Name: Inayatullah Noonari

Roll No: 20-IN-001

Assignment To: Sir Arslan Ali Siddiqui

Subject: Manufacturing Process.

Topics:

01. Engineering Material

02. Welding and its Types.

What is Materials Engineering?
Materials have been among the greatest achievements of every age and they
have been central to the growth, prosperity, security, and quality of life of humans
since the beginning of history. It is always new materials that open the door to
new technologies, whether they are in civil, chemical, construction, nuclear,
aeronautical, agricultural, mechanical, and biomedical or electrical engineering.

Materials scientists and engineers continue to be at the forefront of all of these

and many other areas of science, too. Materials science and engineering
influences our lives each time we buy or use a new device, machine, or structure.
(You can read more about the impact of this exciting field in our list of suggested
readings.) The definition of the academic field of Materials Science &
Engineering stems from a realization concerning every application of materials: it
is the properties of the material that give it value. A material may be chosen for
its strength, its electrical properties, resistance to heat or corrosion, or a host of
other reasons; but they all relate to properties.

Experience shows that all of the useful properties of a material are intimately
related to its structure, at all levels, including which atoms are present, how the
atoms are joined, and how groups of atoms are arranged throughout the
material. Most importantly, we learn how this structure, and the resulting
properties, is controlled by the processing of the material.

Finally materials must perform their tasks in an economical and societally

responsible manner. Understanding the relationships between properties,
structure, processing and performance makes the Materials Engineer the master
of the engineering universe.
Metals
Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are
especially common, and they are formed by combining a metal with one or more other
metallic and/or non-metallic materials. The combination usually occurs through a
process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The goal of alloying is to improve the
properties of the base material in some desirable way.

Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages of the various
elements in the alloy, where the percentages are measured by weight.

Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys and include steels and cast
irons. Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys in use due to the abundance of
iron, ease of production, and high versatility of the material. The biggest disadvantage
of many ferrous alloys is low corrosion resistance.

Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general, higher levels of
carbon increase strength and hardness, and decrease ductility and weldability.

Carbon Steel
Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and carbon. They may contain small
amounts of other elements, but carbon is the primary alloying ingredient. The effect of
adding carbon is an increase in strength and hardness.

Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of which there are several types.
Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It is characterized by low strength
but high ductility. Some strengthening can be achieved through cold working, but it
does not respond well to heat treatment. Low-carbon steel is very weldable and is
inexpensive to produce. Common uses for low-carbon steel include wire, structural
shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal.

Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel contains between about 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat
treated to increase strength, especially with the higher carbon contents. Medium-carbon
steel is frequently used for axles, gears, shafts, and machine parts.
Carbon Steel Materials Table
Ultima Densi
Yield Elongati Elastic Poisson
Materi Conditio te ty
Streng on Modul 's
al n Streng [lb/in3
th [ksi] % us [psi] Ratio
th [ksi] ]

Hot
32 50 25
Rolled

Cold
60 70 5
Worked
AISI
Stress 29e6 0.283 0.32
1020 50 65 10
Relieved

Annealed 28 48 30

Normaliz
34 55 22
ed

Hot
45 75 15
Rolled

Cold
80 90 5
Worked
AISI
Stress 29e6 0.283 0.32
1045 70 80 8
Relieved

Annealed 35 65 20

Normaliz
48 75 15
ed

ASTM
36 58 21 29e6 0.283 0.3
A36

ASTM
Grade 70 38 70 17 29e6 0.283 0.3
A516

NOTE : See our materials database for data conforming to specific material specifications

Low-Alloy Steel
Low-alloy steels, also commonly called alloy steels, contain less than about 8% total
alloying ingredients. Low-alloy steels are typically stronger than carbon steels and have
better corrosion resistance.

Some low-alloy steels are designated as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels. What sets
HSLA steels apart from other low-alloy steels is that they are designed to achieve
specific mechanical properties rather than to meet a specific chemical composition.

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common ally
steels

Tool Steel
Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in manufacturing, for example
cutting tools, drill bits, punches, dies, and chisels. Alloying elements are typically chosen
to optimize hardness, wear resistance, and toughness.

Stainless Steel
Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium
as an alloying ingredient. Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least 11%.
Passivation occurs with chromium content at or above 12%, in which case protective
inert film of chromic oxide forms over the material and prevents oxidation. The
corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this passivation.
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Austenitic stainless steel is the most common form of stainless steel. It has the highest
general corrosion resistance among stainless steels. It is also the most wieldable of the
stainless steels due to its low carbon content. It can only be strengthened through cold
work. Austenitic stainless steels are generally more expensive than other stainless steels
due to nickel content. Austenitic stainless steels are not magnetic, although ferrite and
martens tic stainless steels are. Common applications include fasteners, pressure vessels,
and piping.

Ferrite Stainless Steel

Ferrite stainless steel has high chromium content and medium carbon content. It has
good corrosion resistance rather than high strength. It generally cannot be
strengthened through heat treatment, and can only be strengthened via cold work.

Martensitic Stainless Steel

Martensitic stainless steel has high carbon content (up to 2%) and low chromium
content. This higher carbon content is the primary difference between ferrites and
martensitic stainless steels. Due to the high carbon content, it is difficult to weld. It can
be strengthened through heat treatment. Common applications include cutlery and
surgical instruments.

Duplex Stainless Steel

Duplex stainless steel contains both austenitic and ferrites phases. It can have up to
twice the strength of austenitic stainless steel. It also has a high toughness, corrosion
resistance, and wears resistance. Duplex stainless steel is generally as wieldable as
austenitic, but it has a temperature limit.
Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steel
Precipitation-hardenable stainless steel can be strengthened through precipitation
hardening, which is an age hardening process. These materials have high strength as
well as high resistance to corrosion and temperature.

Cast Iron
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally greater than 2%.
The carbon present in the cast iron can take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast irons
have a low melting temperature which makes them well suited to casting.

Gray Cast Iron

Gray cast iron is the most common type. The carbon is in the form of graphite flakes. Gray
cast iron is a brittle material, and its compressive strength is much higher than its tensile
strength. The fracture surface of gray cast iron has a gray color, which is how it got its
name.

Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)

The addition of magnesium to gray cast iron improves the ductility of the material. The
resulting material is called nodular cast iron because the magnesium causes the graphite
flakes to form into spherical nodules. It is also called ductile cast iron. Nodular cast iron has
good strength, ductility, and mach inability. Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump
bodies, valves, and machine parts.

White Cast Iron:

White cast iron is primarily used for wear-resisting components as well
as for the White cast iron has carbon in the form of carbide, which makes
the material hard, brittle, production of malleable cast iron.

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating white cast iron. The heat treatment
improves the ductility of the material while maintaining its high strength.
Welding – Introduction
Welding is the process by which two pieces of metal can be joined
together. The process of welding doesn’t merely bond the two pieces
together as in brazing and soldering, but, through the use of extreme
heat and sometimes the addition of other metals or gases, causes the
metallic structures of the two pieces to join together and become one.
There are a number of different welding methods, including spot
welding, metal inert gas (MIG), and tungsten inert gas, which are
forms of gas metal arc welding, arc welding, and gas welding, to name
a few. Welding can even be done underwater.

Weld Joint
A weld joint must be designed to withstand the forces to which it is
expected to be subjected to during its service life. This means that the
design of the joint is determined by the type and magnitude of the load
that is expected to act on the weld. Certain types of welding joints are
designed to withstand extreme shear loads, while others are designed
to withstand extreme tensional loads. Types of joints used for welding
are butt, lap, corner, T, and edge.

Welding Processes
The type of joint to be created and the type of material to be used,
among other considerations, will determine the type of welding
process that will be used to complete the project. All welding
processes can be broken down into the two following categories:
Pressure Welding
Pressure welding is a process in which external pressure is applied to
produce welded joints either at temperatures below the melting point,
which is solid state welding, or at a temperature above the melting
point, which is fusion state welding. The atoms are moved together to
a distance that is equal to or less than the equilibrium inter atomic
separation distance. This type of welding process requires the two
pieces being joined to be extremely clean and especially free of oxides
and non metallic films which must be removed from the surfaces of
the metals by wire brush, so as to ensure the strongest welded joint
possible. Pressure welding techniques are used primarily on metals
that are highly ductile or whose ductility increases with increasing
temperatures. Types of commonly used pressure welding processes in
industrial applications are:
Cold pressure welding is used for joining sheets, wires and electric
components.

Explosive welding is used when joints of dissimilar metals are to be

welded.

Ultrasonic welding, when thin sheets are to be joined.

Percussion welding is utilized for joining dissimilar metals.

Friction welding is used when similar or dissimilar metals are to be

joined.

Induction welding is used for welding pipes

Inertial welding is for welding of high strength alloys.

Fusion Welding
Fusion welding produces welded joints by localized heating of the
edges of the base metals, above their melting temperature. A filler
metal may or may not be used, and no external pressure is required.
Inert gases may or may not be used to enhance the quality of the weld
created. The welded joint is achieved after solidification of the fused
weld pool. Metals to be joined must possess some degree of mutual
solubility in solid state. Metals that are completely soluble in the solid
state, exhibit the highest degree of weld ability, and metals with no
solubility in the solid state, are not weld able, for which an
intermediate soluble metal is used.

The Welding Techniques Most Commonly

Used
Most forms of pressure welding are highly specialized and aren’t used
outside of a few industries. However, fusion welding processes, such
as gas welding, arc welding, and gas metal arc welding are used in a
large number of industries. Gas welding is a process by which the two
pieces of metal are locally heated to beyond their melting point, at
which time they effectively become one piece of metal. This can be
done with or without an alloy rod. Metal inert gas and tungsten inert
gas welding are examples of gas metal arc welding processes. Arc
welding uses a metal welding rod that is melted to help form the
welded joint. The arc types of welding all require electricity at
relatively high voltage and current. The gas metal arc types also use an
inert or active gas to create a barrier between the weld and the
atmosphere, enhancing the quality and strength of the joint.
Safety
All welders need to respect the job and the equipment being used. The
following is a list of safety equipment and precautions

 Wear welding gloves

 Wear eye protection-For arc-type welding, a much darker lens is
required than for gas welding.
 Keep a suitable Class ABC fire extinguisher nearby while welding.
 Keep the work area clean and free of flammables and
obstructions.

References

 Welding helmet and gloves pictures provided by author. All

rights reserved.
 Image: Wikimedia Commons, Underwater Welding, Spongier
 Image: Wikimedia Commons, Miller Spot Welder-Twiddle,
Speared
 The author has over 30 years of experience using welding in a
variety of trades from auto repair and restoration to residential
and commercial construction.
 Image: Wikimedia Commons, Arc Welding, Jorge barrios
 Image: Wikimedia Commons, SMAW Welding, Spongier