has been built within the temple to honor and conserve
the adult and young star tortoises. The temple has primarily Vaishnava iconography
and murals, but also reverentially includes Shaiva (Ganesha, Shiva) and Shakti
(Lakshmi, Durga) icons.
Srikurmam follows both Shaivite and Vaishnavite traditions of worship. Four daily
rituals and four annual festivals are celebrated in Srikurmam, out of which the three-
day Dolotsavam is the major one. Gajapathi Rajus of Vizianagaram are the trustees of
the temple, which is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and
Endowment Board of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. The Indian postal
department issued a stamp featuring the temple on 11 April 2013.
History:
One of the inscriptions in the temple, written in Telugu language
The temple is situated in the Gara mandal of the Srikakulam district, which is located

at a distance of 130 kilometres (81 mi) from Visakhapatnam. Considered the only
Indian temple where the Hindu deity Vishnu is worshipped in the form of a tortoise,
Srikurmam is 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) away from Srikakulam town and 3.5 kilometres
(2.2 mi) away from the Suryanarayana temple, Arasavalli. Inscriptional history of the
temple begins in the 11th-12th centuries. The temple is popular among the Tamil
diaspora as well because it is a Vaishnavite temple. Ramanuja's disciples
established Vaishnavism in the temple with the support of Kalinga
king Anantavarman Chodaganga, the eastern Ganga king. After this incident, a group
of devadasis were employed to sing and dance daily before the deity in the morning
and evening.
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Live tortoises in the Kurmanatha Swamy temple's premises, its preservation efforts
Srikurmam was regarded as an important centre of Vaishnavism in the medieval

period along with Simhachalam and others.[3] It was also regarded as
the Gurupitha (sacred place of the master) of the Ganga kings of Utkala.
Naraharitirtha, the disciple of Madhvacharya, was instrumental in making Srikurmam
the seat of Vishnavite religious activities. He also defended the place from an attack of
the Sabaras, a group of savage inhabitants of the Ganjam forests. Srikurmam
influenced the kings, officials, and Vaishnavite devotees to change their names in
accordance with the religious faith they followed. Due to his close association with the
eastern Ganga kings, Naraharitirtha created the office of Bhoga Pariksha (religious
head) with the aim of having the successive Madhwa saints supervise religious matters
and pray for the welfare of the royal family and kingdom. Naraharitirtha later built a
temple dedicated to Yogananda Narasimha in front of Srikurmam.[ The temple
inscriptions mention Narasimha Dasa Pandita and Purushottama Deva as the Bhoga
Parikshas. Currently, Srikurmam is under the trusteeship of the Gajapathi Rajus
of Vizianagaram.
Legands:
Kurma Narayana, one of the avatars of the Hindu deity Vishnu
103
During the reign of king Swetha Chakravarthi, this area was referred to as Swetha
Giri. Swetha Chakravarthi's wife Vishnu Priya was a devotee of Vishnu. When she was
observing a fast on an Ekadasi day, Swetha Chakravarthi approached her with the
intention of making love. When she refused, saying the time was not ideal, the king
became adamant. She prayed to Vishnu, who created a stream of water, separating
the couple. Swetha Chakravarthi was carried away in the ensuing flood and Vishnu
Priya followed him to the hilly terrains of Swetha Giri. The sage Narada initiated
an upadesam of the Kurma Narayana mantra and asked the king to pray to Vishnu
using it. By the time Vishnu appeared in the form of the Kurma (tortoise) avatar, the
king's health had deteriorated. Vishnu then made his Sudarshana Chakra make an
impression in the nearby land, forming a lake.
Swetha Chakravarthi bathed in the lake and regained his health, after which it was
referred to as Swetha Pushkarani.Upon the king's request, Vishnu manifested as the
deity of Kurmanatha. According to the Padma Purana, Brahma officiated the celestial
rituals and consecrated the deity with Gopala Yantra. Vishnu is worshipped as
Kurmanatha Swamy or Kurma Narayana, along with his consort Lakshmi, who is
referred to as Kurmanayaki.
Later, a tribal king visited the Swetha Pushkarani and was impressed with it. After
learning about the story of its origin from Swetha Chakravarthi, the tribal king
constructed a tank around the lake and began worshipping the deity regularly. The
tribal king used to stay in Sage Sampangi's monastery, which was situated in the
Western side of the temple. Upon the king's request, the deity started facing west. The
sage Durvasa is said to havde visited the temple later with his disciples; the event of
his arrival was considered-significant. Rama's sons Lava and Kusha were said to have
worshipped Vishnu as Kurmanatha in Srikurmam. In Dvapara Yuga, Balarama visited
the temple and was denied entry by Bhairava, who was serving as the
temple's Kshetrapala (guardian deity). Infuriated, Balarama threw Bhairava away from
the temple premises. Kurmanatha came to know this and gave Balarama permission
to enter the temple. Balarama, in resentment, cursed that Srikurmam would be the
only temple where Vishnu would be worshipped in the form of Kurma Narayana.
Legends also say that upon Vishnu's request, Anjaneya agreed to guard the temple.
(top) A part of the complex which features the 108 ekasila (single-stone) pillars

(bottom) A view of the Swetha Pushkarani with mandapa.
ARCHITECTURE
104
Srikurmam temple is known for its distinctive architectural style. The design of
the gopuram is different from the regular style seen at other Vaishnavite temples. It
also has two dhvajasthambas, one on the west and the other on the east, which is
another rare element in a Vaishnavite temple. The upper part of the sanctum
sanctorum is built in the form of an ashtadala padmam (eight-petaled lotus). The
devotees can directly enter the sanctum sanctorum to offer prayers, unlike the method
specified by the traditional rules of Vaishnavism
The utsava deities of Govindaraja Swamy and his consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi were
found in the Swetha Pushkarani in the 12th century AD. The utsava deities of Rama,
Sita, and Laksmana were presented by Naraharitirtha. All these deities are located in a
small room near the sanctum sanctorum and are worshipped daily. The deity of
Kurmanathaswamy is made of black stone, but due to regular applications of
sandalwood paste, it appears yellow It sits on a platform made of stone with a length
of 5 feet, a height of 1 foot, and a width of 4 feet. The deity is 2.5 feet (0.76 m) long
and consists of three stone structuresThe stone representing the head faces the west;
the middle stone represents the body of the tortoise; the small stone at the rear end,
covered with swirling circles, represents either the tail of the tortoise or the
Sudarshana Chakra.
Beside the sanctum sanctorum of Kurmanatha, there is a temple dedicated to
Kurmanayaki in which a deity of Andal is found. Hatakeswara, Karpureswara,
Koteswara, Sundareswara, and Pathalasiddheswara are among the temple's guardian
deities.[12] The temple's tank Swetha Pushkarani is also known by the name Sudha
Kundam. In the middle of the temple tank, there is a small construction named
Narasimha mandapam. The sand below the waters of the temple tank is white in
colour, and is known as Gopi Chandanam. Legends say that Krishna played
with gopikas in these waters, after which the sand turned white when a sage saw
them. The temple contains 108 ekasila (single-stone) pillars, with none resembling
each other. They bear few inscriptions related to the royal lineages that existed in this
area in the past.
In the temple's premises, a tortoise park has been built to conserve the adult and
young star tortoises, which are found in the foothills and fields of Srikakulam.
Srikurmam is the only conservation centre for this species. Devotees offer these
tortoises from the nearby fields. They also feed gongura leaves to these tortoises as a
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token of respect for the deity. The Endowment Board of the Government of Andhra
Pradesh and NGO Green Mercy took on the responsibility for the conservation of these
star tortoises. As of September 2015, the temple hosted a total of 255 tortoises. The
temple also contains 42 mural paintings of Krishna on its walls.
A statue of Vishnu being worshiped in the temple
Srikurmam is one of the rare Indian temples that follow both Shaivite and Vaishnavite
traditions. Abhisheka is performed daily to the deity, and devotees are allowed to
participate in person; this is a feature seen more often in Shaivite temples than in
Vaishnavite temples. Akhanda Deeparadhana (Lamp worship), Nitya Bhogam (Daily
offering) and Kalyanam (Marriage) are regularly performed to the deities. [ Devotees
visit the Pathalasiddheswara temple before entering the sanctum sanctorum of
Kurmanathaswamy.
Ancestor worship is famous in Srikurmam, because of which it is known
as pitrukshetra. People believe that their ancestors' souls shall gain salvation if offered
prayers here. Because of this, hundreds of devotees perform ancestor
worship. Devotees use the Gopi Chandanam while applying thirunamam on their
forehead. The three-day Dolotsavam is the major festival celebrated in the
temple. Kamadahanam is celebrated on the first day, followed by Padiya and
Dolotsavam. The annual Kalyanotsavam is celebrated on Vaisakha Suddha
Ekadasi. Other festive activities include Kurma Jayanthi on Jyeshta Bahula Dwadasi
and Mukkoti Ekadasi.
From 7–20 July 2014, 55 tortoise hatchlings were bred in the temple, which Green
Mercy claimed to be a world record. In September 2015 The Times of India reported
about an incident of mass mortality among those 55 tortoises due to infections and
poor maintenance, said to be caused by a number of environmental and man-made
factors. The number was reduced to 24, and the park's curator K. V. Ramana Murthy
pointed out that the forest department agreed to conserve them, but the offer was put
on hold by the high court after a petition filed by devotees and a few religious
organisations. Apart from lack of manpower and proper funds, the Hudhud
cyclone caused severe damage to the tortoise park
Mount Meru
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Mount Meru: मे रु, also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred
five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be
the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.[1]
Many famous Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples have been built as symbolic
representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" 須彌座 xūmízuò style base is a
common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat,
a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.
Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru to which is added the
approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful
Meru".Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā.
The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru which all refer to it as a part of the Cosmic
Ocean, along with several other statements that describe it in geographically vague
terms (e.g., "the Sun along with all the planets circle the mountain") — make the
determination of its location most difficult, according to most scholars.
Some researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest
of Kashmir.
The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies in the middle of the Earth ("bhuva-
madhya") in the land of the Jambunad (Jampudvīpa). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya
a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions:
"Sumeruḥ Prithvī-madhye shrūyate drishyate na tu"
(Su-meru is heard to be in the middle of the Earth, but is not seen there).
Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In one of them,
cosmologically, the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by
Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda
Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south.[
The cosmic tortoise, and Mount Meru
Mount Meru of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about

1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun,
along with all the planets in the Solar System, revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit.
One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its magnitude
seems to differ over time periods — e.g., the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas
according to Varahamihira and slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya, but is said to be
5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagvata Purana,
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along with some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to
Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers.
Mount Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity.
According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash is identified with Mount Meru. One
description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made
of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the
heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.
Painting of Mount Meru from Jain cosmology from the Samghayanarayana
According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the

world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of
100,000 yojans. There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around
Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind Mount Meru.
The 24th and last Tirthankara, Lord Mahāvīra, was taken to the summit of
Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting his mother Queen
Trishala into deep slumber. There, he was bathed and anointed with precious
unctions. Indra and other Devas celebrated his birth.
Javanese Hindu Legands also mentions this mythical mountain of gods was in
the Tantu Pagelaran, an Old Javanese manuscript written in the 15th-
century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of the
island of Java, as well as the legendary movement of portions of Mount Meru to
Java. The manuscript explains that Batara Guru (Shiva) ordered the
gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings. However, at that
time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and
shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the Earth
by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa (India) and attaching it to
Java. The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru, the tallest mountain on Java.
Mount Semeru, a large active volcano on Java, is named after the mount.
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A R C H I T E C T U R E
The five central towers of Angkor Wat, before a Hindu and later a Buddhist
temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru.
The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was

incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara)
— a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak." Early examples of
this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath
Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This concept
also continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru
towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest example of

the 5th- to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples took on this form,
such as the Wat Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar. IN THE
ARTICLE- THE ANGKOREAN TEMPLE-MOUNTAIN-Diversity, Evolution,
Permanence Thierry Zephir says:
( https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-angkorean-temple-mountain/)
Permanence: The “Architecture-Image”

The most constant aspect of Khmer architecture, whether individual structure, sanctuary complex, or
city, is that of “architecture-image,” that is, the representation in architectural form of images
provided by the texts. Khmer epigraphy often refers to a monument’s precise place in Indian
cosmography (see Eoisselier 1970). As mentioned above, in the Indo-Khmer religious perspective
the sanctuary could be likened to a mountain. In the case of Phnom Eakheng, the quincuncial
arrangement of the five sanctuary towers at the summit corresponds in a very concrete way to the
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peak of Mount Meru buttressed by four other strong mountains. All forms of religious architecture in
Angkorian Cambodia must therefore be as close as possible to the image suggested by the texts.
Angkor Wat. Siem Reap, Cambodia, 1116-1150
An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an

expansive enclosure wall, which separates the sacred temple grounds from the
protective moat that surrounds the entire complex (the moat is visible in the
photograph at the top of the page). The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a
passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked
by five stone towers. The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain
ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical home of the gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists.
The temple mountain as an architectural design was invented in Southeast Asia.
Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned temples dedicated to Hindu gods
on earth as a representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the empty spaces that they
created between one another and the moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and
oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to the gods, it is also
considered an axis-mundi. An axis-mundi is a cosmic or world axis that connects
heaven and earth. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his
architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly,
the symbolism of Angkor Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate
the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place in the universe. In addition to
envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom we
know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s
construction is a map of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the
temple’s patron.
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HINDU MYTHOLOGY
Nandi is the greatest ever, selfless devotee of Shiva.
Nandi is born only to do service to His God Shiva. Nandi is the Vehicle for Shiva and
he is even the gate keeper for Shiva's abode, Khailash (everyone needs Nandi’s
permission, to enter Khailash and to meet Shiva).
Shiva was so impressed with Nandi’s selfless devotion , that Shiva blessed him and
said “ Nandi, you are dearest to me. I hereby give you a boon that whatever my
devotees tell in your ears , will for sure reach me ! Hence, Nandi is always placed in
front of Shiva.
In few temples , we see Even a Turtle placed in front of Shiv linga.

The reason may be Turtle represents Lord Vishnu’s kurma Avatar, thus indicating that
Shiva and Vishnu are one and the same.
The other reason may be , How a turtle closes itself into a shell , and is strong as a
mountain in the outer side. In the same way, We should also have control over our 6
avgun (kaama, krodha, moha, lobha, madha and matsaryam) and thus be detached
with the outer materilastic world , and sync to our Chitt ( Shiva), thus evolve
spiritually.
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Nandi Theertha Kalyani temple Kalyani - Turtles
Nandi always looks at Shiva , telling us to stop thinking of everything else and just
concentrate on God Shiva. Shiva Temple is representation of Kundalini & Chakras. In
Kundalini Yoga , practitioner brings Atman from heart to base of Kundalini , then
Atman travels though various chakras and meets the Paramatman through
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Sahastrara chakra. Shiva Temple represents this travel of soul through various
chakras .
Kundalini reside in base chakra ( Muladhara ) , this is represented by turtle.

Next Four chakras ( Swadhistan, Manipur, Anahat and Visudhi) are represented by
Nandi. The Shiva Lingam represents Agya Chakra, the final destination of soul before
it merges in Sahasara and then with parmatmanIndian Rishis realized Kundalini
yoga , to teach common masses they created Shiva temples.They tried to explain
esoteric knowledge through sculpture.Nandi is symbol of selfless devotion,
strength and wisdom. Nandi (Ox) is a hard working animal and thus became
Shiva’s Vehicle (mount).
So, Nandi represents selfless devotion and Turtle represent
Archaeologists Discover Ancient Stone Turtle in Drained Angkor Reservoir. Last

Wednesday, archaeologists conducting excavations at the Angkor temple complex in
Cambodia unearthed a large stone turtle statue thought to date to the tenth century
A.D., reports Sopheng Cheang for the Associated Press. via Khmer Times, A second,
smaller, statue is discovered in the ongoing Srah Srang excavations. This time, an
attempt was made to look inside the shell but the excavators are taking it slow. A
turtle sculpture was discovered earlier last week, along with metal tridents and crystal
stones. Apsara National Authority (ANA) yesterday unearthed one more ancient turtle
statue buried at the bottom of the temple in the middle of Srah Srang pond in Angkor
Archaeological Park.
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According to ANA, the statue is found to be in good condition. The size of the second
discovery is smaller than the previous statue found on Wednesday.
Besides the turtle statue, there are more ancient objects which have been discovered
such as crystal stones and metal tridents. Currently, the statues and objects are being
kept for further assessment. 09 May 2020
114
115
CHAPTER 5
Angkor & Nortre Dame Cathedral- Hetrotopic designs in

art and literature
The fixed location of a building on a site at first leads us to believe that it

continues to represent the same thing and therefore holds the same meaning.
But the meaning of the building is not fixed and shifts with time.
Monument, Memory and Meaning- Heterotopia at Borobudur, Indonesia, Swati
Chemburkar, 2012,
https://www.academia.edu/4783122/Monument_Memory_and_Meaning_Heterotopia_
at_Borobudur_Indonesia
The cathedral burnt down in April 15, 2019 MIDDLE PIC victor hugo Dramatization of the fire in 15 th
Century novel HUNCHBACK of NORTRE DAME
Miguel Chevalier worked with astrophysicist Fabio Acero presenting at

Cathédrale Notre-Dame the large-scale art installation the exhibition
titled Digital Supernova, on view from August 8-18 , 2019. The installation
combined not only Chevalier’s recognizable generative realities and light
networks but also brought viewers into this virtual world through the music of
Jacopo Baboni Schilingi, Adam Bernadac, and for the opening — Frédéric
Deschamps.1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. at https://frenchmoments.eu/notre-dame-de-paris/ .
2. The Parisian department store as a paradigmatic place for interactions between
tourism and shopping: the production of a heterotopia(Le grand magasin
parisien, lieu paradigmatique des interactions entre tourisme et shopping : la
production d'une hétérotopie- Vincent Coëffé et Jean-René Morice)
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https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.43367
Whereas Michel Foucault had not evoked the the Angkor Wat or the Nortre
Dame into his theory of heterotopia, this article not only allows to enrich the
concept by including these but above all, it provides a renewal of this trans-
geographical approach comparing with the literature of Victor Hugo and
ofcourse, the architecture of the Nortre-Dame Csthedral The spatial dynamic of
the Parisian Cathedral enlightens the fact that it remains a heterotopia
whereas some characteristics of the place have changed.
While this heterotopia from the second half of the 19th century was based on
the monumentality of space and a sense of exoticism linked to orientalist
imagination, heterotopia as a place imagined as something “other”, still works
through the aim of creating spectacle.The exploitation of the past through
heritagization and the enhancement of the creations for visitors in search of
that tourist experience.Holliness be damned!
The cathedral is in the centre of Paris, just as the Angkor Wat must have been
in its hayday. Additionally, the Church was the focus point for the community.
Often the priest was employed by the local landowner, and there are many
references in popular culture to the priest being very influential within the
community.Same with the Hindus of Cambodia of those days. In Angkor Wat:
A Transcultural History of Heritage, Michael Falser’s studies the trans-cultural
history of the heritage of Angkor Wat for over 150 years (from 1860) in
considerable detail, from a specific theoretical angle, and with a relentless
focus upon a particular line of argument that the adoption of the Angkor wat
into the culture of France in order to enhance the colonial perspective of the
nation is heterotopia: “Angkor Wat […] transformed from a living Buddhist site
into a dead re-Hinduicised ruin and commodity inside an archaeological park”
and a legacy of shifting heritage (ownership) from Khmer (and Siamese) to
French, followed by a limited return to Cambodian jurisdiction before
ultimately becoming a site of global heritage through the involvement of
UNESCO and other state heritage conservation actors.
Gothic architecture began to develop during the middle mediaeval period from
the middle of the twelfth century. It sought to move drastically on from a
permanent idea of apocalypse and darkness to a concept of light during the
Dark Ages, and embodied the principle that ‘God is light’ and tied architectural
developments to theological statements. One of the iconic and instantly
recognisable features of this genere is the use of ever growing stone vaults and
highly buttressed walls, the overall desire to make the inside of the church feel
spacious and filled with light. The sense of height and scale (particularly from
inside) is always stressed, through the creation of tall spaces, thinning of
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internal columns, and the ratio of levels within the building, working together
to draw the viewer’s eyes upward to contemplate God.
Additionally, the church provides a sanctuary. It is Quasimodo’s home as the

resident bellringer, but also where he is able to hide from society and its
apparent wickedness and sin. John Guy (Author), Steve
McCurry (Photographer) in their photo essay also call Angkor a safe
haven.Sanctuary: The Temples of Angkor Paperback – September 1, 2005 but
or whom? The Royals or the commoners? Because apart from being a magical
world of carved gods, weathered masonry, tangled vegetation and orange-robed
monks, Angkor was the capital of the Khmer rulers from the end of the ninth
century until the mid-fifteenth. Each built a state temple at the capital,
surrounded by walls, moats and embankments laid out in accordance with
cosmological precepts. Designated a World Heritage site by UNESCO, the
temples attract tourists, archaeologists and art historians, and are also a
pilgrimage destination for Buddhist monks.
Heterotopia is a concept elaborated by philosopher Michel Foucault to

describe certain cultural, institutional and discursive spaces that are somehow
‘other’: disturbing, intense, incompatible, contradictory or transforming.
Foucault uses the term "heterotopia" (French: hétérotopie) to describe spaces
that have more layers of meaning or relationships to other places than
immediately meet the eye. Heterotopias are worlds within worlds, mirroring
and yet upsetting what is outside. Foucault provides examples: ships,
cemeteries, bars, brothels, prisons, gardens of antiquity, fairs, Muslim baths
and many more. Foucault outlines the notion of heterotopia on three occasions
between 1966-67.
Heterotopia follows the template established by the notions

of utopia and dystopia. The prefix hetero- is from Ancient Greek ἕτερος
(héteros, "other, another, different") and is combined with the Greek morpheme
τόπος ("place") and means "other place". A utopia is an idea or an image that is
not real but represents a perfected version of society, such as Thomas More's
book or Le Corbusier's drawings. As Walter Russell Mead has written, "Utopia
is a place where everything is good; dystopia is a place where everything is bad;
heterotopia is where things are different — that is, a collection whose members
have few or no intelligible connections with one another."
This then is a concept to describe certain cultural, institutional and discursive

spaces that are somehow ‘other’: disturbing, intense, incompatible,
contradictory or transforming. Heterotopias are worlds within worlds, mirroring
and yet upsetting what is outside. Foucault provides examples: ships,
cemeteries, bars, brothels, prisons, gardens of antiquity, fairs, Muslim baths
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and many more. Foucault outlines the notion of heterotopia on three occasions
between 1966-67.
In the Hunchback of Notre Dame, another Frenchman-Victior Hugo- used the

Main character a grotesque creature as a hetrotopic agent. Surrounded by a
beautiful Cathedral- he came of age and was nourished by the
environment.But alas a BEAST( according to Hugo).He finally saves his
beloved- the woman as well as the Cathedral from the fire.
Quasimodo
is flogged, engraving by Von perrichon, illustration for book "Notre-Dame de Paris" by Victor
Hugo, 1877 PIC at RIGHT Claude Frollo teaching reading to young Quasimodo, engraving by
Dujardin, illustration for book "Notre-Dame de Paris" by … | Old art, Character design,
Illustration
Heterotopia follows the template established by the notions of a ‘crisis is a

separate space like a boarding school or a motel room where activities like
coming of age or a honeymoon take place out of sight. Foucault describes the
crisis heterotopia as "reserved for individuals who are, in relation to society and
to the human environment in which they live, in a state of crisis." He also
points that crisis heterotopias are constantly disappearing from society and
being replaced by the following heterotopia of deviation.
 ‘Heterotopias of deviation’ are institutions where we place individuals

whose behavior is outside the norm (hospitals, asylums, prisons, rest
homes, cemetery).
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 Heterotopia can be a single real place that juxtaposes several spaces. A
garden can be a heterotopia, if it is a real space meant to be a microcosm of
different environments, with plants from around the world.
 'Heterotopias of time' such as museums enclose in one place objects from
all times and styles. They exist in time but also exist outside of time
because they are built and preserved to be physically insusceptible to time’s
ravages.
 'Heterotopias of ritual or purification' are spaces that are isolated and
penetrable yet not freely accessible like a public place. Either entry to the
heterotopia is compulsory like in entering a prison, or entry requires special
rituals or gestures, like in a sauna or a hammam.
 Heterotopia has a function in relation to all of the remaining spaces. The
two functions are: heterotopia of illusion creates a space of illusion that
exposes every real space, and the heterotopia of compensation is to create a
real space—a space that is other.
Foucault's elaborations on heterotopias were published in an article

entitled Des espaces autres (Of Other Spaces). The philosopher calls for a
society with many heterotopias, not only as a space with several places of/for
the affirmation of difference, but also as a means of escape from
authoritarianism and repression, stating metaphorically that if we take the
ship as the utmost heterotopia, a society without ships is inherently a
repressive one, in a clear reference to Stalinism.1
If we consider the fact that each community formation creates its own cultural
interpretation of the living environment not only at the levels of building and
street, but also at that of collective urban fabric, one could argue that the
current urban design frameworks fall short to respond to the intrinsic
complexity of localities in the city.
Following the recent tragedy of the burning of the Notre-Dame Cathedral,

it only seems right for me to give an extended look at its history leading up to
the very day. A look of it’s construction, uses and general history will be
covered in this blog to broaden your understanding of the importance of this
recent event and compare them to those of Angkor Wat.
The construction of the Notre-Dame Cathedral began in 1163 during the reign
of King Louis VII on the eastern end of Île de la Cité, being built atop, and
replacing, the older Roman cathedral of Saint-Étienne. Maurice de Sully, the
bishop of Paris at the time, set forth this plan on building a place of worship
larger than any at the time, employing a new architectural style being the
Gothic style. This choice of style would allow for tall, cavernous spaces and
stained glass windows to allow heaps of light inward. Ribbed vaults as well as
the famed flying buttresses would also top onto this Gothic style. Furthermore,
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this choice of architectural style would strike the lead of more Gothic style
building, and will be remembered as the leader in doing so.
____________________________________________________________________________
1. Designing the heterotopia: from social ideology to spatial morphology, Olgu
Çalışkan, Duygu Cihanger Ribeiro & Onur Tümtürk, URBAN DESIGN
International volume 25, pages30–52 (2020)
Pope Alexander III laying the first

stone of the Notre Dame Cathedral, 1163
The basic floor plan followed the Gothic tradition, having been modeled after
the Roman basilicas, shaping the form of a Latin cross. The base of the cross is
the main entrance, which by tradition faces west. Past this, is the lower part of
the cross, the nave, which houses the congregation, which can hold around
1000 people. The central bar of the cross is called the transept. The
intersection of the transept, referred to as the crossing of the transept, supports
the weight of the spire. The upper part of the cross houses the choir as well as
the altar. At the end of the cross is a semi-circular area known as the apse,
which has a special chapel dedicated to Notre-Dame, our lady, the Virgin Mary.
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Furthermore, an area to the south of the transept was added, called
1
the sacristie, to house the treasures of the cathedral.
-_____________________________________________________________________-
1. https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/europe/112072890/notre-dame-fire-victor-hugos-novel-about-a-
hunchback-saved-cathedral#:~:text=Notre%20Dame%20fire%3A%20Victor%20Hugo's%20novel
%20about%20a%20hunchback%20saved%20cathedral,-illian%20Brockell12&text=The
%20Notre%20Dame%20Cathedral%20as,ransacking%20and%20pollution%2Dinduced
%20decay.
replaced due to centuries of wind damage. At the end of the 18th century,
Notre-Dame loss it’s religious status in the outbreak of the French revolution,
becoming a warehouse used for the storage of food and non-secular items.
During this period, it was also robbed of it’s treasures, many being destroyed,
along with statues thought to be of French kings.
Alas, the cathedral would be saved by Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1801, Napoleon

signed an agreement, restoring the Notre-Dame to the church, using it as the
setting for his coronation as Emperor. The degradation of the cathedral would
lead Victor Hugo to write The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, speaking of the tragic
things done to Notre-Dame under the will of man. This would later lead to King
Louis Philippe to order for the church to be restored on a large scale in the late
19th century. The architects set out to restore Notre-Dame restored the
damaged sculptures, fixed the central portal, reinstated new glass glazing, the
addition of murals to the side chapel, the reconstruction of the great organ, as
well as a rebuilding of the central spire and the sacristie.
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123
Notre
Dame Cathedral floor plan
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Our lady, the Virgin-Maryhttps://thecrossguard.wordpress.com/2019/04/21/the-history-of-
the-notre-dame-cathedral/The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, by: Victor Hugo
All through the 20th century, more and more restoration programs would arise
in removal of any grime acquired through the years. Unfortunately, it seems as
though these restorations inadvertently caused a fire to break out on April
15th, 2019, the spire being completely burned, along with most of the roof as
well as support beams. Though, what does stand is the statue of the Virgin
Mary, alas leaving hope for the restoration of Notre-Dame, our lady, to her
former.glory.
THE Heterotopic Angkor
Never if one looks at it for an hour or for a day or repeatedly for weeks on
end,does Angkor Wat seem real.Angkor Wat, the largest monument of the
Angkor group, is located six kilometers north of the town of Siem Reap and
slightly south of the city of Angkor Thom. It is an architectural masterpiece.
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The composition, proportions, and reliefs make it one of the finest monuments
in the world. Built by King Suryavarman II in the first half of the twelfth
century (1113-50), Angkor Wat was a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Visnu.
It is generally accepted that it was built during the lifetime of the king to serve
as his tomb after death. Because of its funerary function, the main entrance of
Angkor Wat is at the west to conform with the symbolism between the setting
sun and death. Another theory on the western orientation of Angkor Wat is
that it was intended to be situated on an important road in a north to south
direction and because of problems of space or existing nearby temples, it was
built facing west. Estimates on how long it took to build Angkor Wat vary
widely but the methods of construction, quantity of the materials, and the
evolution of the decoration suggest that it took thirty to fifty years to build the
temple. The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the
monument because of its vastness and the way it is laid out. From a distance
Angkor Wat appears to be a massive stone structure on one level with a long
causeway leading to the center, but close-up it is a series of elevated towers,
covered galleries, chambers, porches, and courtyards on different levels with
stairways giving access to the various parts.
The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower is
surprisingly high-213 meters (699 feet). The height was achieved with three
rectangular or square levels. Each one becomes progressively smaller and
higher starting from the outer limits of the temple. Covered galleries with
columns define the boundaries of the first and second levels. The third and
uppermost level supports five towers-one in each of the corners and one in the
middle-which are the most prominent architectural feature of Angkor Wat.
Graduated tiers, one rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape
and, near the top, rows of lotus flowers taper to a point. The overall profile of
each tower is reminiscent of a lotus bud.
Several lines stand out in the architectural plan of Angkor Wat. The eye is
drawn left and right to the horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to the
soaring height of the towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a
view of all five towers from certain angles. They are not visible, for example,
from the main entrance. Many of the structures and courtyards are in the
shape of a cross. A curved sloping roof on galleries, chambers, and aisles is a
hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance the roof looks like a series of long
narrow ridges but close-up one sees gracefully arched rectangular stones
placed end to end. Each row of tiles is capped with an end tile at right angles
along the ridge of the roof. The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums
with elaborate frames.
Several elements repeated throughout the monument give an architectural

rhythm to the whole- a hetrotopic feel of circles within circles. Galleries with
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columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums in sects of graduated sizes,
structures such as libraries and entry towers in a cross-shaped plan, and steps
and steps and steps occur again and again. By combining two or more of these
features and superimposing them, height was achieved and one part of the
monument was linked to another. Roofs were frequently layered to add height,
length, or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers was repeated at
the outer limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry towers.
Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 500 acres defined by a

laterite wall. The first evidence of the site from the west is a moat with a long
sandstone causeway stretching for 200 meters across it and serving as the
main access to the monument. At the end of the causeway there is a massive
entry tower consisting of three sections.
The upper portions have collapsed and thus do not reveal the full impact of the
original form. A long covered gallery with square columns and a curved roofs
extends along the moat to the left and right of the entry tower. This majestic
facade of Angkor Wat is a model of balance and proportion and is a fine
example of classical Khmer architecture. Visitors can easily miss the beauty of
Angkor Wat at this point as they rush on to see the more renowned sight of
the five towers-visible only beyond the first entry tower. As one passes through
this tower, there is an even longer causeway of 350 meters bordered on each
side by a low balustrade resembling the body of a serpent. Straight ahead is
the celebrated view of Angkor Wat-the symbol of unity that appears on the new
Cambodian flag. Standing at this point one feels compelled to 'get to the
wondrous group of the five domes, companions of the sky, sisters of the clouds,
and determine whether or not one lives in a world of reality or in a fantastic
dream'.
The visitor is gradually introduced to the style that culminates on the third
level. Two buildings, so-called libraries, stand in the courtyard on the left and
right of the causeway. These rectangular buildings usually occur in pairs
outside the sacred enclosure. Their function is unknown but they may have
served as a store rooms for offerings and sacred objects. The designation
'library' originated with French archaeologists who discovered scenes from a
Hindu legend of the 'Nine Planets of the Earth' carved on the libraries. Because
of the association with astronomy they interpreted this to mean that the
building served a scholarly function and named it a library.
The five towers of Angkor Wat are fully visible from under a tree just outside
the libraries described above. In certain light situations a mirror image of the
towers is reflected in the water basin. Leave seeing the bas-reliefs for later and
continue towards the summit passing through the 'Cross-Shaped Galleries'
which provide a link between the first and second levels.
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This unique architectural design consists of two covered galleries in the shape
of a cross supported by square columns and a courtyard-like area divided into
four equal parts with paved basins and steps.
1. The 'gallery of 1,000 Buddhas,' on the right, is a misleading
name. Since the temple is Hindu one might wonder why it has a
Buddhist gallery. The name derived from the many Buddhist
images the gallery once contained that were acquired after the
temple became a place of Buddhist worship, perhaps in the late
fifteenth or sixteenth century.
2. The gallery on the left is the 'Hall of Echoes,' so-named because

of its unusualmacoustics where the voices resonante in this hall.
3. The third level consists of the Central Sanctuaries on a high
base and surrounded by an airy, spacious courtyard with two
small libraries. The walls of the gallery around the courtyard of the
third level are decorated with over 1,500 celestial dancers, known
as Apsaras. The presence of these female divinities who
entertained gods and seduced ascetics makes the space an endless
source of visual and spiritual enchantment. Twelve sets of stairs
with forty steps each ascend at a seventy degree angle to give
access to this level. All the repetitive elements of the architectural
composition of Angkor Wat are manifested on the upper level. The
space is divided into a cross-shaped area defined with covered
galleries and four paved courts.
An entry tower with a porch and columns occupies a stately position at the top
of each stairway. Passages supported on both sides by double rows of columns
which link the entry tower tower to the central structure. The corners of the
upper level are dominated by the four towers. Steps both separate and link the
different parts.
A narrow covered gallery with a double row of pillars, windows and balustrades
surrounds the third level.The Central Sanctuary rises on a tiered base forty-
two meters above the upper level.The highest of the five towers is equal to the
height of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Only the king and the high
priest were allowed on the upper or third level of Angkor Wat. Probably for this
reason, it lacks the stately covered galleries of the other two levels. It does,
though, support the five central towers and contain the most sacred image of
the temple.
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At the summit the layout of Angkor Wat reveals itself at last. The view is a
spectacle of beauty befitting the Khmer's architectural genius for creating
harmonious proportions. Angkor Wat is the 'most remarkable body of ruins in
the world, whether one regarded the prodigious magnitude of the ground plan,
the grandiose dimensions of the principal palaces, and temples, or the artistic
beauty and delicacy of the bas-reliefs and sculpture.' The Architecture of
Angkor Wat.(Dawn Rooney | Publication date 12 March 1993 | 07:00 ICT)

Let me interject with a story about an English teacher who visits Cambodian school
and asks the children in a Class as to whom they admire? –they answer “Cambodian
Kings or Queens.”
The teacher points out that those who build the temples were indeed people like the
children –common people. It is they who deserve the admiration!
Former ASI engineer DS Sood (left) was a part of the Indian team at Angkor Vat between 1986
and 1993.
The piece de resistance at the temple complex has to be the twin bas reliefs
of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, hundreds of meters long and adorned
by thousands of delicately carved devas, asuras and apsaras that are so varied
in their poses, expressions and attire. Thus, while Angkor Wat’s architecture is
distinctly Khmer, its inspiration is essentially Indian.
However, few know that the awe-inspiring Angkor Wat shares a unique link
with India apart from the ancient legends on its walls: the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI) has played a pivotal role in restoring and conserving the
temple! The year was 1986. For the past decade, Angkor Wat had remained shrouded
in mystery and gun smoke as the Cambodian civil war had dragged. Apart from the
battle scars left by Khmer Rouge guerrillas, long years of neglect and nature’s vagaries
had began to show on the ancient edifice.
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In fact, the jungle surrounding Angkor Wat had started swallowing the entire
superstructure, with the exquisite carvings developing cracks and the ornate
columns beginning to sink.
It was this imminent danger to the famed temple that pushed Cambodia’s new
government (established with Vietnamese support after the expulsion of the
Khmer Rouge in 1979) to finally act to save it.
But Cold War politics had led to Cambodia’s new government being rejected by
most of the international community, leaving it without friends or funds to help
restore its fabled monument to its original majesty.
Enter India. One of the few countries to have diplomatic relations with
Cambodia at the time, India accepted the south-east Asian nation’s request to
restore Angkor Wat and signed a six-year agreement regarding the same.
Following this, it assigned funds and a team of ASI archaeologists for the
historic project. Dr. B Narasimhaiah, who has written a book documenting
India’s contribution (Angkor Vat: India’s Contribution in Conservation, published
by the ASI, 1994), headed the team for much of the time.
When the ASI team arrived in Cambodia, they knew they faced a challenging
task. The temple complex lay in ruins, with signs of decay everywhere.
Encroaching tentacles of wilderness had torn asunder the courtyards, moss
had turned the walls sooty black and a thick green blanket of water hyacinth
carpeted the moat. Jungle-clad balustrades too were on the brink of crumbling,
bas-relief galleries had giant cracks and the carvings of the celestial beings had
developed ugly pockmarks. Moreover, thousands of bats had colonised the
temple, their pungent excreta mixing with rainwater to corrode the sandstone
and eat into the superstructure.
Tumultous years of civil war too had taken its toll. Some of Angkor Wat’s best
carvings were burnt by napalm-caused fires, riddled with bullets or blown off
by bombs. In fact, nearly 50 statues of the Buddha (the complex had been a
Buddhist monastery during the 15th century) had been beheaded by the
ruthless regime of Khmer Rouge.The forest around Ankor Wat was still heavily
mined. Sourcing and organising the necessary supplies was also a tough task.
As such, day-to-day survival was as much of a challenge for the ASI team as
the restoration job itself.
Nonetheless, the Indian archeologists persevered with the help of Cambodian

workers and in the presence of an armed escort. Employing conservation
techniques and material available at the time, they begun the mammoth task
that had been started by French conservators (who had fled in 1972 leaving
their work unfinished).Spending Rs 3 crore over a period of seven years, the
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ASI team completed the task in 1993. For the war-weary Cambodians, this
restoration deeply endeared India to them.
As Cheng Phon, Cambodia’s then-minister of culture had dramatically said in

1988:
“By restoring Angkor Wat, the Indian team is in fact healing our souls.”
However, soon afterwards some European conservators (especially the
strangely possessive French) began accusing the ASI of using inappropriate
methods in the restoration, turning what should have been a moment of
triumph into a frustrating battle to defend its work at international cultural
fora.
The good news is that most Cambodians remain unswayed by the French
arguments, retaining positive memories of ASI’s presence in their country
during those difficult days. When asked about their view, some even point to
how one side of the Angkor Wat’s stepped embankment (repaired by the ASI)
was still intact, whereas the other (repaired by the French) had collapsed!
In the Angor Wat the temple complex is surrounded by a 190m-wide moat

forming a 1.5km by 1.3km rectangle. A sandstone causeway crosses the moat
on its western side. The stylistic elements of the complex are characteristic of
Khmer architecture and include the ogival, lotus bud-shaped towers, half-
galleries, axial galleries, connecting enclosures and cruciform terraces.
The main pyramid takes the form of three stepped terraces with
covered galleries bordering all sides of each step. The corners of the second and
third steps are punctuated by towers, the highest of which rises to 55m.
At the time of its construction, Khmer architects were proficient in the use
of sandstone as a building material, and the complex was constructed using 5-
10 million sandstone blocks, each weighing up to 1.5 tons. These blocks were
quarried from the mountain of Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and were
floated on rafts down the Siem Reap River. Inscriptions record that
the construction involved 300,000 workers and 6,000 elephants.1.
The sandstone blocks form the most visible elements of the structure, while a

type of clay local to the area, laterite, was used for the outer wall and
concealed structural elements. The precise binding agent for the blocks is
unknown, although it is believed to be natural resin or slaked lime.
Internally, the smooth stones were laid with very tight joints without mortar,
held together instead by mortise and tenon joints, or by dovetails and gravity.
It is believed the blocks were assembled using a combination of elephants, coir
ropes and pulleys, and bamboo scaffolding.
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Angkor Wat is famous for its vast array of symbolic detailing. Nearly 2,000
sq.m of bas reliefs are intricately carved into the sandstone,as well as
extensively carved lintels, friezes and pediments, and nearly 2,000 depictions
of apsaras (celestial dancers). After King Suryavarman II’s death, the temple
was converted to Buddhist use by King Jayavarman VII. Western interest in the
temple only really began with the writings of the French naturalist Henri
Mouhot in the 1860s.Conservation work was started by the French in the
early-20th century and continued over the decades in an attempt
to preserve the structure from damage caused by plant growth,
fungi, ground movement, war and looting. Conservation efforts were halted for
around 20 years during the Cambodian civil war and the rise to power of the
Khmer Rouge.
In 1992, Angkor Wat became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and teams from

around the world have returned to stabilise and preserve it. In particular, they
have worked to tackle microbial biofilms which degrade sandstone.
Extensive conservation works have replaced and restored some of the
sculptures which were lost or damaged.----------------------------------
1.https://www.thebetterindia.com/146776/asi-angkor-wat-india-connection-cambodia-
history/ ( From Of Legends & Legacy: The Unique Link Between India & Cambodia’s
Angkor Wat! Sanchari Pal, June 22, 20180)
Eight buried towers and the remains of a massive spiral structure created from
sand have been discovered at Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
The massive structure — almost a mile long — contains a spiral design, with
several rectangular spirals that form a giant structure, archaeologists say.
"This structure, which has dimensions of more than 1,500 m × 600 m (about 1
mile by 1,970 feet) is the most striking discovery associated with Angkor Wat to
date. Its function remains unknown and, as yet, it has no known equivalent in
the Angkorian world," Roland Fletcher, a University of Sydney professor, said
in a statement put out by the university.
Today, the spiral structure is hard to make out on the ground, having been
obscured by modern features and vegetation.
By examining the mile-long spiral structure and the stone towers, researchers
date them back to when Angkor Wat was first built in the 12th century A.D.
King Suryavarman II had Angkor Wat built as a Hindu temple to the god
Vishnu. The temple has a 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower that is
surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure walls. The layout
"is considered to correspond with the cosmology of Mount Meru and the
surrounding Sea of Milk from which ambrosia was churned by the gods and
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demons," wrote a research team in an article published this month in the
journal Antiquity.
Antiquity recently published a special section dedicated to the latest
archaeological research at Angkor Wat.
Spiral mystery
The spiral structure is difficult to make out from the ground, and
archaeologists found it using LiDAR — a laser-scanning technology that allows
scientists to detect structures obscured by vegetation or modern development.
When surveyed on the ground the structure turned out to be made of
"archaeologically sterile banks of sand," meaning it contained no artifacts from
the past, wrote archaeologists Damian Evans, a researcher with École française
d'Extrême-Orient, and Roland Fletcher in an Antiquity article.
"Quite how the spirals functioned is not at all clear," Evans and Fletcher wrote.
One possibility is that it is a garden that provided the temple with produce for
rituals and eating, the spiral patterns possibly having a spiritual significance.
Evans and Fletcher found that the spiral structure was not in use for long. A
canal that cut through the spiral design was built later in the 12th century.
"The spiral features would only have been functional for a brief period during
the mid-to-late twelfth century A.D.," Evans and Fletcher wrote. They say that
it's possible the spiral structure was never completed.
Buried towers
The remains of eight towers (marked in yellow) were discovered near the
western gateway of Angkor Wat. (Image credit: Image by Till Sonnemann and
image base courtesy of ETH Zurich)
Another discovery, made using ground-penetrating radar and archaeological

excavation, are the remains of what appear to be eight demolished towers
constructed out of sandstone and laterite (a type of rock). They were found on
the western side of Angkor Wat beside a gateway across the moat.
The dating is not entirely clear but it appears that many of the towers were
created during the early-to-mid 12th century when Angkor Wat was being
constructed.
Archaeologists found that some of the towers form a series of squares that may
have supported one or more structures. They also found that many of the
towers were constructed before the gateway wall.
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They theorize that the towers could have supported a shrine that was in use
while construction of Angkor Wat was underway.
"The configuration of the buried 'towers' contains the unique possibility that a
shrine was built on the western side of the Angkor Wat platform during the
period when the main temple was being constructed," a research team wrote in
an article published in Antiquity.
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Once the main temple was constructed and work on the gateway across the
western moat began, the shrine could have been torn down, researchers say.
More discoveries
Archaeologists uncovered several other secrets of Angkor Wat. For instance, the
LiDAR survey revealed the remains of homes and ponds that would have been
used by workers who serviced the temple.
Additionally, researchers found that later in Angkor Wat's history — after it
had been converted to a Buddhist temple — the site was turned into a military
fortification with wooden structures being built to defend the moated site.
"Angkor Wat is the first and only known example of an Angkorian temple being
systematically modified for use in a defensive capacity," Fletcher said. The
fortification of it was "one of the last major constructions at Angkor and is
perhaps indicative of its end."
Based on these, the research has pursued the identification of the heterotopic
character of the heritage space, along Foucault’s coordinates and through the
restoration intervention—which ultimately reflects the perception and
conceptualisation of heritage. The analysis of the various interpretations of
alterity and of the concept of heterotopia unfolded in this chapter, focus on the
identification of a space-oriented and heritage-oriented reading. The evolution
of the attitudes towards heritage as well as its perceptions—given its transition
towards a more objective “gaze”, the accumulation of meanings, the creation of
and the relationship with the heritage ideal, the impact of the official status
previously analysed—can explain the way in which the heritage object and the
heritage space acquire heterotopic coordinates
And what is the heritage of Angkor?

Angkor Wat is famous for its vast array of symbolic detailing. The 12th century
temple complex is built from five to ten million sandstone blocks weighing up
to 1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base of nearby Mount Kulen.
The main materials used to construct Angkor Wat were sandstone and
laterite (a clayey soil and rock material rich in iron and aluminum). Sandstone
was used as the main material for visible parts of the temple. Laterite was
mainly used for the hidden structures. The massive sandstone bricks used to
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construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a
network of hundreds of canals, according to new research.
The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some
weighing up to 3,300 pounds, made it to the temple from quarries at the base
of a nearby mountain. Archaeologist knew that the rock came from quarries at
the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the sandstone bricks used
to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people thought the stones
were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed against the current
through another river to the temples. Angkor was built by human labor
power. Hundreds of thousands of slaves put their sweat, their blood and their
whole lives into its construction. Their experiences and abilities led them to
solve the technical and engineering problems, as well as to create the great art
works.
In the times of the Khmer the King was the Lord over lives of his subjects who
toiled and died to build his egoistic temple creations/ The beautiful temples hid
the grotesque truth. In his Nortre Dame, the King was no quasmido just ugly
and evil die to his deeds. History repeats itself they say.
The King of modern Cambodia Norodom Sihanouk was the titular head of the
Khmer Rouge in the nineteen-seventies, when it held power under the
command of Pol Pot, and presided over the extermination of nearly two million
Cambodians. When he did decide to retire in the nineteen-nineties, he moved
to Pyongyang—where Kim Il Sung’s insane misrule was killing millions of his
own people by. That’s where Sihanouk felt at home. And in spite of all this the
Cambodian people always remained respectful, even worshipful of him. Rather
than seeing him as the personification of their wretched twentieth-century
history, they imagined in him a national glory that he never represented except
in fantasy.
135
Prince Norodom Sihanouk (C), President of Royal Government of National Union of
Cambodia (GRUNC) poses 21 April 1973 with Hou Youn (L) and Son Sen (R) top Khmer
Rouge leaders, in the Angkor forest maquis. Sihanouk, deposed in March 1970 by
Lt.Gen. Lon Nol, formed an alliance with North Vietnam and with an underground
Marxist insurgency group, the Khmers Rouges, led by Pol Pot, Khieu Samphan and Ieng
Sary. CHINA OUT (Photo credit should read STR/AFP via Getty Images)PICTURE TO THE
RIGHT- With the Pol Pot Cadre right in front of Angkor
Angkor was built by human labor power. Hundreds of

thousands of slaves put their sweat, their blood and their whole
lives into its construction. Their experiences and abilities led
them to solve the technical and engineering problems, as well as
to create the great art works.The ancient kings may have
thought that these monuments would bring eternal glory to
themselves and to the gods they believed in. But really, Angkor
brings glory to the traditions of the Kampuchean people. If we
could accomplish such great feats even in the dark days of
slavery, then we know that we will be able to accomplish things
ten times greater now that we have been liberated.
Angkor Wat is a well-chosen symbol. It represents the spirit of

“daring to scale the heights” that fills the Kampuchean people
today as they build a new society free from the oppression of the
old one.
Indian Ambassador Ms. Manika Jain speaks during India’s

74th Republic Day celebration at the embassy in Phnom Penh.
BIBLIOGRAHY
1.https://www.iias.asia/the-review/angkor-wat-transcultural-history-
heritage
2. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3318261
136
Angkor Wat Baphuon Terra by Bruno Levy- hetrotopic art
137
World of Angkor by Indian Artist Amit Nitore
138
139
CHAPTER VI
The new finding for SUVARNABHUMI TERRA INCOGNITA
Seldom has the world seen such a protracted and pervasive cultural diffusion.
It stands a monument to the vitality and magnetism of Indian civilization.
20. Thailand - Suvarnabhumi. Suvarnabhumi, which means “The

Land of Gold”, is an ancient term for Southeast Asia, found in early
Buddhist and Hindu literature. There were also legends, religious
accounts, and foreign traders' written accounts dating to the first
millennium AD that mentioned the name “Suvarnabhumi.
21. suvarna bhoomi in Tamil literature referred to Suwannaphum
District.
22. The term Suvarnabhumi ('land of gold') is commonly
thought to refer to the Southeast Asian Peninsula, including
lower Burma and the Malay Peninsula.
23. Suvarnabhumi, which means “The Land of Gold”, is an
ancient term for Southeast Asia, found in early Buddhist and
Hindu literature. There were also legends, religious accounts,
and foreign traders' written accounts dating to the first
millennium AD that mentioned the name “Suvarnabhumi”.
Shree Jain Shwetamber Murtipujak Temple, Yangon
The Jain Agamas refer to Southeast Asia as Suvarnabhumi.

Kalakacharya, a Jain monk, is said to have visited Burma. About 5000
Jain families lived in Burma before World War II. Almost all of the
families have now left. There are three or four Jain families and a Jain
temple in Yangon. It was built with romanesque architecture and is
140
located on 29th Street in Latha Township in Old Rangoon. The Yangon
Heritage Trust has been lobbying to preserve this temple, along with
other prominent landmarks of Old Rangoon.
24. Fraud of Suvanabhoomi in Madhya Ptradesh, India. Where
government-owned land, was sold as suvarnabhoomi on a
“Swarna Bhoomi” deed. He has only now realised that it was a
bogus deed, which has no legal ownership or market value. ...
And at whatever the price, selling a land which belongs to the
government is illegal.1000 ds were duped.
25. Only Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि) is the name of an island, as
mentioned in the Kathāsaritsāgara, chapter 52. Accordingly, “... then
the merchant Hiraṇyagupta got together wares and went off to an island
named Suvarṇabhūmi to trade, and he took that Anaṅgaprabhā with
him, out of fear of being separated from her, and journeying on his way
he at last reached the city of Sāgarapura. There he fell in with a chief of
fishermen, a native of that place, Sāgaravīra by name, whom he found
in that city near the sea”.
26. The Kathāsaritsāgara (‘ocean of streams of story’), mentioning
Suvarṇabhūmi, is a famous Sanskrit epic story revolving around prince
Naravāhanadatta and his quest to become the emperor of
the vidyādharas (celestial beings). The work is said to have been an
adaptation of Guṇāḍhya’s Bṛhatkathā consisting of 100,000 verses,
which in turn is part of a larger work containing 700,000 verses.
27. Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि) or “golden island” is where the blind sailor
Dāsa was buried, according to the 2nd
century Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra (chapter XX). Accordingly, “They
came to the craggy shore and according to Dāsa’s advice, the
bodhisattva tried to grab a branch and succeeded in saving himself. He
took Dāsa’s body and buried it in the Golden Island (Suvarṇabhūmi).
Then he went on alone according to the instructions previously given”.
141
28. Mahayana (महायान, mahāyāna) is a major branch of Buddhism focusing on the

path of a Bodhisattva (spiritual aspirants/ enlightened beings). Extant literature is vast
and primarely composed in the Sanskrit language. There are many sūtras of which some
of the earliest are the various Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.
29. Sanskrit dictionary- Suvarnabhumi in Sanskrit glossary

Source: Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries: Monier-Williams Sanskrit-
English Dictionary.Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि):—[=su-varṇa-bhūmi] [from su-
varṇa] f. = -dvīpa, [Kathāsaritsāgara; Jātakamālā]
30. Relevant Definitions; Partial matches: Bhumi, Suvarna.

31. Full-text: Atisha, Shona, Nagadatta, Sagarapura, Tamralipti, Sagaravira, Gavampa
ti.
Search found 5 books and stories containing Suvarnabhumi, Suvarna-bhumi, Suvarṇa-
bhūmi, Suvarṇabhūmi; (plurals include: Suvarnabhumis, bhumis, bhūmis, Suvarṇabhūmis).
You can also click to the full overview containing English textual excerpts. Below are direct
links for the most relevant articles:
Maha Prajnaparamita Sastra (by Gelongma Karma Migme Chödrön)
Appendix 2 - The location of Suvarṇabhūmi or Suvarṇadvīpa < [Chapter XVI
- The Story of Śāriputra]
Part 2 - Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana at Sañjaya < [Chapter XVI - The
Story of Śāriputra]
Appendix 1 - Teaching the Rādhasutta at mount Makula < [Chapter X - The
Qualities of the Bodhisattvas]
+ 1 more chapters / show preview
142
Buddhist records of the Western world (Xuanzang) (by Samuel Beal)
Chapter 28 - Country of Po-ho or Fo-ho-lo (Balkh) < [Book I - Thirty-Four
Countries]
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Settlement in Early Historic Ganga Plain (by Chirantani Das)
Part 7 - Nalanda’s Rise of a Multi-functional Nodal Centre < [Chapter III -
Nālandā: Evidence for rise and progress of the settlement]
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Kathasaritsagara (the Ocean of Story) (by Somadeva)
Chapter LXXXVI < [Book XII - Śaśāṅkavatī]
Foreword to volume 9 < [Forewords]
Chapter LII < [Book IX - Alaṅkāravatī]
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A Dictionary Of Chinese Buddhist Terms (by William Edward Soothill)
Part 8 - Eight Strokes
show preview
32. The seas across the India – ASEAN region presented a unique environment to the
sailor in antiquity. The monsoon winds not only determined the basic rhythm for
seafaring activity in much of tropical and equatorial Asia, but also influenced
agricultural activity in the region. One way of understanding this complex web of
interactions of the past is through a deeper engagement with the markers of maritime
regions and the communities that inhabited these spaces.Boats and ships were sculpted
on Buddhist monastic sites and Hindu temples
33. Owing to the wealth gained from the spice trade, during the
Portuguese domination, Goa came into its golden age. It became the
largest city in the East, boasting of no less than 300 churches within
town, and having a population of over 40,000 people.
34. Before the term Southeast Asia became common usage, the region
was often described as Further or Greater India, and it was common to
describe the Indonesian region or Malay Archipelago as the East Indies.
The reason may be found in the fact that, prior to Western dominance,
Southeast Asia was closely allied to India culturally and commercially.
The history of Indian expansion covers a period of more than fifteen
hundred years.
35. The emergence of the cult of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara as a saviour of

mariners and travellers in distress is generally associated with the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka
Sūtra (chapter 24), though an enumeration of dangers of travel is to be found in earlier
143
texts as well such as the Anguttara Nikāya (Kessivagga 119-20;The worship of
bodhisattvas (beings of enlightenment) is one of the most distinctive
features of Mahāyāna Buddhism. ... Of the many bodhisattvas,
Avalokiteśvara is identified specifically as the embodiment of
compassion and as such has been worshipped throughout Buddhist
Asia.
36. Goa Dourado, (Golden Goa, Roma do Oriente, (Rome of the East)
so has Goa been described over the last 500 years by conquerors,
travelers, poets and evangelists. The Gods of the Hindu Pantheon and
the Ancient Sages had known Goa for three millennia before the dawn of
the Christian era as the heart of Aparanta, a mythical province.
Aparanta was what the name says in Sanskrit, a place 'beyond the end'
exotic and beautiful, where time stands still.
Although Goa is prevailing as a legacy of the Portuguese colonial era, in

fact, its history dates back to as early as in the antiquity, during which
facts were mingled with mythology. However, the evident history of Goa
is that it was part of the Mauryan Empire (the 3rd century. For the next
700 years, Goa was ruled by the succession of Hindu dynasties such as
the Shillaharas, the Kadambas, and the Chalukyans. Until 1312, Goa
was controlled by the Muslims, and it began to rise as an important
landing place for ships carrying horses to Hampi.
By the late 15th century, upon the discovery of a new route to India by
the band of Portuguese adventurers, including Vasco de Gama, Goa
became the ideal base for the seafaring Portuguese who determined to
overcome the manipulation of the spice route from the East. In the
meantime, the Portuguese also took the occasion to spread Christianity,
accordingly resulting in the expansion, and consolidation of Portuguese
cultures, languages, and other legacies of values of the Christian world
into Goa. Owing to the wealth gained from the spice trade, during the
Portuguese domination, Goa came into its golden age. It became the
largest city in the East, boasting of no less than 300 churches within
town, and having a population of over 40,000 people. To,day the Goan
people still retain a distinctive Southern European flavor, yet, combine
their native culture, making Goa one of the multi-cultural showcases in
India.
37. Since World War II has the term Southeast Asia been used to
describe the area to the east of India and to the south of China, which
includes the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, the Malay Archipelago and the
144
Philippines, roughly forming a circle from Burma through Indonesia to
Vietnam.This region was broadly referred to by ancient Indians as
Suvarnabhumi (the Land of Gold) or Suvarnadvipa (the Island of Gold),
although scholars dispute its exact definition. Sometimes the term is
interpreted to mean only Indonesia or Sumatra. Arab writers such as Al
Biruni testify that Indians called the whole Southeast region Suwarndib
(Suvarnadvipa). Hellenistic geographers knew the area as the Golden
Ghersonese. The Chinese called it Kin-Lin; Kin means gold. During the
last two thousand years, this region has come under the influence of
practically all the major civilizations of the world: Indian, Chinese,
Islamic, and Western. Of these, Indian culture appears to have blended
best with the indigenous culture.
19.The name Java comes from the Sanskrit Jawadwip, which means a

(dvip) island (yawa) shaped like a barley corn. The Vedic Indians must
have charted Java, Yawadvip, thousands of years ago because Yawadvip
is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. The Ramayana
reveals some knowledge of the eastern regions beyond seas; for instance
Sugriva dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the island of Java, in search
of Sita. It speaks of Burma as the land of silver mines. The Agni Purana,
along with many other Puranas, calls India proper as Jambudvipa as
distinguished from Dvipantara or India of the islands or overseas
India. Towards the end of the fifth century, Aryabhatta, the Indian
astronomer, wrote that when the sun rose in Ceylon it was midday in
Yavakoti (Java) and midnight in the Roman land. In the Surya
Siddhanta reference is also made to the Nagari Yavakoti with golden
walls and gates.
Ishanapura-Sambor Prei Kuk

Dr Uday Dokras
Ishvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर,Īśvara) is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of

meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. Ishana is the
short form of Ishvara. Therefore In ancient texts of Hindu philosophy,
145
depending on the context, Ishvara can mean supreme Self, ruler, lord, king,
queen or husband. In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of
Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal God, or special Self.
The hugely popular name is of Sanskrit origin and means 'possessing, rudras,
lord, master, light, wealthy, reigning'. ... The name is given to the Lord
Ganesha and Lord Vishnu. Ishan also refers to the eternal form of Lord Shiva.
Ishana (Sanskrit: ईशान, IAST: Īśāna), is a deity in Indian mythology. He is often
considered to be one of the forms of the Hindu god Shiva and is also often
counted among the eleven Rudras. In Hinduism, some schools of Buddhism
and Jainism he is the dikpala of the northeast direction. It is a Hindu name of
Sanskrit origin and one of the names given to the deity Shiva (the Supreme
Being within one of the major branches of Hinduism). Īśāna finds its roots in
“Isha” which is the Sanskrit word for “lord, master” as in all powerful and all
knowing. Ishaan is Sikh/Punjabi name and meaning of this name is "The Sun,
One who Bestows Wealth".
Meaning of Ishan.
Name : Ishan
Rashi : Mesha
Nakshatra : Krithika
Numerology : 6
Religion : Hindu
What is the meaning of the name Ishan? The name Ishan is primarily a male
name of Indian origin that means Son; Lord Of Wealth. East Indian/Sanskrit
-From the Hindi element "ish," an invisible power that rules the universe. The
name of a part of Shiva.
Ishvara is primarily an epithet of Lord Shiva. In Shaivism and for most of the
Hindus, Ishvara is synonymous with Shiva. For many Vaishnavites, it is also
synonymous with Vishnu. In traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or
more deities of an individual's preference (Iṣṭa-devatā) from Hinduism's
polytheistic canon of deities. In modern-day sectarian movements such as Arya
Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God. In
the Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual
inspiration".
Varman or its variants, Varma, Verma, Varman, Burman or Barman, are
surnames that are used in India & South-East Asia.
146
According to Avvai Su Duraisamy, it is derived from
the Tamil word Varamban as in the royal titles "Vaana Varamban" (One whose
kingdom bounds the sky) and Imaya Varamban (an epithet of
the Chera king Nedum Cheralathan). According to Radhakanta Deb, the
surname is derived from the Sanskrit word for "Shield, Defensive armour".
Ishanavarman would mean- THE SHIELD OF SHIV and ISHANAPURA would
mean the City of Shiva.
An inscription dating from the reign of Isanarvarman I claimed that he
was, “the King of Kings, who rules over Suvarnabhumi”. Dr Vong
Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, claimed that the
inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.”
The Hindu Temples Lost in the Forest now discovered in the interiors of the
middle Mekong Valley -a part of the city of Ishanapura, identified with the
ruins of Sambor Prei Kuk in central Cambodia, and listed as UNESCO World
Heritage site on Saturday, the 8th July 2017 by the 41st world heritage
committee, held at Krakow (Poland).
Sambor Prei Kuk , Prasat Sâmbor Prei Kŭ is an archaeological site

in Cambodia located in Kampong Thom Province, 30 km (19 mi) north
of Kampong Thom, the provincial capital, 176 km (109 mi) east of Angkor and
206 km (128 mi) north of Phnom Penh. The now ruined complex dates back to
the Pre-Angkorian Chenla Kingdom (late 6th to 9th century), established by
king Isanavarman I as central royal sanctuary and capital, known then as
Isanapura. In 2017, Sambor Prei Kuk was declared a UNESCO World Heritage
Site. The archaeological site of Sambor Prei Kuk, “the temple in the richness of
the forest” in the Khmer language, has been identified as Ishanapura, the
capital of the Chenla Empire that flourished in the late 6th and early 7th
centuries AD. The property comprises more than a hundred temples, ten of
which are octagonal, unique specimens of their genre in South-East Asia.
Decorated sandstone elements in the site are characteristic of the pre-Angkor
decorative idiom, known as the Sambor Prei Kuk Style. Some of these
elements, including lintels, pediments and colonnades, are true masterpieces.
The art and architecture developed here became models for other parts of the
region and lay the ground for the unique Khmer style of the Angkor period.
The official religion at Sambor Prei Kuk city was Shaivism, one of the four
most widely followed sects of Hinduism, which reveres the god Shiva as the
Supreme Being and the Lingam (in Sanskrit लिङ्गं , liṅgaṃ, meaning "mark",
"sign", or "inference") or Shiva linga representing Shiva to be worshiped
in temples as an erect penis. In Cambodia as it is in India, the lingam is a
symbol of the energy and potential of god Shiva himself and this phallic
147
symbol is often represented with the Yoni (Sanskrit: योनि yoni, literally "vagina"
or "womb"), symbol of goddess Shakti, female creative energy.
Shaivism was the religion of Chenla (ca. 550 - ca. 800 AD), including elements
of Hinduism, Buddhism and indigenous ancestor cults. In the Sambor Prei
Kuk temples, it is possible to contemplate stone inscriptions in
both Sanskrit and Khmer, naming both Hindu and local ancestral deities with
Shiva and several altars with the lingam.
Water fort: The unique aquatic landscape of the site has Ishanapura
functioning as a water-fort.The divine triad is formed by the
4. God Ishana (Shiva), his protégé

5. King Ishanavarman and his
6. city Ishanapura,
After explaining the Over hundred fascinating temples, still standing above the
ground in various stages of preservation, on the either side of the O Kru Kae
River, the unique Octagonal temples, the flying places carved on the walls of
the temples, the architectural motifs such as the beautiful human figures in
the ornamental windows (Kudu), the mythical crocodile (makara) the divinized
time (Kala) and the beautiful Hamsa birds contribute to the uniqueness of the
brick architecture of Ishanapura. Other interesting themes are-the cult of
multiple Ishvara (Lord Shiva), the crafting of smile and seriousness on the
148
faces of the Gods and the humans, using the cult of Hari-hara and Hari-Hara-
linga as reconciliatory devices and the patronage to the Pashupata Shaiva sect.
Durgasvami, an Indian Saka Brahmin, born in Dakshinapatha (Southern
India) and settled in Ishanapura, resurrects through the pages of this
monograph. The Brahmin married the daughter of King Ishanavarman, and as
the royal son-in-law, he contributed to the development of Ishanapura,
bringing Indo Saka-Scythian elements to the Khmer capital. Hindu Temples
Lost in the Forest is a rare and profound book which describes the contours of
Ishanapura as a knowledge seeking city, and as an influential diplomatic hub
of Asia, interacting with China through diplomatic mission, with Indian
through deep cultural discourse, and with Champa (Central Vietnam) through
strategic matrimonial alliance. As the monograph convincingly shows, the rise
of Ishanapura marked the passage of mainland Southeast Asia form the state
of chiefdom to the status of statehood. This holistic study, presenting the
temples of Ishanapura in an art-historical, socio-cultural perspective, is an
indispensible companion to every one interested in unraveling the mystery
behind the forests of Sambor Prei Kuk. Without listening to these temples,
which carry their message in the shape of Sanskrit and or Khmer language
inscriptions, the knowledge of both Khmer and Indian civilizations will remain
incomplete and the dynamics of Asian civilization will continue to be nebulous.
Located on the Eastern bank of the Tonle Sap lake, close to the Steung Saen

River, the central part of Sambor Prei Kuk is divided into three main groups.
Each group has a square layout surrounded by a brick wall. The structures of
the overall archaeological area were constructed at variable times: the southern
and north groups (7th century) by Isanavarman I, who is considered a possible
founder of the city and the central group (later date). The buildings of Sambor
Prei Kuk are characteristic of the Pre-Angkorean period with a simple external
plan. The principal material is brick, but sandstone is also used for certain
structures. Architectural features include numerous prasats, octagonal towers,
shiva lingams and yonis, ponds and reservoirs, and lion sculptures. Sambor
Prei Kuk is located amidst mature sub-tropical forests with limited
undergrowth. The area has been mined and could still contain unexploded
ordnance.
149
A temple in Sambor Prei Kuk
The whole compound is made of three clusters classified as group C

for Central, N for North and S for South (Michon & Kalay, 2012. They are
enclosed in a double-walled encircling 1,000 acre in which there were 150
Hindu temples today mostly in ruins.
4. Group N: Prasat Sambor is considered the main temple and it dates

from the 7th century. It was dedicated to one of
the reincarnations of Shiva known
as Gambhireshvara (from Sanskrit गम्भीर - gambhir, profound, deep,
solemn - and शिव, shvara, Shiva, Śiva, The Auspicious One).
5. Group S: Prasat Yeah Puon (ប្រាសាទយាយព័ន)្ធ includes 22 sanctuaries
dated from the 7th century (600 - 635 AD) during the reign of
Isanavarman I in dedication to Shiva.[7]
6. Group C: It is occupied by the Central Sanctuary or Prasat
Boram (ប្រាសាទបុរាម) with lion sculptures that had inspired the popular
name of Prasat Tao (The Lions' Temple). It is, however, the newest group
dating the 9th century. The other main feature is the Tower of Ashram
150
Issey, but there were also other constructions (18 temples) now in ruined
(Palmer, 2011).
7th century
Isanavarman I reigned over the Chenla Kingdom between 616 and 637 AD,
taking Isanabura as his capita and it is argued that he built the main temple
Prasat Sambor (Group N), as there is an inscription on the site attributed to his
reign and dated 13 September 627 AD. The king is also known for sending his
first embassy to the court of the Sui Dynasty in China (616-617).
Chenla conquered different principalities in the Northwest of Cambodia after
the end of the Chinese reign period yǒnghuī (i. e. after 31 January 656), which
previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China. An inscription dating from the
reign of Isanarvarman I claimed that he was, “the King of Kings, who rules over
Suvarnabhumi”. Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh,
claimed that the inscription would “prove that Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer
Empire.”
The last important king in Isanapura was Jayavarman I, whose death caused
turmoil to the kingdom at the start of the 8th century, breaking it in many
principalities and opening the way to a new time: Angkor. This site is also
claimed as an early capital of Jayavarman II (O'Reilly & Jacques, 1990).
151
20th century
After the Lon Nol's coup d'état to Prince Norodom Sihanouk in 1970, US
President Richard Nixon ordered a secret bombing of Cambodia to fight
the Khmer Rouge guerrillas and any influence of North Vietnam in the country.
The US aircraft bombed positions inside the archaeological site, causing craters
near the temples, while the guerrillas left several mines on the land that were
cleared only in 2008.
152
153
154

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Dr UDAY DOKRAS Author

WILL THE REAL SUVARNABHUMI PLEASE STAND UP ?

The El Dorado of South East Asia

Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm

CHAPTER I- WILL THE REAL SUVARNABHUMI PLEASE

CHAPTER 5-Angkor & Nortre Dame Cathedral- Hetrotopic

CHAPTER VI-The new finding for SUVARNABHUMI TERRA

BOOKS ON CAMBODIA & South East ASIA by Dr UDAY DOKRAS

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur

Hindu tempels of Bharat Cambodia and

The Great Marco Polos of Ancient Trade- The

Srijijay the Kingdom of the Winds- booK

Devraja and Raj

GRAPHIC Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT

DEVRAJA BOOK III

There are numerous ancient historic Asian

coined by George Coedès, describes Southeast

Territorial extent of the Kingdom of Funan (1st to 7th century) covering much of

The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged

the devaraja was more appealing than the Chinese

Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java

Funan (1st–7th century) was the first kingdom in

"Funan" for Cambodia, may be a transcription of the

In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal

border, while the kings in the neighbouring states

In Thailand, government proclamations and national

Suvarnabhumi"), indicating that Dvaravati at that

The strongest and earliest clue referring to the Malay

the gold production areas traditionally known in

860 and 873 CE refer to Java as rich in gold,

The Padang Roco Inscription of 1286 CE, states

were told by that king himself...He had a covering of

1. Thailand - Suvarnabhumi. Suvarnabhumi,

Shree Jain Shwetamber Murtipujak Temple, Yangon

The Jain Agamas refer to Southeast Asia

in Latha Township in Old Rangoon. The Yangon

6. Only Suvarṇabhūmi (सु वर्णभूमि) is the name of an

according to the 2nd

9. Mahayana (महायान, mahāyāna) is a major branch

10. Sanskrit dictionary- Suvarnabhumi

Appendix 1 - Teaching the Rādhasutta at

antiquity. The monsoon winds not only

travellers in distress is generally associated with

Although Goa is prevailing as a legacy of the

by the succession of Hindu dynasties such as

By the late 15th century, upon the discovery of

18. Since World War II has the term Southeast

of India and to the south of China, which

Burma as the land of silver mines. The Agni

Suvarnabhumi was there!

southwestern regions of India. Hre we find the most

the Periplus attributes the work to Arrian, but

1597 map depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

The work consists of 66 sections, most of them

The Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the

Coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, in

Ships from Himyar regularly travelled the East

23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the

The Frankincense kingdom is described further east

Ras Hafun in northern Somalia is believed to be the

In ancient times, Opone operated as a port of call for

Opone, trading spices, silks and other goods, before