SLIDE 2

Part 1:

Audio file
media1.m4a

Transcript
Discussed in the previous class.

In this course we will be studying elaborately about petroleum and Petro chemicals.

However, before we begin studying in detail about petroleum and Petro chemicals, I would like to
briefly discuss with you all about you know various sources of energy.

This is very important because petroleum and Petro chemicals, though it is very widely used for
various vehicles and lot of other applications, there are other sources of energy.

About which you all should have information.

I am sure sure you all know that various forms of energy may have become part of our day to day
life.

I have listed lot of them on these slides on the left and the right, and I have classified them into two
different categories. Renewable energy and non renewable energy.

The energy.

Or the power?

Usually that we use to operate or run everything at our homes, offices, public and private places.
Everything is obtained from different types of sources.

Which are of course.

You all know.

Utilised based on the available availability in that specific geographical location. For example, in the
Middle East you know there is lot of oil.

Lot of crude oil so lot of over most of the appliances or most of the energy that they use.

Is based on crude oil similarly developed countries?

They have developed technologies for nuclear energy, so most of the houses most of the public
places everything. It is powered by this nuclear energy.

Whereas in India now we are still or in developing countries you know we are still dependent on coal
based energy generation.

So in general, you know these sources of energy can be broken down into 2 main types, mainly this
renewable.

What you see on the?

Left side and the non renewable. I have highlighted it within a blue background and with brown
background.

I'm sure that you all would have had heard about both these types. The renewable and non
renewable types of energy.

And they are further divided into few categories.

And on the left you have, you know, five different apps in the renewable energy solar energy.

The second the wind energy.

The third hydropower.

The 4th geothermal

In the 5th we have bio mass.

Whereas on the right side.

You have the non renewable types of energy.

The first you have the coal.

A second you have the oil.

3rd, we have the natural gas.

And 4th we have the nuclear.

So in this course though, our main focus will be on the second point, the oil.

Or basically the crude oil and the petroleum or the Petro chemicals. We will also have.

I will also try to cover.

Other major things, or few other points.

Related to all the five on the left side, the solar wind, hydropower.

Geothermal and biomass, whereas I will also cover about coal oil.

Natural gas has little bit about the.

Nuclear energy also.

Think General I would like to just highlight the renewable energy source is you know any natural
resource?

That can replace itself quickly.

And dependably.

In the non renewable energy source, it is a type of source which has a finite.

And limited supply.

Of you know, whatever ingredient that is needed.

What does that indicate indicates that they may be exhausted in some time or in some years, or in
some decades, and mostly all these types they come under the category of fossil fuels.

Hence, to overcome this category, what is happening that you know lot of newer technologies are
also being developed continuously.

And harnessing them, you know, would also help to generate your newer types of renewable
energies so that we all can have a very sustainable future. And as future generation, the next
generation that is there will have a secure and a better life.

Usually you know this renewal energy whenever we talk about this topic, we should realise that this
comes from a source which.

Should never run out, so whenever you hear about any type of energy now, you should always
remember, for example sunlight which is there you know it.

It is there since in millions and millions of years and the sun is still providing the same amount of
energy.

So this is an in a classic example which has been taught to you all from very early age.

That that there is no replacement or, you know sunlight is it's source. You know which is like such.
You know competition is an excellent source of renewable energy, and most importantly, it is
environmentally very friendly.

And one important thing that you know we in India should remember that you know, as the world is
fine.

Being newer ways to transitioning or to transition the existing energy technologies to more eco
friendly or renewable sources of energy, we all also in our country must join in these efforts to
create awareness.

You know, among the youth you know, it's my job today to create awareness among you, but you all
are also.

Students of an IIT and I'm sure that you know what you say. People hear it with, you know, great
caution, great care and it is also your job to create awareness and set goals for this transformation of
the energy that we use from non renewable to the renewable type of energy.

Part 2:

Audio file
media2.m4a

Transcript
In continuation to the previous slide.

I will now explain few details about various renewable energy forms.

That are displayed on this slide.

To begin with, the first point is about the solar energy.

That is shown in the yellow background.

Solar energy, as you all know.

Is simply the light and heat.

That comes from the sun and that falls on the earth continuously.

The energy that we receive from the sun.

Is the original source.

For most of the energy available to the Earth.

The sun.

Also eats.

The earth surface and the earth heats the air above it.

Causing wind.

Which is also harnessed.

And discussed in point #2.

Of this slide.

I am sure you all also know.

The sunlight.

Provides the necessary light and energy to also the plants and trees.

And other chromophores in the food chain.

Again, these chromophores that represent this pigments in most of these plants.

So what they do is they absorb the sun's radiation.

And convert them into energy through a process.

Very well known as photosynthesis.

In addition, this photosynthesis process.

Is also responsible.

For all of the fossil fuels that are generated on the Earth, Please remember this point because when
we study fossil fuels will once again, you know, bring this point, you know to your notice.

So additionally

The scientists.

They have also harnessed the sense energy in many different forms.

Among them, the photovoltaic cells that is shown on this slide OK, like arrays on the right side of this
you know yellow band the solar energy.

And they are excellent examples.

That convert.
The OR they're used in solar energy conversion devices.

And they can also be installed.

On rooftops as you would have seen here on the campus in several academic complex buildings.

As well as on few hostels.

In addition.

These panels.

Can also be installed in very large solar fields like you know desserts. They have also been installed
over very large water canals and in various other you know desired places and all of them usually
have a very long lifetime of, you know, few decades.

Many other forms of this inefficient solar cells are also under development OK, in addition to the
one that you are seeing on the slide, the silicon solar cells these days, you also have inorganic and
polymer solar cells.

And also hybrid photovoltaic cells that comprise of both organic and inorganic materials and also a
newer class of materials.

Known as you know parvo Skype materials.

So in general.

There are two different ways.

To use this sunlight.

To make useful forms of energy.

One is to use.

The photovoltaic panels, as I mentioned now.

To generate electricity.

The other a simpler approach.

Is to convert the sunlight to heat for warming buildings, making hot water cooking. You know the
solar cookers are there.

Or producing steam that can power.

An electric generator.

So you can see solar energy, you know it has really lot of applications. It is now part of most of the
construction sites and it is one of the cleanest form of renewable energy also.

Now moving on to the second point a year, I have shown pictures of you know, large wind turbines
installed offshore. Or you can say in the middle of the Seas or oceans.

In general, in the wind turbine wind electric turbines.

There there are large or attritional 3 this turbine blades.

That capture the kinetic energy of the wind.

This captured wind energy moves the blades or rotates the blades.

Which spins a shaft that is connected to a generator.

So in this way, the rotational energy.

Of this large turbines is converted into electrical energy.

So in general, overall we can say that wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind.

Into the mechanical power.

And further, what happens here? This mechanical power can be used for very specific tasks such as
pumping water from the wells or reservoirs, grinding of grains, or they can be converted into
electricity.

Buy a generator.

There are several major advantages of in this wind energy generation and I think among them in a
few major points are there.

These turbines can be installed in very remote locations, such as top of hills which are not easily
accessible then also in coastal areas. No. Most of the coastal areas.

There are no settlements so you can install along the coast of the the CS or you know the reverse.
Also you can install them and you know desserts to harness.

Wind and as shown in the picture also in offshore places in oceans and in CS. So overall you know
these energy that is generated by these turbines can then be taken into the main grids from any of
these remote locations and you know it can be also used even in urban areas.

In continuation of you know, this discussion. I would like to inform you all that there is a famous
company named as Suzlon.

OK, that come to our campus for placement purposes also and they are one of the leading
companies for renewable energy products and solutions, especially in both they seen a wind energy
and the solar energy sector.

The points one and two that we discussed on this slide. So people who are students, you all who are
sitting for replacements, and if you are going to interview for this company.

Please make note of these points.

Now moving on to the Third Point, the hydropower and you all know that this is the energy that is
obtained from the force of water.

OK or basically hydropower or hydroelectricity. It is nothing but the utilisation of the force of water.

Or in other words, hydropower is used to generate electricity.

In in this case, you know very large hydroelectric power. Plants are usually constructed in several
parts of the world, including in India, which generally also include the construction of very large
reservoir of water, usually in the form of a large dam, and they what they do is, you know, they
harness.

The energy of the water falling from a great height. So the picture that I have shown here is of a
lower Subban, Siri River.
In Assam or you can say even our area.

Additionally, this can also utilise the kinetic energy.

Of water that is flowing in the case of, you know, large rivers like the Brahmaputra river or the
energy can be harvest in the run of the water in large rivers. For this hydroelectricity generation.

Though the you know energy that is generated from this flowing river is less than that of that
generated from the dams, but still in the case of the flowing river you can you know harness the flow
of the water to generate know some form of Electro.

And you all would agree that you know the. Yeah, in general the hydropower in itself is almost non
polluting.

However, these days you see lot of protests everywhere because of the few disadvantages that the
construction of the large dams are having and that they may also have used environmental impacts.
So in general.

The hydropower, along with this wind and solar are also quite common and most of the countries
have adopted even construction of the large dams and in large structures to generate this
hydroelectricity.

Now moving on to the .4, this is the geothermal energy, another form of another important form of
this renewable source.

And usually you know this energy form is obtained from the heat that is generated from within the
Earth. In the picture that I have shown on the left side, it is little small, but you can see that the
lower the.

Grey area from where the heat can be generated and brought to the surface, and then they are
connected to the grid. To, you know, generate this electricity or you know any other form of energy.

So usually this you know, geothermal energy. It is also an important form of heat that is harnessed
both for generating electricity and also for heating purposes.

And usually the geothermal geothermal energy. It is obtained from reservoirs.

Of you know, natural hot water.

That exists at, you know, wearing temperature, going to be very different temperatures, and that
you know very different depths below the earth surface. So in general it is also considered to be very
safe.

And also it is available in not very deep. It is available just below the Earth. The earth surface.

Which is easily accessible and usually quite economical as compared.

To burning of this, you know fossil fuels.

This geothermal energy it is obtained usually from Hot Springs. You all would have heard about this.
You know it is available in various parts across India and also the world. It is also obtained from lava.

And from fumaroles and water the fumaroles you know, they're opening of the earth, or the
opening. Often, you know Volcano, so this can sometimes be dangerous, because they also
sometimes emit poisonous gases, and sometimes you do it.
It is not easy to go close to the places where there are fumaroles. So overall the high temperature
and the.

Below the Earth's crust or the interiors of the earth, what they do is, you know they causes some of
the rocks to melt.

And these melted part which is lighter than the surrounding rocks. They start moving upward and
this is what is harnessed.

For generating electricity or also heat and you know they are used for various applications.

OK, these days you have, you know modern closed loop geothermal power plants. They usually also
emit no greenhouse gases. So in general, no, this is considered to be one of the best sources of.

Of best renewable energy source. Even among all the five that I have listed on this page and
developed countries like United States and even in the in Europe, you know this geothermal energy
is gaining a lot of popularity these days.

Now coming to the last point on this slide about the biomass you all, I am sure know what is biomass
energy. It usually comprises of waste that is generated from forests.

From agriculture waste from savage.

Including the solid phase from residential areas, or you know the municipal waste you have the
animal residues and these days even the industrial residue or the waste that comes from the
industry can also be utilised.

As you know, very useful source of biomass.

But in general, you know it is a renewable organic material mainly obtained from, you know, plant
and animal sources.

And that are used for the production of energy or heat energy and electricity.

So in general this biomass energy generation in Indian context is also very important since this can
be easily harnessed even at you know, very, very remote villages across the country where
sometimes we do not have easy access to any other forms of electricity. So tapping these
biomarkers or sources of biomass.

In the remote areas is also very important.

So overall this you know biomass has been utilised for electric power generation.

Heating and also for combined heat and power generation in several locations.

These biomass they can also be generated or they can be converted into electric power through. You
know various methods.

The some of the most common methods that are used these days is the direct combustion, or in a
heating of this biomass material such as the agriculture, agricultural waste or woods to generate
both heat and electricity.

OK, there are other options also such as, you know, gasification.

Uh, pyrolysis and even this in anaerobic digestion, but in general this combustion is, you know, one
of the most popular or you know commonly used method for generating electricity and also the.
However, you all would know that you know this combustion process or burning of these you know
biomass. It produces lot of unwanted gases and pollution.

You hear this every year happening across Delhi in the northern part of the country where you know
the particulate matter in the air is very high. It also becomes you know.

Sometimes very difficult to breathe, so in addition to, you know if you can avoid this. The
combustion. Then no, this is a very very useful method, the biomass.

Energy is also becoming very popular this.

So in general, in this slide you know I have discussed about five major methods of renewable energy
source, which is gaining prominence as they are in general safer to the environment and also they
are quite economical.

SLIDE 3:

Part1:

Audio file
media1 1.m4a

Transcript
I now.

Move on to describe.

The main types of non renewable energy sources as described in this slide.

The year these are the four points which I showed in two slides. Before this slide. The Cole.

The oil.

Natural gas and the nuclear energy.

So among these, the goal, as we all know, is a primary form of solid fuel. It is available as shown in
the picture in the black colour or a brownish black colour.

And along with the wood.

And the Pete.

Now these are all different forms of solid fuels.

And in general, the coal it is usually available in the market in three different forms, mainly known as
lignite.

V2 minus.

And the third is the anthracite.

Goal is thought to have been formed from the deposition of plants or several millions of years, and
usually it is available. You know, in really various different forms across the world.
And as I mentioned, you know this Cole. It's black or brownish colour and it is highly combustible and
it is a form of sedimentary rock.

And it has been used.

For a very, very long time.

As a fuel.

Now, the reason for this is, you know storing of this goal and transportation has been very, very
easy, so you get it and then you can use it directly and that was the reason that it is even now or
these days. Also it is very very popular.

And Cole, as you all know it is also you know chemically. It is mainly comprised of carbon.

But it also has.

Smaller amounts of other elements.

That include hydrogen.

Nitrogen and sometimes even sulphur.

But among all the fossil fuels.

That are known to mankind. It has the highest amount of carbon content.

OK, so this is an important point to remember.

You all are also are also aware.

That this is a non renewable fossil fuel type.

It is really a combusted to generate electricity.

The major disadvantage of coal combustion, of course, is that you know it has very damaging impact
on the environment.

That is the reason that slowly even the coal engines you know that used to run the trains have been
replaced these days by diesel engines or by this electrical engines.

And that main reason is that you know when you burn coal, you know you generate lot of pollution
and lot of different kind of you.

Know greenhouse gases.

And several unwanted gases such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, including in many cases, you
know, several heavy metals are also released in the environment, which are all responsible.

For acid rains, so that is one of the reason where the use of coal you know is slowly decreasing
across the world.

The second point on.

On this slide is about the oil or the crude oil or the petroleum, which is the main topic of our course.
And though I will explain to you very briefly in this slide, as we move ahead in this course, I will
explain more details about processing of this crude oil in a lot of other things, but in general, what is
this?

Crude oil, you know. It generally is a mixture.

Of carbon containing alkene derivatives or you know at the carbon and hydrogen and this may be
from this may have different number of carbon made BC1 to C-40 chains and the chains. Maybe
either linear or they may be branched.

They may also be in the form of cyclic or fused things like NAFTA ring, where in two aromatic rings
are joined together.

They may also have you know, other aromatic hydrocarbons which are naturally present in various
kinds of all oil fields.

This cruder also contains a lot of low boiling fractions. Like you know, not only on alkanes, but also
you know various other forms now.

However, based on the geographical location and the source, they may also contain lot of these
higher boiling fractions, so this is very important. You know, not all the crude oil.

Obtained from different parts of the world have the same composition in some places they may
have in a short chain or these alkanes, whereas in other places you know it. They may also higher
boiling or in a very long chain alkanes.

In some cases you know the crude oil that is obtained. They may also contain other than
hydrocarbons. They may also contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and sometimes in few or few
percentage. So metallic constituents, which sometimes is a problem and you may have to remove
them while refining.

In many cases, in addition to the above elements, you also have cyclic alkenes.

In in the crude oil and these are sometimes if the quantities large, they are also separated and used
to make a lot of other useful intermediates.

So in general this chemical fuels you know they constitute for about more than 90% of the world
energy requirement and hence this course is designed and we will be studying elaborately about the
details of petroleum in this entire course.

OK, now coming to the point #3 the natural gas. OK this natural gas as I have shown in the figure
here.

The blue colour you see, you know that is mainly because of the presence of large quantity of
methane gas.

OK, but in addition to methane gas in the natural gas, there are other types of alkanes or the 1st 6
alkanes are present in approximate 97%.

But chiefly still, you know you have this methane followed by ethane.

Propane and then higher, or the longer alkanes are present.

So in addition to this hydrocarbon, there can also be other gases such as water vapour. There can
also be hydrogen.
There can also be small quantities of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and sometimes even hydrogen
peroxide or hydrogen sulphide in small quantities.

So one of the good things about this natural gas is that it generally you know it flows up very easily
through the wells to the surface and hence the detection becomes, you know, quite easy and also to
extract it from below the earth. You know, it's quite easy however, as the technology you know is
improving these days.

Natural gas is also produced from.

And other types of sedimentary rock formations by forcing water or in other chemicals and
sometimes even sand down the well under very high pressure and United States today.

You know A is one of the largest producer of the natural gas because they have mastered the
technique of, you know, removing or taking out, extracting the natural gas from this.

From the shell.

Natural gas is really very important source of fuel because you know it is released very easily. It
released in low levels of emissions and when you burn it and thereby it also reduces the chances of
acid rain and the greenhouse gases.

So in general, the natural gas is also, although it falls under non renewable source of energy, it is still.

Preferred because you know of the lower pollution that it generates.

The fourth point in this slide is about the nuclear energy and the photograph that you see in this
slide is about the Kudankulam nuclear power plant.

You know that was established with the Russian help in the state of Tamil Nadu. Although there
were a lot of protests. Because you all know that Fukushima accident that happened in Japan.

To the tsunami, there are certain risks with this, but India believes that this plant in Tamil Nadu is
really very very safe. And no, I think the 4th plant in this complex is also operational.

But overall, as you all know, and as I mentioned earlier, also, this nuclear energy is, you know, widely
used in developed countries because you know you have a source of this nuclear fission or nuclear
fission or fusion reactions, which is a continuous source of energy. And if you have a continuous
source of energy, you are not depending on natural resources.

And if you are able to protect the side effects of this, the nuclear efficient fusion and the waste
materials, probably you know it. It is one of the most popular forms of energy.

So in general, you know in nuclear energy it is generated from fusion.

Or the fission reaction process?

And India is now taking the lead as I showed in this figure. But in general these nuclear reactors,
large nuclear reactors are built.

And the nuclear chain reaction that occurs inside what they do is, you know, they produce large
amount of heat.

Through physical process which is either efficient or the splitting.

Of an unstable atom.
That releases the heat energy.

And this heat energy is then used to make steam.

OK, that spins a turbine.

Which creates or produces electricity that is completely free of carbon. So in general it is carbon free
and that is why they consider it also a clean form of energy.

So as I mentioned above, in the efficient reaction there are three. Mostly you know, very widely
used fissile isotopes and they are the uranium 233.

The uranium 235.

And also the plutonium plutonium 239 so any of these three materials are used.

This, you know, fission reactions.

So as I told you, there are several advantages of this, but there are also several disadvantages.
Because of this, there are usually lot of protests that are occurring across the world and this mainly
is due to the the scare or the fear of an explosion that may occur due to the nuclear fission in the
power plant and.

If such an explosion happens, then it can also spread radioactive.

Fuel in the environment. In the in the water bodies, even in the sand and usually the radioactive
waste which are generated.

You know they can destroy all the plants, all the vegetation and they cannot be usually decomposed
easily and they are. You will remain as a hazard.

Two life for several thousands of year.

So in general this you know the non renewable sources of energy that have shown on these slides.
They are quite popular, especially the point #2 which we are going to study elaborately in this course
on the crude oil.

Or the petroleum which comprises more than 90% of the fuel. And although as I told the non
renewable.

But still.

You know they are very relevant today, and unless you find a replacement for them, it is very
important to know that you know we can really harness them in a better way.

And lot of of Petro chemicals, other useful chemicals and other useful forms of energy can be
generated from them.

Part 2:

Audio file
media2 1.m4a
Transcript
So this slide.

Depicts the recent accident.

That occurred.

At bark joint oil field.

In Upper Assam Tinsukia district.

So on 27th May 2020, during this lockdown period, there was a gas well #5

At the bug, John oilfield is blasted off.

And it caught fire. You can see the right side photograph. Of course, the fire was even much bigger
than this.

Unfortunately, you know this oil field is geographically located very close to one of the famous
national parks. The deep brew Psycho or National Park, which is very famous.

For migratory birds, the magery motor punk bill.

As well as the mighty Brahmaputra river.

And this has caused severe damage to the environment.

And to all the surroundings. As you can see in the on the left side image, you know the extent of
damage to the vegetation.

And of course, the river that is flowing to the left top side in this image. So overall, you know this
was not a very good, you know incident that happened in the lock down and.

It was very difficult to contain the blast.

And is blasting actually it Hawker occurred when the workover operations.

For extracting gas.

From the very new new sand is oil in the gas bearing reservoir. So you know this reservoir in which
you know they were trying to accept the gas had both oil as well as the gas and the depth you know
is close to 4000 metre in which they are working.

And when when the blast occurred, what happened is you know lot of natural gas and oil. He started
coming out with High Force and he started spilling out around the well and the entire area of you
know what was mentioned in the newspaper was around 1.5 kilometre. Radius area was completely
turned into a huge.

Gas symbol.

And as you all would also have read from the newspaper that you know, a lot of firefighters from
abroad, they're also called in this time of pandemic. And although you know a lot.

Uh, after lot of efforts they could contain the fire, but you know again because of the large pressure
that was their underground that is in building over. You know several years.
The well again caught fire on June 9th and still the firefighters and the authorities are trying to
contain the fire and and protect the environment.

So this is a major issue. You know one has to keep in mind and whenever you have a huge crude oil
reserves and whenever you want to make use of a, you know.

Or you want to extract this oil?

The risks associated with them is also very, very high.

But in general, as you all are aware, you know Assam is really blessed with lots of crude oil.

And presently, probably there are more than 100 oil and gas fields are already operational here.

And there is a place called Bongo and the one of the largest refineries of awesome the Bongo
refinery that located there is a has both this.

You know it's an oil refinery as well as petrochemical complex probably if time permits or when you
all are here, you know we should also plan a visit to this refinery.

But another very interesting thing is that you know crude oil was discovered in Assam in a very early.

Yeah, this time in close to 19th century and first oil. Well you know was dug here by the Britishers in
around 1866 so you can imagine you know how you know the efforts of Britishers as well.

The Indian Government that has continued, you know it is really appreciable and big boy was the
you know the place.

Where they started digging the soil. It's a very old city and it's of course also called the oil city of
Assam. And this is the place where the first oil well of Asia was drill.

And even the first refinery of the country was set up in Indic boy in the year 19101.

That these are the oldest refinery or the old oil well dug in their big point. It is even operational till
today.

So that itself is a very you know, proud thing to be part of. You know this historical journey with
crude oil.

You know the my main purpose of putting up this slide was to show you know the the risk of
operating an oil field and the dangers they pose to the environment.

So although this is very important for the economy, the cost of the environment and the
surroundings is also very important and this has to be kept in mind actually.

SLIDE 4

Part 1:

Audio file
media1 2.m4a

Transcript
With this general introduction.
Of both renewable and non renewable energy sources.

I hope that you are convinced about the importance of conserving.

The natural resources.

And what type of energy?

You know, use is best and beneficial for us and the society.

So unless and until you know we find appropriate alternatives that can be useful to the masses, we
will of course have to keep relying.

On petroleum and Petro chemicals.

To meet or day-to-day energy requirements.

And this is also part of our course. This you know how to best make use of this petroleum and Petro
chemicals.

And as discussed in the previous slides, I know I would like to mention that you know the just
repeating what I told you.

There are four main types of non renewable energy sources as listed in, you know the middle of this
slide. The goal, the oil, the natural gas and the nuclear energy and.

The oil, which is nothing but you know petroleum or the the Petro chemicals. It is often called a
crude oil also and the name they keep changing it interchangeably.

But essentially they are one and the same. OK, So what exactly is meant by this? You know,
petroleum?

So petrol name or the crude oil you know, usually as I told you, we keep changing in them
interchangeably now.

It's a very very thick or viscous mixture and usually the colour of this liquid is yellow, black, or and
sometimes completely black liquid or a dark brown liquid. You know, events intermediate between
the black.

The yellow and most importantly, you know it, it comprises of mixtures or solid hydrocarbons.

It also has mixtures of various liquids and gases, which are usually highly flammable.

And that occurs below the earth surface.

And in general, widely called as crude oil.

And as I had mentioned earlier, it is, you know, has been building in the build up is taking place on
Earth crossover.

You know several millions and millions of years. So to form this crude oil between the rocks and it
takes, you know, several several million.

Years, and that is where the interesting name comes up. You know, usually we thinking. How does?
How did the name this vote in petroleum?

So it is nothing but it comes from the two Latin words, mainly Petra, which means rock and 2nd, the
oleum, or which indicates oil. So is Petra and the oleum. When they combined. That is where.
The name from the petroleum. So this is just for your information of you know how this name has
come up. And this also clearly indicates that it is formed as rocks.

In between various layers within the earth crust and deep below, you know much deeper in the in
the lower part of the Earth.

So it is a very interesting procedure. You know, taking several several million years and you end up
getting this crude oil.

And as I mentioned earlier, I will be using the worst petroleum or crude oil several times, so please
do not be confused.

So this petroleum asset, primarily, you know it comprises of a mixture of various hydrocarbons. They
can be in the form of solids.

Liquid's

And also gases, and in addition to that you know they also consist or several other organic
substances as well. As you know, various inorganic substances.

So you can understand, although these hydrocarbons are also there in in various forms, they also
have various other organic substance than inorganic substances, which includes compounds and also
various elements that comprise, you know, oxygen, nitrogen and many times also sulphur.

OK, so in addition to this several this element, they also can have various metal such as iron,
vanadium, chromium and nickel, and you know a few other metal.

These are the major components and this is very, very important to know because you know, this
ratio of these metals and inorganic salts, the very.

And in the crude oil, depending on the location from you know where where they are usually
obtained. That means you know in certain places you have the crude oil which has you know very
high metal content or even more sulphur or less sulphur. Or you know sometimes they have other
composition also.

This aspect in this crude oil is extremely important because you know, the higher the ratio of these
elements both I mean organic as well as inorganic. That is really going to decide the type of refining.

And the method that is used to purify this crude oil. OK, so more impurities are there, you have to
apply. You know it's a very easy to understand. You know you have more impurities the more.

What you call refining, or you know it's more expensive to purify it, so lesser the impurities or lesser
the metal or the inorganic or organic impurities, the easier it is to purify. That is what determines
also the price of the crude oil.

As we move ahead in these lectures, I will also explain the role of sulphur, and you know how they
name this crude oil.

Based on the content of the sulphur and what is the permissible limit of the sulphur in this crude oil?

So overall you know you all can get an idea of how complicated or how highly complex this you know
crude oil can be and this is where the challenge is.
You know how you can utilise this crude oil to purify the various or remove this in various impurities
to get you know the desired fractions. You know, decide components or from the crude oil and by
some estimates. And it is believed.

That this crude oil it consists you know, not just few hydrocarbons and you know few inorganic and
organic elements. It consists, in fact, in several lacks of compounds within it.

OK, that is where the challenge is. So among the several acts of compound, our main aim is to you
know or basically right now we are only able to get out very few compounds, outer region several
lacks that are in successful, isolated, purified and you know characterised and the entire process.
You know the very basic principle that.

Goes in this purification is, you know there's a difference in their boiling point or melting point,
mainly boiling points.

That is how you can separate them out very very easily, so I'm sure that by the end of this course I
will be able to explain to you how you all.

Now you know can understand or know how to separate. It is few important products from this very
very complex mixture and how best they can be utilised.

Part 2:Audio file

media2 2.m4a

Transcript
The next important question that has been debated extensively is from where you know all this
crude oil or petroleum has come from ultimately, so this is very important to know because you
know this also gives a lot of information on the crude oil that is formed across the world.

So in general you know it is believed that the crude oil that we have today and it is obtained.

You know, it usually comes from different kinds of plankton's. I don't know how many of you
remember this word. You know planktons are in general classified into two different types and they
are in general very tiny.

Microscopic plants and animals, or we can also call them insects.

Which die?

And then they get decomposed.

And doing the decomposition process, what happens is that they fall on the floor of the oceans or
the very large water bodies that are usually there and over millions of years they start getting
accumulated at the bottom of the sea.

In the next few slides I have explained the entire process of how that happens, but in this slide, as I
have shown in the.

Two images, the phytoplankton. That is the you know, plant based and on the right you have the zoo
plankton, which is you know like small animal.
The tiny microscopic animals or insects you know that are present in the water and which settle and
which die you know once they die.

Settle at the bottom of the sea, so I also suggest that you all should read more and integrate
information or you know what are these two types of planktons and you know how they are
influencing in the process of formation of crude oil.

So as you see in this image you know there are these two different types of plankton that are
classified.

As you know, phytoplankton that come from the plant and the zoo plankton that come from the
animal, and once they die, they start settling and start accumulating at the bottom of the large lakes,
ancient lakes that you will know.

The oceans and of course the seas and as they start getting buried at higher depths over very very
long period of time or we call it a geologic time.

And as the organic matter in starts accumulating over several thousands and thousands of years, you
know these organic matter once they reach the level of approximately 5% or higher along with, you
know, the clay, the sediments, the mud, everything together, you know they start getting converted
to change their form, and then this is known as.

Black shale OK remember this is an important volume. They get converted the entire matter. They
come together and they start getting converted to the the main thing you know that we're
interested in. It is called black shale.

And ultimately, what happens? You know, the even the accumulation then increases the amount of
matter that is there. It starts accumulating, and as the layer it becomes thicker and thicker, you
know as the buildup increases, you know we we get more amount of this black shield. OK hence all
the crude oil that is formed is nothing.

But because of the deposition.

Of these plankton's. OK, so this planktons are very, very important, although they are in a very very
microscope, very tiny creatures and tiny plants.

OK, they are present in these water bodies is extremely important for the generation and for in
obtaining all the crude oil that you see today. So it is a process which has been going on say millions
and millions of years.

You know what you see today, you can imagine you know how much plankton's would have died,
settled, accumulated and get compression.

You you form this so you know as all these plankton's they get converted over. You know several
several years to this organic matter.

But this also in general you know it is not only a conversion of crude oil, but in general it gives us
very good information on the type of flora.

And the type of fauna that was present in that region or in the in. The water bodies or in the oceans
over you know several millions and millions of years ago.

And how this pattern has evolved across the world? You know that that gives you all the information
can be really obtain.
It's not just the formation of the crude oil, so this really gives a very nice idea from the crude oil that
is obtained across the different parts of the world.

You know what kind of living organisms? What kind of plants? What kind of animals? What kind of
insects, where existing, existing you know at several millions of years ago, and how everything?

Together has helped you know shaped the you know the rocks, the sediments, the layers. In order
formed, you know how over the.

You know which part of the of the world is you know is not very old? Which part of the voltage in
very very old?

You know, if if the range of 2030 layers and the depth is around three lacs and UCO.

Or maybe you know the three lack metres. Or maybe you know around 30 to you know 3040
kilometres. Then you can easily predict that you know life existed in.

This part you know much earlier than in some other part where the shale or you know this.

Langtons that decompose are available in just under 33 kilometres so you can realise that you know
life in millions of years ago what it was in this part of the world and some other part of the world just
by seeing the deposits of you know this plankton's over the years. So this is a very very good
information.

You know that that can be obtained over the. You know, by studying this you know the deposition of
the layers also.

Part 3:

Audio file
media3.m4a

Transcript
In the present slide.

I will now explain to you all the entire process of you know this plankton's deposition.

And how overtime?

Now these plankton's they get converted into various kinds.

Of petroleum products.

OK, so in in this figure, as you all see in the in the slide and there are four different stacked images
ABC&D and I know all these four figures. What they do is they depict different stages, aurisina,
plankton's deposition and their conversion.

To the oil and of course you know other gases also have not shown the evolution of the gases. But
yeah, of course in the figure DI have also shown.

How this oil is formed and it comes up in.

The form of arrows.

I want you all to see the the figure a way in this first figure a that you see on the on the left
planktons are seeing I have just drawn of various colours. The green, red, blue and.

You know, almost like blackish colour, so you know they they are floating in water in as their
microscopic, you know, although you can see here by Nicola, you'll either microscopic and what they
do is, you know they keep floating and once they die they slowly start settling the brown layer. I
have shown here above the five degree see that.

Every time you know so at and once they die they slowly start settling down as they decompose.

And you know, since they're very tiny, of course they float and you know they move around in a very
large area.

And usually you know the all these farmers that decomposition there. It's completely free of oxygen
and you know if in case there is oxygen, then usually they are written by, you know various sea
creatures because they also need.

Oxygen, and that is not very easy to obtain it in a very high depth, so sea creatures, they eat them
and later on you know what they excrete or what remains is completely free of oxygen.

OK, so the plankton's that are there you know. Again, I'm coming in the figure. As such they are
floating and once they die they settle off and as they decompose you know it.

It is like greenish brown or brownish colour. As you see there and the various layers have shown you
know it can be different colours, but you know just to match it with the colour of the clay. I have just
put it.

Brownish colour.

So in as several years pass by and over, you know time what happens is they. Of course there is also
some kind of current in the bottom of the sea, so they get mixed with us and they also get mixed
with the mud and the sediments and overtime they start getting buried deeper and deeper.

And they will, you know, go start going towards the bottom of the ocean and they start getting
compressed and with more mud. You know forming layers over them. So this is what I have shown
in.

The figure be where you know I have shown that the sediments they accumulate and over the dead
planktons and the decomposed planktons and slowly you know they start getting compressed and as
they keep you know start going downwards as shown in the air over there is a compression. There is
some kind of pressure and as they go keep going down.

That temperature, what happened that also increased?

And over several thousands of years, several thousands and thousands of years, what happens? You
know they start forming or rocklike structures.

OK, and they start mixing with the sentiments. And as I mentioned earlier, you know there was some
sort of pressure that is exerted from the various layers that is formed on the top and slowly slowly.

As they keep moving downward, what I have shown from figurato figure B and now to figure, see
you know it has greater gone quite lower in the you know this thing or I can say you know that
various layers of sediments are formed above it.

So what happens is that that that arrows that I've shown you know that that is what I meant by now.
As you go down the pressure, the higher amount of pressure is felt over sediment and initial
temperature from 5 degrees or something.

You know it, by the time it reaches there is quite high around 7075 eighty and you know to reach
that level.

Of course it takes. You know various layers and these organic sediments along with the rock like
structure. It keeps moving and down with time and as the organic part the percentage of this organic
part it keeps increasing beyond a certain purpose.

Vintage, you know more than 5%. These is very important. This is what turns into shale or the black
shell.

What they call and and beyond 75 to 80 degree Celsius? You know the real time when this shale is
formed, so this is an extremely important that you know the the formation of the shell. This is what?

And we all are really interested and the challenge right now is to get the oil out of this shell with
many, many countries have already been working on and they are of course getting in lot of this. You
know oil from this.

Shale now this is not the only thing that is formed. There is another important element or important
compound that is present.

You know, as I mentioned some time ago, with the increase in both the pressure and the heat, the
shale you know over time what happens is that it gets converted to a compound known as you
know, Cara Jeanne Khorog.

North East, I have explained it in the next slide. As you move on you will see and this is usually
temperatures you know above 90 or 100 degree Celsius.

So this corrosion is very, very important at high temperatures and pressure when this corrosion is
formed and as the temperature further increases what happens is this.

Origin and this also gets converted into the compound or the code that we're studying. It gets
converted into petroleum.

And you know it is also known as the crude oil. So this is what we are interesting. So it starts with the
decomposition of these plankton's you know?

And with pressure and temperature as it keeps settling down, it gets converted into a compound
known as. You know, kerogen. You know that nothing but you know the black shell. The one of the
the next stages.

The Black Shield at higher temperatures.

Pressure and as shown in the figure, D what happens is over time and you know this is a very slow
process and in fact there is a very very slow process.

I should say what happens is oil. You know that is converted from the kerosene. It very slowly it
starts seeping upwards as shown in the arrows and the.

At this time there is very high temperature, very high pressure also, and of course the compression is
very very high and you know multiple layers are present and not everything comes up. But yeah, this
is what the entire process is, so that is where you know it helps.
Detect that you know this part of the ocean or this part of the water body below the multiple layer.

There exists some kind of shell, some kind of kerogen, or if there's some kind of you know this crude
or it may be in any, any any stages.

OK, so this is the entire process in this slide and in the next few slides I will also explain in detail how
this you know kerosene or how other layers are also.

Which is of interest to us, or which is of interest to mankind for taking it out, drilling out and using it
for various purposes. You know for the you know or basic non renewable energy purposes and that
we have been discussing.

Slide 5:Audio file

slide5.m4a

Transcript
So although I have discussed in the previous slide on the corrosion formation.

In this slide I have given a brief description once again.

On the overall process for the formation of this corrosion.

OK so I request you all to please refer the figure once again on the previous slide, you know where I
had mentioned that the organic matter you know by telling organic matter I mean is the you know
what is formed from the decomposition of the plankton.

OK, so this organic matter, you know, once it is decomposed and once it's once it starts mixing with
the mud and the sediments over several years.

So what happens is that you know, as I mentioned earlier, that you know it should be free of oxygen
if there is oxygen present then usually it is eaten by the sea creatures.

Then the auction free the organic sediments that are present or organic matter that is present now
once that crosses above 5% OK along with the presence of other thing, you know it forms a special
kind of rocks.

OK, and these rocks are known as this black shield and all the dark brown layers with some designs
that I have shown in the in the figures and all the four ABCD figures start because you know this is
what I meant by this black shield.

OK, so higher the rate of accumulation of this organic matter and which is free of this oxygen thicker
it starts becoming thicker and thicker and that is what leads to.

The formation of the black shape. OK so Please remember this is very, very important that you know
the formation of black shell you know is very important. That is what leads to the, you know.
Ultimately formation of the oil that we're looking for.

So over time, you know as the burial depth increases or you know the plankton that are there, you
know it, it increases what happened, the compression increases and the compression increases.
What we see is, you know, both the heat and the.
Pressure at that level that also rises OK and it arises quite significantly as shown in the figure. You
know, from almost close to 5 degrees to you know above 100 degrees, you know that is very, very
significant and this is what is necessary. And this is all what is very very conducive. You know, for the
formation of this you know.

Kerogen OK, so once this kerogen is formed, and you know that that is what it's necessary for the
next step. And as I told you about the crude oil, so this compression at the higher temperature and
pressure.

As I have mentioned here, you know that is what leads to the transformation of the sediments in
black shell in which organic matter it becomes a kerosene.

Or this is nothing but you know, vaccine molecules. You also try to understand you know why it is
called kerogen and you know what these vaccine molecules are doing there, so.

From powder it.

Gets mixed into into a solid and then the solid under higher.

OK, higher temperature and higher pressure. They gets converted to vaccine molecule known as
corrosion and at higher temperatures at appropriate temperatures.

You know it's a small window that is available for the conversion at this appropriate temperatures.
These corrosion can get converted into oil or the crude oil or the petroleum and as shown by the
arrows in the figure.

Three, this class starts seeping upward were.

Very, very slowly.

OK, in the figure I have shown that it is 110 degree Celsius, but it can be you know above 100
consultant can go up to, you know a few degrees higher.

Also, who is higher the temperature? The faster is the the seepage and also along with that there is
also a formation of you know other gases. So you all would have got an idea of you know how this.

You know process of deposition.

Till the formation of this corrosion and then the black shell, the kerogen and then the crude oil. It's a
continuous process.

How this is very important and how much time it would have taken over the years. You know to
deposit to get transformed from one stage to the next stage, and you know, as as the layers
increases, the increase in the temperature.

The increase in the pressure and the chemical conversion of you know one form into other form.
You know from a.

Order to a rock form and then from rock form to a vaccine form and then next stage from the
vaccine form to liquid form and as the temperature increases.

Of course, you know a lot of these vaccine form of the liquid form. They also get converted into in
various gaseous form or the natural gas. OK, so this I will be explaining in the next set how this liquid
form or the wax.
Mom gets converted into liquid in liquid also over time and with pressure and temperature. Now it is
also converted slowly into the gaseous form or the natural gas, which is also of course very, very
important for us along with the.

All other forms. OK, so this is a very important process. Looks you know very very simple, but the
time taken to do this in of course in a very very long you know several millions and millions of here.

So this is how we end up, you know getting or the process of the formation of the corrosion, and
then the next steps for the formation of the oil and the natural gas.

Audio file
slide5_2.m4a

So to summarise, the overall process from the deposition of plankton's to the formation of oil, you
know that we're talking about is extremely slow.

OK, and the entire process takes several several million years. As we have seen. So that is the reason
that the the source of energy. You know that oil.

Thing is, oil or getting its oil and making other byproducts from it. You know it is called a non
renewable source of energy.

Since you know once we are going to use up all this, you know the crude from below the Earth's
crust.

Speaker 1

You know several several layers. Then it is permanently lost and one thing showed that in all our
lifetimes you know we are unable to or we.

Speaker 1

Are not going to.

Speaker 1

No, no regenerate them back again. OK, so once we use it up it's going to be a vacant. It's going to be
empty and it's it's lost permanently.

Speaker 1

Now further, as we have seen all along in the in the previous slides that you know, in addition to the
formation of this oil, you know there is another thing.

Speaker 1

So there are other important materials that are formed. There is the title of this slide you know, in
addition to the formation of oil.
Speaker 1

There is also a possibility of formation of natural gas.

Speaker 1

Which is usually accompanied always with this crude oil.

Speaker 1

In addition to that, over time there is also an additional thing that is formed and which is graphite as
to go down.

Speaker 1

In this slide, I will tell you what exactly is the graphite also, which I've learned probably in your
school days, and you would be remembering this so you know overtime. Once the oil comes out
with at higher temperature, the oil also further.

Speaker 1

Breaks down and that is where the natural gas is formed, and if there is a further increase in the
temperature of temperature as well as the pressure and an explained earlier go the shale is there
initially.

Speaker 1

The shale it contained nothing but you know it's the higher percentage of kirigin up to 15 to or it can
go up even 30%.

Speaker 1

OK, and that is called oil.

Speaker 1

And this is a used. It's a very important technological challenge. To get this. You know oil out of the
additional and you all would be aware that many, many countries are already having this technology,
especially United States Russia.

Speaker 1

These are the two countries who have claimed that they now have the technology to, you know, get
this oil out of this shell.

Speaker 1

So this is, this is where you know like today you know they are leaders for this, uh.

Speaker 1

Production of these oil and from the shell and overall also in the world. Presently, no. They are the
leaders.

Speaker 1

India is also now buying other than from Middle East even from US and Russia. A lot of you know oil
that is obtained from the shale and which in fact they are selling for even at a lower rate.
Speaker 1

So you know, due to the good technology that is available, it is now possible to drill out even oil from
the shale.

Speaker 1

We also know from the previous slide that you know at temperatures once you go above the second
point in this slide temperatures, you know greater than 90 degree Celsius. These corrosion
molecules that were there they are also broken down.

Speaker 1

Into you know much smaller molecules you know. That is what we call the oil, and further you know
it is also known as.

Speaker 1

Uh, you know the the oil is converted into gaseous phase. You know a lot of different gases will learn
as we go further.

Speaker 1

You know the very small gas is starting from methane, the one carbon, the methane. Ethane,
propane there is also hydrogen you know up to one of five carbons.

Speaker 1

And of course there are lot of other derivatives. Also, you know ethylene gas is there and so many
other things. But of course natural gas.

Speaker 1

It's a combination. It's very difficult to separate out, but these guests are also produced. You know,
in the refining process, so you know one sweetie and go there. I will also.

Speaker 1

Tell you more in detail about those gases and overall you know this natural gas molecules.
Conversion of this erosion into oil and natural gas and this is very important to note is also known as
a hydrocarbon generation.

Speaker 1

OK, so this process overall is known as hydrocarbon generation. So right from you know, the
deposition of the plankton.

Speaker 1

To this state also is a very long journey covering millions of years and then you end up getting this
gas it slowly, you know comes up from the bottom of the layer because it is gas. It can ask everyone
through small pores of these layers.

Speaker 1

And this is what is, you know, very important for all of us to know not just as it is part of the course,
but also in general, since along with the oil, OK, there are several other major components you know
which can be formed in the entire process. OK, and you know two if we can extract Oregon Trail
even take out.

Speaker 1

Most of this thing you know and use it and refine it to get in so many different product. This project
products then I think you know instead of wasting them from the non Members you know that will
really expand the base of lot of chemicals that are available.

Speaker 1

OK and further you know this natural process of making this oil as mentioned in this point 3 and the
natural gas and it doesn't end here.

Speaker 1

You know, as the temperature increases further 160, you know the oil breaks down. But if you still
go further and that is very important now you know now we have crossed 200 temperatures over
the time and they this is very important.

Speaker 1

You know what happened. So as the temperature increases, you know the pressure also increases as
we go down. So what happens is that the organic matter that remains, you know slowly. Of course it
burns off and what remains is that you know the hydrogen is removed completely.

Speaker 1

And this transforms into in a pure carbon form, and that form is called graphite and you all know the
the use of you know graphite.

Speaker 1

You know it's a crystalline form and it's an array of this element carbon, and usually you know it's
arranged in hexagonal form.

Speaker 1

It says very very pure form of carbon. OK, so now you can see that in our higher temperature the.

Speaker 1

Hydrogen also goes away, and this is what you end up so you can see in SS. Move move further from
simple deposition of this, you know shell black shell 2.

Speaker 1

Again, this up to the level of graphite, you know, so many steps have happened. You get the oil, you
get the waxy substance, then the oil substance.

Speaker 1

Then you get the gaseous substance and when the gas you operate the hydrogen also goes away,
you end up getting this graphite and you would be very surprised to know that this is also the
process.

Speaker 1
That you know over time, and you know if there is more heat. If there is more pressure than what
would happen to this, you know.

Speaker 1

Can there any can any other changes be possible? I have not shown this on the previous order. Any
of the slides, yes, but you know there is something else that can be formed. So after the 4th point
which have not.

Speaker 1

And here this graphite, the graphite form, also gets converted it into a much better crystalline form,
you know, and you know they're very popular and very widely or very expensive form of this carbon
is called the diamond.

Speaker 1

OK, so at higher pressures and this you know higher temperatures even this graphitic form of this
carbon, the plural form of graphite.

Speaker 1

It gets converted 2 diamond. That is why this is the diamond that is there. You know it is considered
to be highly pure.

Speaker 1

The pure it is in very very high. It's a crystalline form and you know to mine diamond also also is a
very very big business so you can imagine how many years it would have taken to get.

Speaker 1

To diamond or in the natural way of uniform.

Speaker 1

Diamond, so in general so if in the entire process what you would have noticed.

Speaker 1

That the oil that we are interested to you know take out. You know that or the oil that we or crude
oil, petroleum that we're discussing.

Speaker 1

You know to extract their crude oil itself. You know it takes. You know such a long millions of millions
of years. The assets that the window of this formation. OK of this is, you know, very very small or the
relatively it forms.

Speaker 1

Very very last point in this slide. It forms in a very very narrow range of temperature, or it's called
the oil window.

Speaker 1
OK, the temperature we know it is very very less in above 90 degrees and you know it's 100 and
10220 thirty and that is where the oil forms from backstage OK and below that of course is a vaccine
substance, you know.

Speaker 1

Usually there you know to form naturally is better. You cannot take it out and then leave it to form
this oil. And similarly if you know if the.

Speaker 1

Temperature rise is also, you know that's also a problem that you know that oil doesn't remain. Oil
sometimes gets converted into the natural gas firm.

Speaker 1

Or you know, at higher temperatures, as we have seen in this slide, it gets converted into the
another form.

Speaker 1

The solid form there is no hydrogen remaining, so it gets converted to completely carbon crystalline
form or a very pure form of carbon and prophetic forms, again at a very high temperature. It gets
converted into the diamond OK diamond, so you can see that overall.

Speaker 1

The we since we are studying only with petroleum that range or the that small part that you want to
four minutes. It's a very very narrow window.

Speaker 1

OK, so you can imagine that you know we have why it is important to find out. You know where the
oil is there because you know if you leave it, of course it won't change into a few years, but you
know this is where you know the entire challenge is to.

Speaker 1

Find exactly where is the the oil and you know and how much. How thick is the is the layer in.

Speaker 1

That will design or you know, that that that will help us design. You know how much you know deep
we need to go or how much oil can we get from a certain location from a certain place or subtle oil.

Speaker 1

Well, you know that is drilled, so anyway, this is the entire. You know it's a. It's a natural process.
There is no human interval.

Speaker 1

And we have to use it in a very judiciously and most of the oil wells. You know, whenever you know
they're drilling, you will see that in addition to oil there is lot of these natural gas there also that
comes out.

Speaker 1
But sometimes you know you, you end up getting a very, very hard survey whenever you have these
thick layers of this, you know graphite form. It is extremely, extremely challenging to drill and you
know.

Speaker 1

Separate out all this. You know, this compounds to take out a small amount of oil. Also is in a very
very challenging then. That is why you know it's very very.

Speaker 1

To to have appropriate instruments or appropriate technology to detect. You know that how much
oil is there, where it is there, how deep it is there?

Speaker 1

What is there below and what is their above? How hard or the surface is you know below, how hard
are the surface above?

Speaker 1

So it's it's very, very challenging to you know, determine where the oil is, how, how much oil is there.

Speaker 1

And all this thing you know it's a. It's a combined technology you know, involving so many
interdisciplinary fields. Of you know, detection, testing, drilling, taking out, and then you know,
refining. OK, so I hope that you know in in these few slides that I have shown.

Speaker 1

Up to now you would have got an idea the importance of both this, you know, renewable energy
and the non renewable energy.

Speaker 1

Although presently you know we rely a lot on these non renewable energy forms, especially this oil
that we have discussed presently. You know it is very, very important to realise that even finding
these oil oil is.

Speaker 1

Very, very difficult.

Speaker 1

And once we have found it also to, you know reach at the location of the crude oil.

Speaker 1

And to get the desired components that are uses energy is very very important and even the other
parts which are not used as energy but you know they can still be utilised.

Speaker 1

They can be refined and they can be converted into other intermediates or other molecules or for
other purposes. You know which are useful to mankind is also very very important. OK, so even the
you know if you have this.
Speaker 1

Entire crude oil you start with almost, you know, one carbon, the methane, and when you go to 40
or even even longer, you know this is called the tower in the tower. These days you know you have
to use it. Very judicious.

Speaker 1

You can collect all the tower and you can use it to construct. Of course this is the infrastructure, the
roads and a lot of other application, so this is you know very very long process nature has taken
millions of years to, you know get this plankton's down and you know convert them into the final
product. The oil that we're looking for but all the other products that are likely to be.

Speaker 1

Formed in the entire process, it is extremely, extremely important that you know we do not lose out
while doing this refining, or, you know, oil drilling and later on in the refining, you know we try to
collect in almost every.

Speaker 1

Not, and that is very important that we collect every part and you know transfer or transfer, you
know, transport it to the desired industries and make use of every component that is really going to
save us.

Speaker 1

Or they say, the next generation from you know preserving or, you know, using cautiously is non
renewable sources of energy.

Speaker 1

OK, I hope that you know from this part you all have would have got an idea of the importance.

Speaker 1

And the you know the scarcity. You know that that may come up in the future. You know, if you drill
out everything, and if you don't use it very judiciously.

Speaker 1

Hence it's a collective responsibility. You know, not just as part of this course, but it is a collective
responsibility for all of us.

Speaker 1

It's a very good message and to learn that you know formation of this takes several several millions
of years and you know utilisation.

Speaker 1

Of these products also should be and not done very judiciously. Only then you know we can really
compete with the the other forms of energy. Otherwise you know we will take out wheel.

Speaker 1
Will you know we use it and ultimately we see that you know it will run out of this. You know, one
way or the other and this is not going to some estimates in.

Speaker 1

It's not going to be very long when we're out of this resource. OK, so overall it is a collective
responsibility for all of us to, you know, understand this properly the process and you know then
then decide you know how we should.

Speaker 1

Go about using this and then you know, educate even next generation about the importance of this
formation and you know how how these renewable energy sources can also be, or, you know, can
be replacement for the non renewable energy sources.

Slide 6:

Audio file
slide6.m4a

Transcript
So this slide onwards I will be explaining mainly about the patrolling petroleum refining process, how
it is done industrially.

And what all important products can be derived by this process? OK, so as you can see in this slide
there are three main types of refining operations that can be.

Performed to purify this petroleum or refine the oil into various kinds of finished product, you know,
and it involves mainly in three different kind of steps that are listed here.

So overall, as you all are aware and also discussed previously crude oil, you know it's the very very
impure form of.

OK, and usually it's a mixture of many, many impurities or we can say many many different kind of
products which as such is of no practical use unless it is purified OK.

Hence, you know various kinds of purification methods that have been developed, and in general
they have been classified into 3.

Methods that I have listed here in the middle or a slide, the black background and the first point is
separation.

OK, I have written the bracket physical that measure it. They can be physically separated into
different kind of fractions.

I will be explaining in the initial part of the petroleum refining petroleum refining about water
products can be separated out.

The second step in this in that is a very important step, is the conversion or after the first.
Step you know the separation part. There is lot of products that are fractions that are separated out
and they they can be different forms in solid liquid and gases and even some vaccine components
are obtained. So the solid part which remains usually at the.

Bottom, that also can be used for various applications, but you know the liquid and the gases that
are there.

You know they are more value added products, hence the solid product that is there. You know they
are also sort of reprocessed against or there is a second round distillation or second round of
processing with these compounds and.

Therefore, with that you know they can. They can be heated or you know they can be treated
chemically. The presence of catalyst and they can be converted or broken down into more useful.
You know smaller fragments, so we will also be discussing about that.

And finally, the step #3 the treating of these products again. So in this process also we can obtain the
area where we can get access to various other important products.

So over the next few slides, what I will do is, you know I'll be elaborately explaining all the three
points. You know that I'm sure we're going to convince you all the crude oil purification.

Is at most important. In case if you want to obtain various useful products or you know in terms of
petroleum, this thing. They also call you know various desired fractions.

OK, and although as mentioned above, you know these three processes, the separation, the
conversion and the treating OK. Although all these processes are, you know, the most commonly
used methods or the operations for refining petroleum.

And to obtain, you know, by various useful fractions or components from the main crude oil. Now
each of these in three steps.

They may have, you know, several several more divisions, or you know many more processes
through which you know we can further obtain.

Many more products and I will try to explain all these processes in as we move ahead in this course,
OK?

So all these processes you know right from the initial stage they involve.

Uh, basically you know, right from the crude oil when it arrives from for refining until the initial
separation of these fractions from crude oil to removing nearly all the unwanted impurities and
separating out in many various factions.

And then realising their potential application, there are so many steps involved, so we'll see how we
can try to simplify this and you remove this.

Why this removal of unwanted impurities you know helps us further purify this and also breaking
them down by in various processes. The thermal and the catalytic process. How we can.

Obtain very, very useful products and that is what I will be there in the next few slides.

Audio file
slide6_2.m4a
Transcript
In this slide I will be discussing about the point one that is the separation.

So as mentioned in the previous slide, the first stage of this refining it is usually the separation of
unwanted impurities. You know, beginning from the water.

And thus, and so once this water and sand are also separated, this is followed by the crude Molly.

Being separated out according to their molecular weight. OK, that is what the physical separation
means, so they have different molecular weight.

So physically, how can we separate them out? And this is usually done, you know, by taking into
consideration the difference in their boiling point.

OK, and this process is usually known as R is done by a process known as atmospheric.

Fashion in a very specialised column or specialised columns we can say I am sure that you all would
remember you know the distillation.

Probably you all would have done in the first year undergraduate. The first year is CH110 lab, or in
other subjects, so in in the laboratory on a.

Very small scale of you know 50 to 100 ML. What we do is you know we do a small distillation setup
where we use different kind of glassware.

That is utilised to separate out different kind of organic solvents that have you know very different
boiling points and this is usually done by taking the solvent in a round bottom flask that is fitted with
a condenser and in this condenser where the cold water is usually circulating.

So from the lower part of the condenser you pass this cold water and the top part you know 88
comes out so it continuously circulate, circulates, and when we heat this round bottom flask, having
the solvent, and when they come to boiling, the solvent starts vaporising.

And when it comes in contact with the cold circulating water in the condenser part, what happens is
that these solver end, it condenses, and the the lower boiling solvent evaporates first and it
condenses. And then you know it gets converted into a liquid which we collect, and in this way.

We can keep. We increase the temperature. We can separate out the second liquid. Also. This is how
we know by knowing the difference, knowing that you know these liquids.

Have very different boiling points. We can heat where we can vaporise them, then again condense
them into liquids and we can separate them out very easily and we can have any two very pure
fractions also from a mixture of liquids.

So this is the same process you know which is done in a much bigger scale in the industry to
separate.

About so many different fractions from the crude oil, is it clear?

So same process which we can do in the lab in a smaller scale for two different solvents or three
different solvents or a mixture of four.

OK, same thing we can do with a much bigger set up or a bigger column to separate out various
different kinds of fractions from the crude oil also.
So you know, using the same principle in the industry, the same distillation process can be done.

But usually here also. Yeah, it's done in a bigger scale and temperature, although slightly higher and
usually it is done at atmospheric pressure.

That means you know you don't reduce the the pressure or anything. You know it is done
atmospheric pressure and we can heat up to 400 degree C or a foreign degree Celsius.

In a in a large distillation column which is around 50 to 60 metre tall OK or it's also buried below the
ground in some cases and in this case instead of the round bottom flask here several barrels.

Of crude oil are added or you know they they refined together and I'm sure you all know you know.
Usually this crude oil.

They come in different kind of, you know these barrels and one barrel is usually equal to close to 160
kilometre or 159 to 101 sixty litres.

Or it is equal to 42 gallons and that is what they call in the United States. So one barrel when you
have the cost of the barrel.

OK, so that is equivalent to around 159 litres of this you.

Know crude oil.

OK, so this is added to this columns. They are heated at around 400 degree C at atmospheric
pressure and this is what happens is the the initiation of the distillation happens and as the heating
process increases, the oil begins. The crude oil that is there it.

Price and it starts moving or ascending to the top layer of the column OK and what happens is the in
the in the next slide.

You know I have also include the figure I will be explaining in when you see the figure, it will be very
clear how the separation happens and how the distillation.

Separation or different fraction is executed in a very very efficiently. So once the heating begins, the
separation of these fractions you know, based on the same principle as I told in the lab, that based
on the difference in their boiling points, you know it starts happening.

OK, so here we would see that the separation of very, very useful products by this method initiated
initiated and the ones that vaporise on the top or the oil vapour say no which reached the top of the
column, which I said to mention on 50.

To 60 metre.

All the molecules will initially you know they these are condensing into liquid's and the lightest of
the light of gases you know with very few carbons they reach the top of the column.

Whereas the other part, the lower part, slightly lower to the top most part. What happens is the
temperature is slightly cooler at around 1:50 degree C.

You know they they start coming down South. The gases come at the top most part where the
temperature is less below that you have the liquid fractions and that's not condensing.

The same way as we do in the lab, and as the rice and you know, the and. And as they cool you know
they they liquefy and you know they can. They are separated out and there are very specific kind of.
What we call trace that are inserted there at different heights along the column for the collection of
these various liquids.

And you know these various factions that come out in the form liquid. You know they also have
specific name. They're called petroleum cuts. OK then destruction? There are petroleum.

Cuts and they can be separated out. You know very very efficiently since the column height is, you
know is close to 50 to 60 metres, right?

In a few metres distance you can separate out. These fractions aren't difference in boiling point.
Physically you're separating out.

And meanwhile, what happens, you know the the the gases are taken out.

Then the liquids are also separated and what remains is now in a slightly higher or the heavier
molecules that remains.

You know they are. They may be liquid, you know. Or maybe like semisolid or vaccine materials. And
they are also known as residuals. OK, and they usually don't vaporise out or they are usually non
volatile.

OK, and hence what happens is that you know these materials, what they they remain at the bottom
of the of the column, and they usually do not vaporise at around the temperature that is solid hitting
at around 400 degree COK.

That means only the volatile fractions and the gases that are there. You know once you heat them,
and as they raise.

Above now only they go, so most of the important functions that we need or the industry needs are
usually on the top. You know they they go up and they are separated out. What remains below is
only like residue.

Now you know the petroleum industry, you know if they don't utilise these, if there will be a big loss.

OK, so it is very, very important that even these fractions or the residues that remain.

It is used inappropriate way so that is some value added products can be made out of them.

OK, and these residues also include several highly viscous materials such as asphalt, the petroleum
coke, etc.

And I will be also discussing about this in the more elaborately in the upcoming slides. Like how can
this?

The asphalt or petrol and coke also be used or already being used in various application.

OK, and usually after this atmospheric distillation is completed, what happens is that these heavy
residuals you know they as I told you they are not thrown away, they are also transferred into other
columns for further processing or for, you know various other applications you know and and they
purify for that also and this process.

Is usually known as the second distillation procedure where you know even these results into
various important products like the diesel, the heavy oils and of course also the.
Non volatile solids have in various applications. OK, so usually in these additional columns you know
these are columns separate from the main column, but there also they undergo a second round of
distillation process.

To extract all this, you know heavier fractions as I mentioned that the diesel and the heavy fuel oil.

And asphalt, the point that I mentioned above, you know? So this asphalt also commonly known as
bitumen. OK civil engineering students would knows very well OK the bitumen and also mentioned
in several books that you would have read is usually sticky in a black colour in a highly viscous liquid.

Or a semi solid form of petroleum so that also has you know various applications and usually while
you know using it as a pavement material for Rd, which all would already be knowing or you all
would have seen that before using it, it is heated.

And you know the the semisolid or the solid form. It is liquefied, and then it's poured over. You know
the roads and all, and it solidifies.

On cooling and later on, what happens is that you know it is hard pressed by a very heavy roller. OK,
so the entire process, even this, in semisolid material, or the residue that is there.

OK that is also utilised for paving very high quality roads.

OK, so this process you all would have seen, but you probably do not correlate it that it it may be
residue of the petrochemical industry.

But yeah, this is the fact that this is what the residue that comes out, and that is also used for, you
know, developing various kind of infrastructure.

And you know, usually this may be found in various natural deposits, or you know they may be also
part of this. You know refined product as I described just now.

So overall, in the refining process, what happens is that no I, I only I did not mention the name of the
product, but usually after the refining process, several thousands of products are separated out and
some of which have direct applications in fuels, some of them application in various other other
kinds of energy. While you know some of them are also used.

Or as intermediates in various kinds of fine chemicals in pharmaceuticals and also send many of
them are used as bulk chemicals in industries in polymer industrial for pressure monomers.

OK, so this is also another major industry polymers because you know there are lot of application
based on various kind of polymers and this can lead to in various other major product development.

So you can see that you know the separation process itself. You know is is very, very important
where right from the separation.

Love you know by simple heating process at atmospheric condition you can separate out the gases.

OK, you can separate out the the liquids and the solid that remains. You know that also can be
further either taken for second distillation process or you know that can also be used for the
infrastructure products.

So overall, the very first separation process itself you end up getting so many different kind of useful
products and.
Although you know several by products are there with you in the initial change, we feel may not be
very, very useful. Or like rescue prod.

But now industry has developed expertise even in utilising these residues and converting them by
the process of distillation or various other process into very very useful products, you know and that
may have, as I mentioned, applications in so many different kind of in a chemical industry or even.

Other major polymer industry which have offshoot other applications like in for making furniture.
You know in making other pipes roof so many other applications or even high end applique.

OK so so no product that is there in the crude oil. Is these days allowed to go waste every product
right from the gases to the residue that is there?

Everything is finding you know some kind of application directly or you know the result that is there.
They can also broken up. Or can we modify it into various different kind of products?

SLIDE 7

Audio file
slide7.m4a

Transcript
So in this slide.

I have shown the figure of a bubble cap fractionating column.

And on the left the red colour part with the blue this outline.

That is our furnace.

From where the field is taken to the fractionating column?

So the crude oil.

Or petroleum.

Which is usually the dark brown in colour and very thick viscous liquid.

Now, with a very unpleasant smell.

It is usually processed in this column.

By method known as refining fractionation.

OK, so by this method or by this is very important process the crude oil.

It can be separated.

In to various useful fractions, all the useful fractions, as I mentioned in the previous slide, also, and in
general it is known as the patrolling, refining the petroleum refining.

Or it is also known, as you know very commonly in the industry, as in a fractionation.

OK, so all the fractions or the description that I mentioned in the previous slide here also I am
showing it in the form of a figure using a fractionating column.
And as seen in this figure on the right side of this, you're a fractionating column. The left side you
have the furnace, the entire refining process. It is carried out by very, very efficient.

A bubble cap fractionating tower with very specialised columns. So in the in the tall column, if you
observe carefully you know there are various steps.

The lower part, though temperature is quite higher as I mentioned is 700. You know, taken from a
website that I have pasted below. OK, usually you don't need to heat it.

So 700 sometimes it can even start it between 400 and 500 or even sometime lesser.

OK, so you can see the the various stages, the 600 and then in between the render state then there
is.

Around between 400 to 500.

Then there is one stage at 270, then at 170 and little bit about that 120 and then 70, which is the
topmost part so around.

250 as I had mentioned in the previous slide, this is where even the liquid's come out and above that
I have mentioned. In this slide the C1, the carbon 1 to carbon 4.

Cassius fraction, you know which comes out, even the LPG which is there in that also comes down
the mixture.

Yes, the propane and butane and so this is how the entire setup is there and the crude oil. What is
happening is that you know which is which. I mentioned in the previous thread which is freed from.

Both is water and sand that that is usually taken. In this the red colour part, it is preheated in a
furnace to around 350 to 400, sometimes even higher. OK, so on their itself we can see that most of
the.

The the fractions are most volatile compounds that are there in a crude oil. What happens that you
know they they converted?

Into vapours from that stage itself, and it comes out all the other part is also taken in the in the
column it comes as a into the feedstock from this furnace and.

There also again, it is continued to be heated and the, uh, you know vapours which are fed directly
into this specialised or fractionating tower.

OK, the heating continues and you can see that you know, although each part, each layer here the
C20 to save 70 or you know the C20 to see 50 each is a layer and there is sort of a cap which is there.
So in this case what happens is the CAP is specifically designed.

'cause whenever the vapours of this liquid come, you know that that cap is designed in a way that
you know it can open up and allow the vapour or the volatile liquids.

You know that that rise on heating? You know it can push up this. This leads and.

You know, go up.

And as a liquify on the right side, you can see you know there is small outlet. You know six outlets
are kept small outlets.
Now it can. All the liquids can also be taken out with trace that I mentioned in the previous slide, so
it's a very efficient tower that has been optimised or constructed over the years.

And as you see in the column the right side I have mentioned as the temperature increases, you
know or the the functions go up and on the top you know the the fractions within a low density and
within low boiling point they reach the top even the gases are on the top.

Whereas the fractions with high density and with high boiling points you know they remain at the
bottom. As I mentioned in the previous set, these are usually in the form of a residue is residue or
again collected.

They taken into second distillation column and further processing is done with them. So if you see
the figure.

Very, very carefully and this bubble the role of this bubble cap you know can be observed. You know,
very very clearly.

So overall, by this process, once this the hot crude, it is past the fractionating column and then again
heated.

So by this process of this heating very systematically, this permits the separation of this petroleum
or other products in the refining into various number of fractions.

Having the difference.

In the boiling points or you know, since it is not a single product that comes out, usually is also
separated out with boiling point range which are very close to each other.

OK, so everywhere it's not just C1 or C2 or C5 and then see ten OK it is a mixture of it in C5 and C7.

Sometimes it can be even more. It's a combination of C5 to C7, and as you all can see in the in the
tower, the figure the most of the volatile.

Action with the lowest boiling points with our very lower boiling points you know they get
condensed on the uppermost part of the fractionating column.

Of this tower, while the lesser volatile parts which are there they they start getting collected at the
lower part of this tower.

So the gases are there. Then the volatile liquids are there, and then you know liquids or you know
like semi solids are there. You know these are almost like in the middle.

Or in a lower part of this.

And then you have the vaccine compounds. The non volatile compounds in the vaccine compounds
and then you have you know.

Very high, these viscosity liquids or the fuel oils, and as usually in the bottom you have the residue or
the solid which is also known the bitumen.

Or you know the asphalt as I mentioned, so that remains in the bottom, which is further used for
other application.

So this you know various fractions that are collected their continuously with drawn out by very
specialised place plates.
And many of these fractions, they are further fractionated and to get out even smaller fractions of
you know more important market value.

So suppose if you want, you know only seven only seven, or if you want you know to separate the C5
and C7. You can use this fraction.

And again do the distillation.

And finally, the most widely used industrial method you know this bubble K. Fractionating column.
This is very popular in most of the refining industries and the petrol in refining usually done by this
method only since it produces very, very important fraction based.

On a simple difference is the boiling points and all these fractions having a very very wide.

Applications right from fuel and energy, and of course, as I mentioned, also intermediates in. We
have various kinds of industries.

Overall, this is the most commonly most widely used, most preferred method. The fractionating
column or bulky fractionating column where all the desired fractions can be separated out.

By having a simple heating at atmospheric.

Pressure so this design you can see it's very easy to remember. Also this design. Here you have one
inlet and you have multiple outlets.

From the inlet you take the crude oil and from the multiple outlets you know some of them are
taken out during the refining or the heating process. And while some of them are taken out.

OK, the last part that is there, the residue that is taken out as the final part after the refining process
is completed. So it's it's a very, very interesting or very simple.

And very widely used, you can increase the height of the column. You can get even better
separation, but usually is 50 to 60 metre.

Columns are the most widely and column that you see almost at every refining industry or a
petrochemical plant that is there. OK, so by this method you can be very nicely separate out this
thing.

OK, and then the following these slides I will also show you the
different applications or the importance of this. You know various
factions.Audio file
slide7_2.m4a

Transcript
So in the previous slide, you all would have understood.

The importance of distillation.

Using a very tall tower, around 50 to 60 metres as I mentioned so that various important fractions
can be efficiently separated out.
OK, so this process of refining of petroleum or crude oil, now it is carried out in refineries. Using this,
you know tower type.

Fractionating column to transform. You know, all the crude oil into multiple useful products or
various kind of you know useful products.

I will be listing that in the in the in the following slide you know what are the very useful product in
this slide. Also below I have mentioned some details. You know what the industry classes classifieds
them.

But in general, as you would have seen.

When when the distillation process begins in in this tower and the top part of the column OK, this is
where you get the gaseous compound. The top most part.

The next comes the liquid's after after. After the gas is OK slightly below and.

It's around close to 1:15. You get most of the liquids or liquids out.

Or you know, the the petroleum and that that part after that you have the next part is the wax or
the the greasy material?

OK, and this is just about the solid materials. OK? Or these racks or greasy metal. These are like the
like, a hard liquid or solid we can say and below what is considered sometimes as even the residue.

These are the solid forms of the compound. They are at the extreme bottom or sometimes they are
also called just the leftovers.

Many industries you know they don't do anything with that, that's why you know they they give
them the term.

Give it the term leftovers and they just throw it away or you know they pass it on to other industry
who may do the processing and then you use them or sell them as a better product.

So overall you know what we can understand is that the main goal of this refining process. It is
nothing but to produce various kind of useful products for for fuels.

OK for power generation.

For transportation and as intermediates.

OK, and intermediates you know the that can be used for the prod.

Lot of other, you know, finished products or they can also be used as raw materials for various other
industries.

OK, so this is the main goal of the entire thing. You know the crude oil assay is not useful, so once
the refining process, the process of this, the main goal of this refining is to produce very, very
important.

I I know this by the main products has been fueled mainly for fuels and also the power.

In addition.

And in general, as I mentioned in the industry, they are classified into four different forms, the 1st,
as we can see in the in the column also that we saw in the previous slide.
OK, they really offer in a very low molecular weight and they are in the form of gases and one of the
most commonly used gas from.

Is you know petroleum thing. The name also stretches liquefied petroleum gas or the LPG and.

The you know I also highlighted this because you know the you all are very familiar with this gas and
it is one of the most widely used gas for domestic cooking purposes.

OK, and it is also considered as one of the most important gases that is obtained from this process,
so this LPG is an example of this.

Among the classification, one of the gases which were very popular or very commonly used or
obtained from the top of the of the column.

OK, the second is about the liquid's or the petroleum or the gasoline. This of course also is very
popular across the world and mainly because it extensively.

Used in almost all kind of vehicles, the motor vehicles that are there almost everywhere in the motor
vehicle uses the petroleum.

Some countries it is also called as gasoline, so this is another very very important fraction and in this
itself you have this kerosene and you know very very special type of kerosene.

Is also used as as a jet fuel OK or maybe even rocket fuel and the advantage of this is in the freezing
point is.

You know very, very low.

Go followed by this you know you are slightly, you know, a more viscous or you know liquid, which is
the number of carbon is slightly more than the Petra.

The petrol or gasoline, and as you all know this is also used extensively for heavy vehicles like the
buses that trucks you also have.

You know other vehicles in the mini trucks are there also these days there are.

Lot of cars.

That are using this because it's considered to be slightly.

And then the petrol. OK so this again is a very very important.

A fraction, and since you know it is used extensively for both these motor vehicles also. Also this in a
very very heavy vehicles.

OK, the diesel is also used these days in trains. The diesel trains. You all know the diesel engines that
are there.

OK, in addition to that, the point #3. In this slide. There are also other heavy fuel oils. You know they
they are also used in various kind of industries and then you have the lubricants which are used for
in vehicles also in different kind of machinery. OK, then you have the grease which is again used to
extensively.

Using the.

Section of the products and then you have the paraffin wax, which is again, you know by the mixture
of various viscous oil and usually what you see is in the form of a semi solid OK, the purified form
where paraffin wax also a lot of other applications. But yeah, this is the third fraction you have a
mixture of fuel, oil, lubricants, the grease.

The paraffin wax, which is again the semisolid.

And finally, as I as I mentioned earlier, you have the the residue, which many industries and don't
use it, they just pass it on to other company.

Other industries who use them or to use them as int are or in some other applications, or sometimes
they even utilise that for to breaking it down for other purposes and these mainly.

And as far as the bitumen also it is known and of course the tower which is which is the solids
previously even on the residential roofs.

This used to be, you know, very very common material. For, you know, putting it on the rooftops.
But these days you know that is not used to have other kind of sealants or material which are used.

On the rooftop, so to avoid region seepage of water. So these are the four main factions that are
obtained from industry and would like to recognise them.

Of course, in the next slide I'm going to show you 10 different things with, you know their
properties, 10 different fractions, we get different properties and how important.

You know, getting these fractions in the pure form you know is helping realise how many
applications, plus other industries are flourishing based on that.

SLIDE8

Audio file
slided8.m4a

Transcript
Up to now.

We have learned.

On the basic characteristics.

Of crude oil.

Why it is needed to be purified?

How it is purified?

In general, in the industrial scale.

And how?

Various fractions.

Some that are very, very important.

And useful that can be separated out and collected very efficiently.

So as you all would see in the present slide.

And the next slide.

I have listed.

Most of the important fractions.

That can be separated out.

By this you know petroleum refining process.

OK, their basic physical characteristic like applications.

And usually the number of carbons that are present.

In these components or fractions. So in this table you can see I have listed you know 5.

Important fractions, the next slide I have listed. The other file fractions from 6 to 10.

OK so I have divided them as the fraction name.

Then the distillation temperature.

The applications likely application there can be more than one application. I have listed the main
application here.

And usually the carbon number that are associated with these fractions.

So coming to the very first fraction in this slide, you all can see you know these are gases.

OK, and if you all recollect the tower that was there, the long tower the distillation column. That was
the distillation tower that was there OK and I had mentioned in that explanation while I was
explaining that slide that when you start heating.

The crude oil.

OK, so in the initial stage of the heating or the distillation process itself.

The low molecular weight or the light hydrocarbons.

OK, that have this carbon length, usually from C1 to C4. I have listed it on the right side of the the
number one this column the C1 to C4.

And sometimes even see five uh comes out. You know it's it's not very easy to separate it out, but
you know, this is what you know comes out as the very first fraction.

OK, so these are usually low molecular weight or the low or the light hydrocarbons having carbon
like usually from 1C1 to C4.

And as I mentioned, there can also be sometimes see five they separate out in the form of gases.

OK, so this is the gaseous fraction, and these are usually alkanes, such as methane with the chapter
4, the methane, the ethane, the CS three, you know with the two discover CS3C3 or C2. At six you
have the propane.

Then you have the butane and sometimes you also have this pentane.

That is very very rare, but usually from methane to butane. And although it is practically impossible
to separate these gases individually.
OK, we cannot separate them out individually and collect them. You know always there are
attempts. There are always attempts that are being made to collect few of these gases.

OK, few of these gases and use them directly. As you know, various kinds of fuels.

And as you can see, the distillation temperature here. Now most of them. Most of these gases. They
can be distilled at low temperature, which is below 20 degrees Celsius and hence even at room
temperature OK and usually in India the room temperature is you know much higher than that.
Almost 30 to 40 degree Celsius. OK, so even at low.

Temperature or below 20 degree Celsius. These products or these gases can be separated out very
easily.

OK, so that is a very big advantage.

OK, the next important point about this is you know the the LPG gas. And as you all know, this is very
widely used for cooking in all the domestic gas that is used for cooking purposes in our residences.
OK, this is generally a part of distraction and it is a mixture.

Of both propane and butane gas. OK, so usually in the first fraction. When you have a mixture of
these two gases, the propane and butane gas, that is what comprises mainly of this the LPG.

Yes, sometimes as an indicator. They also add some kind of gas. You know it is called ethanethiol and
whenever there is a leak of this propane and butane assets, you know these gases.

They don't have any smell, but when they add this ethanethiol in small proportion, even if there is a
slightest amount of leak because of the presence of the thiole.

Now we can easily detect that there is some leak of the gas from the cylinder. OK, so hence this
usually is LPG. Cylinders are a combination of the propane and butane gas.

Is it clear?

OK so I am going to the point #2 in this number 2 you know which is a or a fraction #2 and you know
this is known as petroleum ether and as you see in this.

Against the petroleum ether distillation temperature, which is around 20 to 60 degree Celsius and it
comprises of carbon number between C5 and C6.

OK, so this is the next fraction which is usually distil off during the separation process, and these are
usually.

Aliphatic carbons you know five or for between 5:00 to 6:00 and commonly known as petroleum
ether.

OK so but the name that is mentioned here, the petroleum ether, you know that that should not be
confused.

You know it it it is in no way any form of ether. OK, ethers usually have an auction linkage.

You know, here there is no auction. You know there there is no ether albond here, but you know
usually sits.

Comprised mainly of high aliphatic hydrocarbons, OK, and the main application of this is it's used
mainly as solvents.
And their plane hydrocarbon. I'm repeating this again and they have a distillation.

Or a boiling range between 20 and 60 degree Celsius, so you know if that is also again very very low
so.

So you know by although the room temperature is between 14 summers, it may go to around 45 to
50 degrees Celsius.

But you know this fraction in that way is, you know, quite important. It's it's not the purest form, it is
a mixture of, you know C5 and C6.

And aliphatic this hydrocarbons. But it is very commonly used as an organic solvent for extraction of
natural products. OK, so in natural product isolation this is one of the preferred solvents and it is also
used in purification of various other compounds in the column chromatography.

OK, so you know the first section was completely gassed. This is also in a very very low boiling
organic solvent or compressing of hydrocarbons and carbon length is in a slightly longer than the
previous a fraction one it has you know carbon 5.

2 carbons

So they and usually whenever this petroleum ether is stored in a bottle due to its very low boiling
point.

You know when you open this bottle, you and the cap. When you remove the cap you can see that
fumes of the solvent are usually evaporating.

OK, so it's quite volatile and you see that you know these vapours of this, you know, coming out.

Quite easily, so you have to store it in a closed container to ensure the solvent does not evaporate
out.

Now the third product listed in this table, it's it's called growing, or the light naphtha. OK so this is
almost similar again composition wise to this petroleum ether, except that the number of carbons in
this fraction is slightly higher than that.

Of petrol in ether?

OK, so really groyne. It is also sometimes the product key. It's also called light naphtha and it
comprises of, you know similar residual hydrocarbons as that of the fraction 2.

And that is. That is, sometimes it is also known as petrol emitter. However, this fraction of
petroleum ether.

Has a slightly higher boiling range from around 60 to 100 degrees Celsius and that is, you know,
common because the previous one, the previous fraction had between 5:00 and six carbons.

The higher boiling Renly Groyne has in six to seven, and because of this the the higher carbon that is
present here, the boiling point.

Also sees a an increase from 6 from 20 to 60. In this case it is around 60 to hundreds.

The application part of this fraction is also very similar to the previous fraction. It is used as you
know, commonly for organic solvents, where sometimes you need to run this in purification for a
very long time, and you know if you use a low boiling solvent, there are chances that you know they
can evaporate off. That is the reason that in some cases.
Even this league GROYNE is used where the applications demand, you know, the higher boiling or
basically slightly lesser volatile as compared to the petroleum ether.

So as the composition is same except the carbon chain link that is present, here is slightly longer
than the petroleum ether.

The next comes the the fraction four OK, but this production doesn't need much introduction. One
of the most important fraction in the refining industry known as natural gasoline, or the main thing
that the entire refining process started the petroleum thing.

OK, and as you can see in the in the table, the distillation temperature for this range has an overlap
with the previous fraction.

OK, the distillation temperature that is mentioned in this table is from 40 to 205 degrees Celsius.

And its main applications are, you know, in the motor fuel or the petrol that we use to run almost all
the vehicles.

OK, so this is very very important now. Interesting thing to note here is a carbon number. OK so the
carbon numbers here it is not just linear, it can be cyclic alkanes. So in the previous.

Fractions it was only mainly linear. OK, so it is not a cyclic compound, but in this case it can be cyclic
and the carbon range are also if you see it is an overlap with both the fraction 2.

And the fraction 3.

OK, so here the number of carbons is usually between C5 and C10, which is slightly higher than the
fraction #3 where it is between C6 and C7.

But of course you know there is an overlap, as I mentioned with both these you know fraction 2 and
fraction 3. So fraction 2-3 and four. Now there is some overlap and number of carbons but.

Since the C5 to C10, the overall number of carbons is more and there are also cyclic alkanes.

The distillation temperature or the boiling of this fraction is higher and it can go up to 205 degrees
Celsius.

And it is, you know, widely referred to as petrol. And also you know, very commonly known as motor
fuel. Sometimes it is also called as you know pentanes plus.

And it is, you know, intentionally, blended with various other fuels, including in ethanol. So even in
India this process started in a lot of the South American and the main United States. But now it is
also ethanol is blended with this, you know.

Control even in India and usual.

It is supplied directly to the petrol stations as a blend stock or a blended stock. OK, so accordingly
the engines have also been modified and this also reduces the other prices slightly, so this is a new
information. And Please note that it is also called many times as pentanes plus.

And is intentionally blended with. You know, various other fluids fuels, including ethanol, and is
always, you know, supplied as a blended mixture.

And since you know this is, you know very, very common, and there are always efforts to reduce the
pollution by burning this this fuel by the burning of this fuel. OK, there are always efforts or methods
that are being developed to improve.
The quality of these fractions, and you know this has always found, you know, always. You see that
the quality of this petrol has been increasing. You know our government is also.

Yeah, this you know has embraced this. You know the Euro 2 euro, 3 euro four. And similarly no, we
have our own pollution control.

It's called the Absl range, so bcel 1234. You know five and six, so you know this is the quality or the
lesser the impurity. The higher the grade. OK, so since this is very very.

Popular are always, you know, an attempt to improve the quality of the natural gasoline or the
petrol and overall the if you see that oil industry it devotes the maximum amount of time or lots of
effort are devoted by the oil industry to enhance the quality of this fraction.

OK, there are also maximum efforts by the oil industry to get maximum amount of this natural
gasoline as possible.

You know from this crude oil, so overall, you know this is one of them. Very, very common or you
know very, very important fraction. The most important function in this entire.

Table that I'm going to present, or the entire fraction that are obtained by the refining process.

The last point in this table it is the kerosene.

Or the paraffin oil. And as you can see from the.

The table the distillation temperature here is even higher than the natural gas hauling and the
temperature range that is shown here is between 175 to 325 degree Celsius.

OK, so this is also known as an paraffin oil the kerosene, the paraffin oil, the field structure in the
table with higher boiling point as compared to other faction, and it is an equally important fraction
overall that is obtained in the process of fractionation.

It's application as you can see in the table. It is very widely used as a as jet or a rocket fuel jet, fewer
or rocket fuel, and the reason for that is you know it's because of it.

Lower freezing point. OK in in other. In addition to that, it is also used in very lighting application.

You know it doesn't need explanation. You know this was also used for cooking purposes extensively
across India, especially in the early periods in post independence.

You know most of the cooking in you know across India was done using this. You know kerosene as
as a.

Sure, OK, so it is. It's very very popular across India, mainly for this cooking purposes. But you know
presently very high grade kerosene is also used as a jet fuel or even in in the.

In the rocket fuel.

And the last column, as you all can see, OK, the number of carbon atoms that is present in kerosene
is between C-12.

And C-14 and C18. And as you can see, the difference in you know the one of the major differences
that you can see in the table. OK, the the 1st 3 fractions had only the gases petroleum ether.

And the groyne. They had only the linear Haro hydrocarbons, a fourth fraction the natural gasoline
had the linear hydrocarbons mixed with cyclic alkenes. Also, whereas in the case of this in fifth
fraction, the kerosene and paraffin oil that this has the linear hydrocarbons, this has, you know, in
addition to the linear.

Hydrocarbons, or the aliphatic hydrocarbons? This also contains a lot of aromatics.

OK, so and how? How do you find out? Probably you all would have seen in various experiments that
you would have done even in the school days.

Then whenever you have these aromatic compounds that represent in this fraction what happens, it
is seen emitting black smoke. OK, so the black smoke.

Whenever you burn it, you know the black smoke that comes out. That's an indication that there are
also a lot of aromatic fractions present. Along with this, you know aliphatic.

Compounds and you all would have also observed this these days, that since kerosene is cheaper
compared to other fuels and the boiling range of this is, you know, quite similar to the diesel, so lot
of these three Wheelers that ply across India. They mix it with the diesel to to save money.

But you know when this fuel burns because of the presence of lot of aromatics, they emit lot.

Smoke OK, so usually to prevent this adulteration with diesel these days you will see that kerosene
that is available in the market you know is mixed with, uh, die to your specific colour.

In some context it is blue. Some countries you know it is, some other die there. So usually you know
this kerosene is cheaper or it is subsidised.

And because of the subsidy, you know it is sometimes available and it.

Yeah, available and is easily available and it's also used to mix with diesel. But I said that is not the
correct purpose of separating.

Of taking it out the main part.

Of you know, getting high grade kerosene is to use it for the jet fuel.

Or OK rocket fuel and overall in this table if you can see the the 1st 5 fractions comprises of, you
know gas is firstly the gases received one to C4, the second is with the C5 to C6. You know that is a
low boiling solvent, the petrol emitter, the third is the.

And the groyne the you know that's similar to the petrol emitter you also known as petroleum ether.
It has carbon 6 to carbon 7 and the 4th section which is the most important function in the
petroleum industry.

You know it has a carbon 5 to carbon 10 as I mentioned earlier, it has overlapped with both the
fractions 2.

And fraction 3.

And the last fraction in this table is the kerosene or the paraffin oil. It has C-12 to C18 0AS, such no
overlap with any of the carbon fractions in this table.

But in addition to the hydrocarbons, the long chain hydrocarbons that are long hydrocarbons that
are present in this.

Section it also comprises of aromatic compounds. OK, so these are the five fractions that can be
separated out in the next slide.
I will also be discussing about fractions which are in a slightly higher in the carbon number, and the
applications that are present.

May also differ compared to this slide.

SLIDE 9

Audio file
slide9.m4a

Transcript
The previous slide.

I had discussed.

About five different fractions.

That are obtained from this petroleum refining. In the present slide.

I will discuss with you all.

The remaining.

6 fractions or remaining 5 fractions from the .6789 to 10 and also discuss their physical properties.

So the fraction 6 that is mentioned in this table as gas oil.

OK, is slightly confusing. As you can see, but it is nearly similar to what we all know as a diesel or the
diesel fuel, but this gas oil is developed mainly or produced mainly.

In developed countries.

Is a subsidised commercial fuel?

OK, so though it looks similar to the diesel oil, you know it's not produced everywhere. It is mainly
produced in developing countries and his main applications are primarily primarily aimed for in very
specific industries to power very heavy machinery.

No, as well As for running specialised vehicles you know, such as those used in agricultural or
construction purposes and sometimes also in the marine sectors.

I did not mention this in the table year, but yeah, it is also used for, you know this marine marine.

Vehicles OK.

And they also of course find another major application for heat generation. Oh are we can see in
heaters, you know, very, very cool places where the temperatures are usually in sub freezing.

So as you can see in the in the right extreme this column OK, the number of carbons that are present
in the distraction.

Is around C-12 and higher.

OK, so in general this fraction has a boiling point and that is almost about 275 degrees Celsius and
usually it is.
You know, very long carbon chain as mentioned in the table C. 12 and higher. So the gas oil, though
it is not very common terminology.

That you all would have heard, but yes, it's a very specific fraction, you know, produce mainly in
developed countries where you know they use it for heating purposes. You know in extreme sub-
zero condition, but they are also used.

As a very special or subsidised fuel for running vehicles for agricultural purposes, for construction
purposes, and also in several times in marine sectors. OK, so this is, you know, one of the important
fractions that, if necessary, can be separated out.

During this refining process.

Now going to the the fraction seven. OK, so this fraction, as mentioned in the table, it is no
lubricating oil.

I'm sure you all have heard about this. This specific oil, the lubricating oil, or in this specific fraction.

And, uh, as such, you know they. They are also called lubes and this lubricating oils or the lubricants
or the loops in general and non volatile viscous liquids.

And they are separated out as a very important fraction or fraction #7 in the lower part of the
fractionating columns.

And these loops, have, you know, very very specific characteristics and properties unlike what we
have seen till now. The earlier 6 fractions.

In the table and you know this is what makes this specific fraction very different from the volatile or
the gaseous or the low boiling solvent and their applications.

Also thrust are, you know very, very rare or different as compared to what we have seen earlier for
other factions.

OK, in general this lubricants or this. You know, lubricating oils are extremely important components
useful in various industries.

You know, go very need for the greasing purposes or you know where the machines in this you
know. Lubricant for you know, smooth operation.

They are also used in various kind of vehicles. You all would know about this that you know.
Lubricant is a very, very important component for all the vehicles.

It is also used for mainly used for purposes that reduces the friction in the during the operation, and
you know when you can avoid or when you can reduce this friction that the wear and tear between
various mechanical components you know. Also you know reduces so that is where this application.

Loops or lubricating oils is extremely extremely important, important and many times this is also
distraction is also used for heating purposes also also to he.

Right?

OK, so like the earlier section, this also is application for for heating and.

And as mentioned in the right side of the column, OK, the number of carbons that are present or the
compounds the hydrocarbon at present in this you know have longer hydrocarbon chain and that
ranges between C-16 and it can go up to 20 or in C20 carbon.
And this is among the last of the liquid fractions that usually comes out of this. You know the refining
process.

OK, so this is a very very important. I forgot to mention that is written here in the column that in
addition to the long chain in this fraction also you can find several cyclic compounds. So Please
remember that unlike the volatile liquids that we have studied till now although this loop.

Loops or lubricants?

That they are liquid in nature. As such, you know their their viscosity is very, very high and.

Yeah, you you would have seen that you know they're completely non volatile and this is usually
separated out as a fraction.

Seven that mentioned here in the lower part of the fractionating column. OK, so it's it's. It's not very
difficult to separate the low boiling.

Liquids and gases from this. Usually this fraction remains in the in the lower part because of the the
the much higher you know is a non volatile nature and there are much higher.

You know the boiling point? Or, you know, sometimes it's also difficult. Determine the boiling point
for this compound.

Now moving forward, let us study the the fraction #8 that is mentioned in the table. OK, so this
fraction. It's also known as South Fault.

And sometimes also known as petroleum coke. And this is the next fraction. This also, of course is a
non volatile but it comes out as a non volatile solid and it is very widely used for very large
infrastructure projects such as in the construction of roads and highways which I'm sure.

You all would.

So the Sr several several times.

Especially our civil engineering students, can you know, provide more information or know more
about this specific product? Importantly, you know this asphalt or the petroleum coke? It can be
mixed and we know very efficiently with stones and pebbles as a binder.

And after doing that, you know it creates almost a semi solid concrete like mixture.

OK, so we can. You can make a mixture. You know that almost like concrete and we can spread it.

You know, for for payment purposes you can as a road, so you can spread it. It can also be pressed
and smooth, and to create a very uniform surface.

So this is a very, very important property of this compound. You know it can be mixed with any
desired these rocks or stones or pebbles.

And you know it acts as a binder and usually it's in a semi solid form which all would have seen and
you know we can. We can spread it over a large area and then no precedence, smooth and forever.

Very nice.

Looking or you know, wherever in a nice Rd.

So in general you know it used to have applications as bituminous waterproofing products previously
here, including in the production of roofing felt and for ceiling or the flat roofs.
OK, however, as you all know these days the technology has improved drastically and instead of
using you know this material which has to be processed usually at higher temperature.

These days you can commercially by in a lot of different kind of polymer or polymer based materials
that have now completely replaced these materials.

For waterproofing, there are several reasons for that. Primarily, the polymer based product that are
available, or the glue based product that are available today. They are application and everything is
done, usually at room.

Temperature, moreover, making films or using it as a surface coating, you know, is is much better
than the using asphalt based materials. OK, so in general these days for waterproofing we don't see
this asphalt being used extensively. OK so.

Previously notated this application in the waterproofing, but these days you know you don't see that
and but of course you know these days the the use of asphalt and petrol comma is diversified these
days.

You know it finds applications in various kind of pharmaceutical industries as intermediates also in in
a very insteel industries for heating.

And also in the energy sector. So by hitting it you can you can produce its overall so in the energy
secret in a sector.

Usually very high quality of this petroleum. Coke is also produced. It is known as the fuel grade
petcoke. OK, so this is a very high quality.

Petroleum Coke, and you know it has a very high heating value and this heating value is generally,
you know, measured or mentioned in Btus per pound. OK BTU per pound. And you know this is of
high quality because you know when you.

You know when you burn it?

It does not produce any kind of ash. OK, so this is a very nice application, so that is the reason that it
is called fuel grid.

Petco, or the high heating value because whenever you burn the fuel to generate heat or badging
generate energy. Usually you know most of the component.

When they degrade, they produce some kind of an ash or black thing, but in this case nothing is.

No ashes produced, so this is very, very important property. You know that you do not see in many
solids OK, and that is why you know it it it has very unique.

Application in in you know the heating purpose or in.

Energy sector also.

Because of this, you know good property.

It is thus used in, as mentioned in this slide. It is also also mentioned in the energy sector in power
plants.

It is also used extensively in in various kind of various steel industries with special application and
these days it is also found application in the cement kills.
OK, so this is another application that has come up so this has this. The number of carbon that is
present in these are on C18 to see 22.

OK, so if you compare it with now the other factions, the number of carbons is also increased by by
two, so overall you know this is the one of the earlier the earliest actions in the solid part. OK, this
this is completely a nonvolatile solid, and you know other than the normal application infrastructure.

It's also finding application in a few other industries and hopefully you know in the near future we
can have you know more applications or in a more diversified application. But even with this
material.

Now I move on to the next point. OK, the point #9 and here, as mentioned in the table, OK, it's.

It's the paraffin wax or it is the hard wax. OK so by wax doesn't need any introduction. You all are
very well aware of. You know where wax.

Is used how it is used. I know what is the main application and you know other than the candle
industry. Of course these days is in a wax also has you know many many other applications? But
yeah.

One of the the major attraction with this faction, the wax is to prepare, you know, candles of various
sizes, various shapes.

You know various colour you additive, so this is a very nice thing. And as you all, yeah again, you
know I don't need to explain about this part of access. It says a soft.

Material OK and it can be moulded or you know.

Given whatever shape, and you know whatever size you want, it can be made accordingly. OK in
general, and the distraction the paraffin wax.

It is a very soft solid and in general it is a white.

OK, and as I told you, the colour that you see is by, you know it is obtained by adding in a different
kind of you know these colouring agents.

Or sometimes your oils and perfumes are added, so these days you also you know perfumed candle
so you know blending various compounds with you know the racks and that is a very very big
industry.

So as such, in general you know the paraffin wax is a solid compound, it is. It is a wide appear or
white compound and primarily used for the preparation of candles. And of course you know even
wax paper. OK, that also has a lot of different applications.

But in addition to that, you know another very important application and that I'm sure you all would
have seen.

But probably you know you you are not noticed or you know it did not take this thing to read.

Or what is the component in that application and that is, you know in Polish you have various kind of
Polish is where you have the paraffin.

Access the main component in addition to Polish is you know it also has application in various
cosmetic products.
OK, so this is another very, you know, a bigger market that it is having, so it's used as a cosmetic
product in various paths and solutions and another very different kind of application of, you know,
this compound is that it is also used as an electrical insulator.

OK, so this is an additional application so and one more application that you all would have heard is
that it's also used as a petroleum Jelly.

Yes, so petrolum Jelly based this skin cosmetic product is not very widely available in the market.
Very, very widely used and.

It overall, if we are seeing in the table, you know it can have a very high content of carbon and that
range you know ease from around C20 to close to see 30. OK so this is, you know, quite large and.

And you know that that is the reason that now these are, you can see the transformation of this
hydrocarbon from gas to liquid and from a liquid to you know non volatile liquid or you know very
very thick liquid and then you have the non vaulted solids and the cathode paraffin wax wax. You
have now directly what you see is a.

Solid compound.

OK, so we we have seen the almost entire range. Now we are remaining part of the table. You know
we can see one fraction that is remaining.

And that is what is called a residue and or you can say the last part that remains in the petroleum
refining process.

And So what remains is called the residue and the petroleum industry. You know, now they've got
the main main components as listed in the table, you know?

That that from where their economic benefits have already been gained. So you know as such the
residue doesn't find you know lot of interest from the petroleum industry. OK so some some
industries are there which usually.

Utilise this product for.

You know further refining it, but in general, OK, the last solid that remains of this, the refining
process, and as such this residue, though it may not be utilised by the petroleum industry. Usually
this product also has now in the present day, you know.

Various commercial value, especially as discussed earlier in the case of asphalt and petroleum coke,
this can also be used.

And also being used for infrastructure. You know development. It is used extensively in the highway
and and and the road development as you note or base material.

So I am sure that you know this application is also a very very important component for utilising
even when the last fraction OK, so even if.

Residue which is there if the petroleum industry is not interested to use them the best way or what
can be done by the best is to we will give away these two some other industry.

Finally this, we have this. You know the hydrocarbon.

The among all you know it's it's a mixture of again, hydrocarbons, but unlike the other components
you know, there are lot and lot of aromatic compounds that represent in this section along with the
normal this hydrocarbon carbon containing fractions and these carbon content instructions may
have a structure.

Where the carbon number is, you know.

Close to 4.

OK, so overall we can see that as the number of carbons increases, OK from this third itself we can
see we started off with in C-12 and higher for the gas oil then we moved on to the lubricating oil
where the number of carbons is 16 to see 20.

Later on we had the asphalt or petroleum coke where we had this. The number of carbon C 18 to
see 22.

And coming to the solid is the last two.

So fractions that wrapped in the in the refining process is the IT is the paraffin wax.

Within a C20 to see 30. And finally what remains towards the end of this process is the residue
which is also called the aesthetic asphaltic bitumen.

And of course they are solids and the number of carbon that is present is C30 to see 40.

In many cases, they also represent the C70. So up to C70. So what happens is that overall all these
fractions that are there from the one the one to five in the previous slide.

And you know 6 to 10. The difference that you see in the in the in the first slide. Mostly there in gas
in the liquid phase in in.

In this slide you have most of the things in the liquid stage OK, and several several. These you know
applications are are possible. So from the final you know we can have this.

Uh, gaseous liquid and in this slide as I mentioned, we have these heavy oils. Then we have a very
viscous oils and the non volatile.

And finally, we have the solid compound, which all, although is considered to be residue, it can have
lot of useful applications.

SLIE10":

Audio file
slide10.m4a

Transcript
Now we move on to the second step.

That is the conversion process.

And as mentioned earlier, you know this involves both the thermal and the chemical steps.

So once the refining process that we discussed till now or the separation process.

Is completed.
The oil that we obtained, you know it then undergoes conversion.

OK, that is what is mentioned in this slide.

To remove the heavy hydrocarbon molecules.

To create lighter products or lighter hydrocarbons from the you.

Know bigger fractions.

Now why this should be done?

This is an important question, but you know this is done mainly because.

The lighter hydrocarbons or those.

That, have you know lesser number of carbon atoms have a better market value due to their higher
octane number.

As compared.

To the heavier hydrocarbon molecules.

And whatever residue that we have seen that comes out of this process and other heavier
hydrocarbons that are obtained by refining.

Can be broken down.

To smaller parts or smaller fragments which have in a much better or higher demand.

So in general you know this process or this conversion process is mainly done for the conversion, or
it is the process of converting.

You know the hydrocarbons or a process to obtain light or middle distillates from the heavier
hydrocarbons or heavier end products by you know a process.

Which is generally known as pyrolysis, or sometimes it is also known as thermal ISIS.

Now, how best can we achieve this has always been, you know, a very important challenge or a very
important question.

You know that the industry has been discussing or even academically, you know these are. These are
very important questions and there because of this there has always been an effort or there has
always been, you know.

An effort to improve the methods for this conversion, both by the industries and, you know
academically.

Hence, you know both research wise in in educational institutes and industry. This topic is
considered to be one very very important.

So both very very basic reactions that we do in the lab as well as the same process in the in the
engineering level or in a very large scale level that can be taken up by the industries has been, you
know.

One of the very very important topic that both Academy and industry have been discussing and they
can be taken.
Up in a bigger scale.

So usually, or you know most commonly as done in the initial step of refining the heavy molecules
that are present or the heavy hydrocarbon that are there.

You know what happens is they are subjected to the heating process at. You know very high
temperatures that can go up to 800, or you sometimes even higher up 900 degrees.

Celsius OK, so this has been going on since the time it has been, but discovered as they mentioned in
the in this slide and close to around 1900. In the year 1900.

So it's it's a very long time and that that is where you know lot of developments or improvements.
Or in a sub classification of this process has come up over the years.

No, we which are even more efficient as compared to the thermal cracking.

Anyway bye bye bye this you know this cracking process what happens is that you know the the
main aim is to convert the heavier hydrocarbons or cracking of the heavier hydrocarbons into the
lighter molecules or or smaller hydrocarbon fractions. And many times this is also done not just
simply.

Thing, but also in the presence of a catalyst which is generally in added to accelerate in the chemical
reaction so that the conversion to smaller fractions is better, faster and sometimes even safer. So in
addition to the thermal the.

Second, process the chemical that I have mentioned. It also uses certain kinds of catalyst you know
to speed up the reaction or to get the better yield of the products.

So in general, by this method, what happens is that nearly you know, all the heavier fraction of the
heavy hydrocarbon residues that are obtained, and you know we can convert them into into
fractions such as this simple gas. They can be gasoline or the petrol.

And also the diesel and usually it is thought that you know around 75 to 80% or sometimes you.

Higher amount of this crude oil you know? Or the heavier hydrocarbon that are present after the
refining process can be utilised and be converted into important fractions which have been higher
market value as compared to the heavier thing, OK?

Further, you know even the smaller factions that are obtained, and they can also be purified.

And separated house, as you know very very very pure fractions. OK, so the purification step you
know you should not mix it with the conversion step so you know once you get the converted
products, sometimes they also contain some kind of impurities.

You know that are left out as mixtures. So in the process of this cracking within the process itself.

Now the advanced diagrams I will be showing one of them, but there are advanced processes
wherein you can not only just you know crack or you can separate the fractions, but sometimes it's
cracked fractions. You know that have impurities.

Can also be purified into. You know, much you know very high pure form you even you know
fractions like gases were.

Just you know C1 or C2 or C3 and C4. They all can be separated out.
You know very very efficiently. OK, so the purification step is also very, very important, and you
know, in addition to the.

Yeah, the cracking you know you can also do this step within the same whole reaction process.

And very often, what happened? The total yield is also significantly, you know, improved or
significantly enhanced. You know if you add or if you purge the hydrogen gas and during the process.

OK, so this you know, because when the cracking happens many times you end up getting these
alkenes. But sometimes you also need.

Some kind of alkanes and for this formation of these alkanes, the presence of hydrogen is absolutely
necessary. OK later on in a few other as we go ahead when I discuss about the reactions, I will also
be showing you the role of hydrogen there. OK so overall.

The cost of you know this process can sometimes increase significantly OK when you know more
complex operations such as this.

As I mentioned, no like adding the catalyst or sometime adding the hydrogen, or you know any other
reactants are also, you know, additionally inserted during the process OK, but you know the you
know this usually.

Yeah, are compensated by, you know, whenever you use a specific catalyst for doing this reaction.
Usually the catalysts are prepared in such a way that they are recover.

Or you always use always you you add certain kind of reusable catalysts which are also known as
heterogeneous in catalysis where the catalyst takes part in the reaction.

They complete the reaction and after the reaction you can, you know isolate or you can separate out
the catalyst and reuse them for the next batch of this cracking.

OK, so in addition to that you know you can also do the temperature. The variation in the
temperature. OK, sometimes you need to do that when you add catalyst if you want to get a certain
kind of product you know you have to moderate the temperature also.

And you also have, you know, very specific kind of reactors that you need to separate out certain
fraction that are only present in very specific crude oils.

So overall you know the the cost can be increased and decrease or unit can vary based on the
reactants that you use based on the reactors you use and based on the different conditions you
know.

That are usually, you know, the condition that are usually needed for that specific reaction.

So in general you know the the refining industry, it is always on the lookout for, you know very, very
efficient methods to maximise the yield of the lighter hydrocarbons from the the heavier
hydrocarbons. And secondly, you know it is not only that they want lighter hydrocarbons at any cost.

OK, they also try to minimise the overall expenses by maximising the prod.

Appealed and by making sure that you know all the fractional product that are obtained or you know
that that was separated from the earlier process or when they enter into this catalytic reaction
process, almost everything is either converted into smaller fractions. Very useful products.
And whatever is remaining OK, you know, that is also usually converted back or sent back to the
earlier.

Process to obtain, you know, very, very important fragments. And as I told you, if you use catalyst,
you know it is also ensured that the catalyst is, you know, recycled back and used in the next
election.

So overall you know utmost care is taken that almost all the starting materials or the starting oil that
is inserted is converted.

Completely into lighter hydrocarbons, or, you know, lighter, important hydrocarbon, like the gas.

Celine and in addition to that, you know even the materials that are added, like at least or you know,
recovered back and can be reused again, for you know further this catalytic processes, so overall you
know this reaction is optimised very nicely. Or cracking reaction. And as we move ahead we will also
be showing you.

How is cracking is you know further in the next slides, how this cracking is a classified into more
important or in simpler processes over the years. OK, so this is very important, and as the industry
has progressed, the methods to separate out.

Lighter hydrocarbons from the bigger hydrocarbons or the heavier hydrocarbons has improved, and
every process the thermal, the chemical both have also shown improvements in the number of
catalysts, number of processes you know that that have come up because it is a very, very
interesting development that.

Come up and as per the.

The quality of the crude. The processes have also also changed, so the crude obtained from different
places have different impurities and based on that, OK, the the methods of separation or metro
methods of making them lighter and purifying them have also changed.

So all this will be reflected in in some of the slides that I will be showing you very soon.
Slide-11 Part-1
So in this slide, as you all can see, the overall cracking processes.

Has evolved over several years.

And this has been divided, or this has been sub classified into two types of cracking processes.

Primarily the thermal cracking.

And the catalytic cracking or it is also known as the chemical tracking method?

And these two processes, the thermal cracking and the catalytic cracking. Or the chemical cracking
methods?

Are also further subclassified.

Into the steam tracking process.

And the modern thermal cracking process.

Whereas the catalytic cracking process.

Is sub classified?

Into this fluidic catalytic cracking.

And hydrolytic.

Tracking process.

So all the products and all the by products.

That come out of this.

And then the next stage is the chemical industry.

Are all obtained.

From either of these four processes.

So in general.

Although it is steam cracking.

Or this you know in the modern thermal cracking.

And in the right side you have a fluidic and this you know, hydrolytic cracking processes the major
change that happens is mainly because of the content.

Of the oil that is received in the refinery.

Or the chemical industry?

OK, so it is not same. It is not the same.

In all the industries that follow this procedure.

So in general, and I have mentioned the definition here below about these three, primary process is
OK. So the cracking in general is nothing but it's a process where you know the complex is organic
molecules primarily. You know the very large hydrocarbons here I mentioned as incursions.

That I also showed you in the as one of the products during defining process. Then you have the long
chain hydrocarbons.

And also the light reflections.

And they are all degraded.

Simpler molecules or light hydrocarbons?

Simply by breaking.

Of the carbon carbon double bonds.

Of these molecules.

OK, so in general when you do this cracking process, what happens is that the large molecules you
know they are broken down.

Or, you know, you have a large molecule like C5 to C-12. If you remember that the table you know
from point number or a column number 4, you have the C5 to.

C-12 carbon atoms.

You know they are really suitable for gasoline.

Or the petrol?

OK, and they are usually obtained for large molecules and they facilitate the formation primarily of
the branched chain molecules, and in some cases also certain aromatics. And as you move ahead
and you know down, I will tell you what are the aromatics.

Uh, and which are also very, very important chemically.

So the cracking process is also you know, as shown here, they are classified into two different
processes, mainly the thermal and the catalytic cracking processes, and both in.

In the case of this, you know processes of course you end up getting this light reflections as I
mentioned in the previous.

Also, in the case of, you know this thermal cracking process in a lighter petroleum fractions. Now, as
mentioned that they said NAFTA.

They're tracked thermally.

By subjecting to very high temperatures, and this can go up to 900 degree Celsius as also also
mentioned in the previous slide.

And usually this reaction is an only by heating, and here there is no no catalyst that is present and by
this process usually you end up getting various kind of hydrocarbons.

Or a mixture of hydrocarbons that include ethylene.

And butadiene.
OK, so these three are, you know, various kind of alkenes. So ethylene, Assan and propylene have,
you know one one each double bonds, whereas butadiene has you know more than one.

Or you know, it's called 1/3 butadiene. It is 2 double bonds, and as you all are aware, this butadiene
is a very very important product in the manufacture of rubber.

Along with state.

OK, so the double bond there is a very very important product and usually as you all would be aware
they are used to.

To prepare various kind of polymers. In addition to that, you also get various kind of aromatic
compounds, and this is a mixture of. Usually you know different kind of aromatics. Here I mentioned
three, compound the benzene.

OK, you have that all win and you also have the xylenes. OK so this can be a mixture of xylenes you
know?

So xylenes have the toluene as one methyl group attached to the aromatic ring xylene self. You
know more than one, so it can be a mixture of ortho, xylene, parasailing, meta xylene and usually it
is always a mixture of xylenes which are who's boiling points.

You know, not very far far apart, and it's not very easy to separate them, so usually they write it as
xylenes.

Instead of just, you know, xylene. OK, so in addition to the compounds within one double bond, you
also have aromatic rings. Ring compounds as mentioned here.

The second important subclassification origina cracking process.

Is the catalytic cracking and as the name implies here you know, so these are the very important
petroleum fractions and this catalytic cracking process. You know higher molecular weight.

Other than the gasoline.

Or, you know, heated like the previous type of thermal cracking. But in this case you also have an
appropriate catalyst and you can also regulate the temperatures.

In many cases it is at in a much lower temperature than what you do in the thermal cracking process
such that you know whatever you get. The cracked product are in a very, very specific smaller
molecules.

So based on the catalyst that.

Use you know you end up getting in a very, very specific fraction, especially very specific molecules
as the end product.

So this is also an in a very, very important development that has come up over the several years of,
you know, research and development and catalytic cracking is also a parallel or, you know
sometimes only preferred method as compared.

As compared to the thermal cracking process, and usually this described hydrocarbon material that
you obtained, you know can also be blended.

With the refinery gasoline feed to get in a much improved product. OK, so this is an additional thing
that you will have to take. Note that in addition to the.
You know the normal gasoline you have. Even the cut. There are lot of other cracked hydrocarbon
materials that are generated.

You can mix it with the refinery gas or gasoline and in many countries you know they prefer to have
these products.

As you know, additive to gasoline, sometimes to just reduce the price, or to have any know better
performance, so overall.

You know this study, it just knows, summarises, or it gives the classification.

Of the of the cracking process into two primary thing, the thermal and the catalytic cracking, which
are even further divided into the four processes in the following slides I will be explaining to
explaining to you the sub classification and the importance of these processes and how each of
these cracking processes have their own.

Importance and significance in generating very specific group of products or specific products that all
have, you know, very very important application in for developing a lot of other other products in
the chemical.

Industry, so the entire course will be based on the various reaction and the various products that
come out of these four processes, the steam cracking the modern thermal cracking the fluidic
catalytic cracking process and the hydrolytic cracking process. OK, so we will be discussing about
various products.

Various reactions, various catalysts, and how these reactions, or how this catalytic processes are
carried out in the industries and you know what is the benefit of in each of this method, and how in
general the products are obtained from them.

Slide-11 Part-2
In the present slide.

I will be showing you.

Or thermal cracking.

The steam cracking.

And the modern thermal cracking processes so briefly it has been, you know.

Shown below, so in this team cracking process, various kinds of N alkanes or the normal alkanes or
the linear alkanes you know that are there.

The cyclic alkanes OK one which are cycling in shape like cyclohexane.

And also the various aromatics that I showed in the previous slides, such as the benzene, toluene or
xylene's.

OK so the and which are also present in the fractional Doyle.

Or alkanes that represent us in ethane?

And butane.
And the higher hydrocarbons that are present in natural gas.

Are all converted into industrially important intermediates.

And and these products include, you know, various kinds of gases such as ethylene, propylene,
butene's and butadiene, that I mentioned, you know is also used for in polymerization to make
rubber. OK, so these are all very very important intermediates or important fractions which can all
be obtained.

Buy steam cracking cracking process.

So these products, these three, or the four alkanes alkenes that I mentioned and they all contain
variant and this number one or two double bonds or unsaturated bonds.

And as you all know, whenever you have these unsaturated bonds, they can be easily reacted with
you know in presence of various the reactants or various initiators.

To form or to obtain various other fine chemicals and also bulk products.

Such as polymers for multiple industrial applications.

So the products that are obtained are primarily primarily used by, you know, various chemical
industries.

Now, which further process them?

Into other intermediate. Also in many cases, and sometimes they're sent to make the finished
products like furniture, so you know in case of polymers or you know rubber tyres.

In case of these in butadiene and along with styrene, so multiple applications or multiple products
are generated through these. The intermediate that are generated through the steam cracking
process.

So in general, you know since the steam cracking also involves this, you know hitting or you know, a
process that has been erupted by the chemical industries.

Sometimes it is in a not petroleum refining process. Because of this, you know wider, adaptive
erupted by the other industries, and as such you know it is frequently.

You know not considered to be our process, that just takes place in there within the reef.

So I will be anyway explaining about this team cracking process in the next slide using a very nice,
you know flow diagram, which to simplify the process for you all to understand how this works and
you know what our products can be obtained from this process.

Now coming to the the second thermal cracking process, the modern thermal cracking process. So
over the years you know as the technology has improved what has happened this the normal
thermal cracking has also seen changes or improvements and unlike the simple thermal cracking
method.

In the case of this modern cracking method, what is the new thing that has come up is that you
know it employs.

High pressure.

Along with, you know, high temperature.

To perform the reaction or the the cracking process of the large molecules into smaller fractions so
you all can think of the the simple process that you do that you would have seen in your homes or
you know in in hotels where you know instead of cooking the rice in a normal open vessel if you do it
in the pressure cooker you know. So that's the pressure.

That is created and you know you can cook the rice yet at a faster rate. So this is the same principle.

You know it is used here. You have, you know high pressure reactors. Of course in the case of
industries it is done in tonne scale.

OK, so in addition to the heat that you apply, you know you have a closed vessel with some safety
walls.

In case the pressure is too high and you know it is done under high pressure, so high pressure
catalytic reactors are very common.

You have smaller, very small reactors of around 5,000,000 #20 email also in the laboratory's
chemical laboratories in chemical engineering laboratories.

And sometimes you also have around slightly higher, but in the case of industries you have this. You
know, modern thermal cracking reactors which can go up to even tonnes.

OK, so the reaction can happen even in a larger scale. In the air, pressure can hold up to, you know
very, very high.

Sometimes it is mentioned that even more than several thousands of kilopascals of pressure can be
applied to these reactions.

And usually in in these kind of processes you know in these kind of reactions efficient process is the
most common thing where large fragments they retain.

An electron at one end of the of the carbon chain and what happens is that you know they fused
together to two of these electrons that are that they fused together and to form another fragment.

And this is how you know alkenes are generated of. It can be a smaller chain length including the
formation of Ethel.

In gas OK, the chapter 2 double bond, you know CH2 which are then used for the polymerization
reaction by most of the industries.

Yes please.

OK, and as I told you, more reactions based on this method will also be discussed in the next few
slides where I will be specifically explaining how these.

Electrons that are left out, or electrons that are generated in one end of the chain. They are
responsible to interact with you and, uh.

The the end of the chain, which also has similar electron. They do they come together, you know
they and they form to form a double bond. And this is the very imp.

Step because you know the double bond. It's it's a new product formed out of this. The the longer
hydrocarbon or the heavier hydrocarbons, and these lighter fractions.

Or, you know, many times they are simple gases. You know these gases are separated or very easily
by the catalytic or by regional separation process.
And you can use it for the formation of different kind of polymers or in a polymeric materials. And as
I mentioned, as you go ahead, these intermediates or these gases are.

Separated out, you know, the the the ethylene propylene, the beauty, nor the butadiene and they
are individual.

You know, taken out purified and can be used for various other processes in chemical industries, so
in general you know these processes, though it's not refining industry. And since the chemical
industry has adopted this in a big way.

These days it is not just considered to be a refinery process or refinery method. OK, so it's a it has
very wide applicability and various industries have adopted them for the for generating, you know
various intermediate products you know and so instead of buying it from the refinery they take
these materials that themselves generate the.

The initial products and the initial products are utilised by this industry to make various kind of
intermediates as well. As you know, sometimes in end products. OK so you start from a chain of.

Product that are obtained from the from the refinery. You take it rather than wait for the refinery to
give you the smaller factions and you take it slowly.

You break it up OK by the process of this, you know the chemical fission and as you as you go ahead,
you make up to an end product. So you start and you make not just the chemical intermediates but
also the end products.

Because overall, you have the entire chain of reactions, which can be done both by the thermal or
you know the modern thermal where you have the pressure.

Also and later on, as we move ahead, you can also use different kind of catalyst to generate various
kind of products.

Slide-12
In continuation of.

The thermal cracking process.

That I discussed in the previous slide.

I am now going to discuss with you all.

The steam cracking process.

As depicted in the present slide.

Using a nice.

Flow diagram.

So the process have shown in the this slide by this you know flow diagram is a full steam cracking
process.

Through which.

The continuous production.

Of ethylene.
CH2 Double Bond Series 2.

Now that can be.

Or what is done industrially?

From a mixture.

Of two gases, as shown on the left side of the slide, the ethane.

And the propane fractions that we got.

In the refining process.

Now this is a very important step, or a very important process we can say.

Both industrially.

And academically.

It is a very high significance.

The ethylene gas.

And that we can produce by this method.

Is a very crucial monomer.

An intermediate product.

That can be used further.

To obtain various other.

Important products or we can say you know other you know intermediates or you know molecules
which can be processed for lot of different applications.

And as you all can see.

In this process.

It's not just a single step or single process, but it is a combination of multiple steps.

No, that is depicted very nicely in this diagram by you know multiple colours.

And we will discuss slowly. You know how this process.

Will help in generating.

Notice ethylene gas.

So the diagram you know clearly depicts the entire steam cracking process. OK, so beginning from
the left side where we have this steam, and along with the channel you know the that passes and as
such you know the figure is nicely distinguishable by three different processes and those are.

Three different colours.

So on the leftmost side, you have this. You know reactors or the vessels 1.

And two.
And that is the cracking.

And the quenching process.

And shown by the green colour.

OK, so is that the one and then the two reaction vessels or the towers that you see? You know that's
the cracking in the quenching process.

Coming to the next step, I know this is shown by the orange colour. Also the figure it is shown by
light orange colour and this is where the compression of the gases that are generated.

Is done or it takes place?

And also the drying takes place now is drying necessary because in this case we are also using steam
OK and when you cool this team of course you know there will be some water or water vapour
which has to be dried and removed.

So this is shown in the steps you know the three to five on the top of this slide in orange colour.

Now the third step.

Is very important in this case. There are lot of products that are formed, hence there is a need for
separation of these products.

So the in the entire this flow diagram, the blue towers and the blue reaction vessels that you see the
last hours from 678 to up to.

11 that is, where the entire process or the separation happens. OK, and most of the products that
are formed in.

A flow diagram or you know this steam cracking process.

Are separated through this, you know this from the step 6 to the 11.

So I will take you slowly through the entire process now. OK, so in the in the first process or the
cracking and then the quenching step.

The mixtures.

Of ethane.

And propane gas.

Or pass through the furnace chamber.

Along with this team. OK so left side you can see the ethane and propane gas or mixture and the
steam or you know taken into this Chamber 1 and over the furnace and where they are heated and
as discussed in the previous slide, the temperature is in a quite higher. It can go up to 800 or 900
degree Celsius.

OK.

So when they're subjected the mixture of this ethane and propane along with steam when they're
subjected to such high temperature.

What happens is you know this is where the cracking process starts and the ethane and propane gas
mixture they crack.
Into ethylene.

And other byproducts I will be discussing about that other byproducts shown below. You can see it is
mentioned in below the tower two, the tower, the coke and all you know they they are taken to the
for uh disposal or you know further use.

Similarly, there are some heavier fuels also that are obtained.

And you know there is CW or there's a cooling tower where you know you know this. Cooling water
is usually circulated to maintain the temperature or to, you know, make sure that the products that
come out are also cooled and the reactor doesn't get you know very, very hot.

Now, importantly, OK, when we pass this ethane and propane, or it can be any other hydrocarbon.
Also in this tower the residence time or the time that these gases are there into this.

This furnace is very very short, so short that you know it is only.

From 30 to 100.

Milliseconds now this is very, very important, because it is necessary to minimise the cooking
process QQ and this is important because this is potentially a major problem since coke.

And hydrogen.

That are formed are usually a thermodynamically favoured products if these gases are exposed or
kept in the chamber.

For longer time.

And further, you know, in order to prevent any other reactions.

And formation.

Of any undesirable by products other than the ethylene.

OK, the furnace the output stream that is there it is inserted into a water stream.

OK, so that whatever it comes.

Out it immediately quenches.

So this is very, very important that you know we we make sure that the quenching takes place and
the hot buy products they you know they will come out.

That is also very important for the safety purposes that you know they pass into this watering
directly, and so for two things you know to prevent any further as reactions and for safety purposes
OK.

And further, you know, as discussed earlier in the refining process here also.

From a decanter vessel that is placed in the downstream from the Quench tower. OK, the two. What
you see the quench tower, you know below you can see several heavier hydrocarbons.

Are are taken out.

And the condensed delusion stream Unity brings out all the other products. As mentioned earlier,
the tower and the coconut, which are if not needed, can be can be taken away. OK, so up to your the
first of the cracking and the.
The the, the quenching step.

Now, whatever gas is you know that are cracked here from this process and after the quench in the
in the water this thing the vessel OK what what happens is that next step. They are then directed.

2 the compression chambers.

OK, and after the.

That the compression and the separation process it begins. So in the figure, if you see the number
three, OK, so this is depicted as in three different cones of light orange colour in this diagram.

So in in this step of this compression and drying, the process of compression of this in a crack gas is
usually performed across.

You know five different stages. OK, so it's shown as three on the on the left. Then you have the
tower four and then you have two more cones of labelled as three.

So 3 + 2 cones in in the diagram.

So after this, the stage three of this compression the you know there are lot of unwanted compound
mainly unwanted carbon dioxide.

And sulphur.

You know they are removed from the cracked gas.

By a caustic soda and water washes.

In a caustic scrubber chamber. OK, so this is what is happening in the in the in the Chamber 4 the
long tower that you see here you you have your caustic scrubber or caustic scrubber chamber.

For which helps us remove this unwanted products like carbon dioxide and sulphur.

OK, further, you know after compression of this you know crack gases and after passing through the
entering of five so three on the left two on the on the right of this Chamber 4 you know it.

Is then cooled?

By refrigeration units.

And subsequently they are derived by passing through. You know molecule receives that removes
most of the water.

In the chamber.

OK, so Chamber files also you can see kept after the on the right side top the light orange colour.

So this is the place where molecular receives help in removing the moisture or the water content,
whatever.

It is there OK?

Usually you know the gases are also need to be compressed and in this compression of the gases
that are obtained is done at 40 bar.

And it is condensed in in a casket.

Refrigeration units, you know it is usual.

We have done most of the industries, but in this figure where this diagram, it is not depicted OK.

Another very important thing that I want to highlight to you all is that the cracking process. You
know that that is happening today, and if it has to be economical or if it is economical.

This is only because of the development of the in the very high quality centrifugal. You know
compressors that run.

The refrigeration process is now very efficiently and very cheaply and then.

The reciprocating compressors know that were used previously. OK, so this centrifugal compressors
have repaired. Replaced the reciprocating compressors that were used earlier and these centrifugal
compressors are one of the greatest contribution of you know this Mechanical Engineers.

To the chemical industry. OK, so the the development of the highly efficient centrifugal compressor
is very, very important, and this contribution is mainly from the Mechanical Engineers to the
chemical industry.

So this is also again not shown in the figure. This is what the this was only mainly for your all
information.

Now coming to the last step. OK, this is the the separation steps where you know all the products
desired products are separated out.

OK, so in this separation step what happens is the dried and cracked product. There they are fed to
the cold box. You can see the.

But the box #6, you know it's a turn lights with the the the and the light refraction of hydrocarbon.
They're fed Inbox 6 for removal of the by products such as hydrogen.

OK, and other lighter hydrocarbons while you know minimising.

The loss of other products, mainly, you know we are concerned here with ethylene OK, so there
should not be any laws of Italy.

So all the products you know that are obtained after the condensation process from the the the, the
the chilling process is OK.

They are passed through series of you know, separating columns. OK, so in in in this the light blue
thing that you see, they're all. You know, various series of.

Separation columns where various kinds of products that are obtained other than ethylene can also
be separated and extracted to, you know.

Uh, different containers OK and then compressed.

So let us begin with the the the first column or the column #7.

OK, so in in this column the column seven it is. It is called the D methane iser column. OK, so as the
name suggests, the methane is obtained from the top of this column.

Further used in the cold box while the bottom stream. What is obtaining the boy is fed again to the
column 8.
OK, so you can see that there is height different. The methane comes out. It is slightly captain higher
in a position than this.

You know column made, so here whatever is fed in the column made so column. It's the D. Ethan
iser.

OK, again in this the same process you can see in the top of the death Nizar. It's mainly composed
primarily of ethylene and ethane and it it is fed to an acid clean converter once again.

OK, so this process is also shown, you know by long arrows are taking it up and then again
fractionated in the C2 splitter.

In the column 9.

OK, so in in this column 9 the light hydrocarbon fractions.

No are separated out from the overhead outlets.

And recycle to.

The compression system.

The polymer grade you mentioned the PG ethylene product in the in the diagram. Please pay
attention to that. OK so that PG ethylene grade or the polymer grade ethylene, you know that is
obtained. It is drawn from the column.

As a side stream from the main product, which is again very important product. OK so this is also
separated out and collected.

Now further from this, you know column 9.

The ethane.

That is there. The Ethan product no from the C2 splitter bottoms, it is removed carefully and recycle
to the cracking furnaces, so please pay attention to the the column 9.

OK, so it it it it it it is taken from there OK the defender bottom is fed to the D propane iser column.

In the column 10, now which distils.

And separates out the C3 or the propane. OK, the C3 is a methane, ethane, propane, contain
hydrogen components from the overhead.

OK here also again it is separated. It is. This process is very similar to what you saw in the the tower
eight. OK, so you can separate out the the propane the same way.

The Ethan was separated and you know that is done. While you know you get this.

What we call the C3 containing hydrogen components from the overheads OK and this overhead
stream is then catalytically for the hydrotreated for methylacetylene.

Previously it was ethically in here with Methylacetylene and the year again instead of the ethylene.
Oh, here it is. You know, proper dine.

Which are removed.

And this is then fed.

The the C3 splitter in the column #11. This is the final column.

On the on the right side of this figure.

So now in this process or in the column number 11.

The light hydrocarbons.

OK, that are there. They are removed from the overheads again, you can see that arrow going up
and you know turning left.

I removed the overheads and then again recycle to the compressor in the same way exactly as done
earlier. As you can see that from the column line.

Also it goes up OK, I done earlier while in this case also the polymeric propylene OK in the previously
we got the polymer grade ethylene. In this case you know we are getting the polymer grade
propylene.

As a byproduct, OK is drawn from the call.

You know, as a side stream, which is also the same process as then exactly in this column line. So we
can see you know you need to understand that both the column 8 and the column 10.

The process are very similar. OK in both the cases we have we have this removal of the ethane and
propane.

Whereas in the the column 9.

And the column 11, we have the C2 and the C3 splitter that happens in both the cases.

You know we end up getting this polymer grade ethylene and the polymer grade propylene. And as
you all know, both these gases. You know both ethylene and propylene.

Or one of the most widely used gases in the polymer industry. OK, so from ethylene, new canvases,
polyethylene and you all know the application polyethylene.

Very simple application is the preparation of these plastic covers. A lot of other products by the
simple plastic, whereas we have when we have the.

Propylene, now propylene, has so many application that the polypropylene the PP you even, the
furnitures and so many other applications.

Are directly made with this high molecular weight polymer OK. There are lot of other important
interesting properties with this polypropylene.

OK, due to the studio chemistry that it can form, you know you all would have. Would remember
that when the methyl are on the same side in the in the polypropylene it has a different property.

You know if it is alternating, it's a different property, and if the random layer in it has a very different
property, so polypropylene is a very important product, and in in in the same way as in polyethylene,
so separating out these gases in the pure form is very, very important.

OK further, now the propane that is obtained from the the the C3. You know we also get this
propane like what we got earlier. The Ethan guess. OK it is taken from this, you know the splitters.

And bottom of the splitter and it is recycled.

2 the cracking furnaces once again OK, so you can see that in it again again goes back to the the
cracking furnace, so you know whatever there is unreacted ethane and propane, it will again join the
the reaction process, and it will again mix with this.

Team right from the reaction vessel number one and then you know the entire thing can be again
sent the entire gases that are unreacted, or you know, as we get as byproduct, can again be sent to
the reaction vessel one, and you know we can continue.

This entire process.

OK.

So this is a very interesting diagram where you know all the the process and you know right from
the.

Feeding of this, you know.

Really small, these hydrocarbons, the gases mixing with steam, know ends up.

Uh, giving us the desired product, alkene or the ethylene ethylene boat ethylene, and this propylene
and later on we can also recycle.

To know if this, if there's any unreacted product or lot of other by products that are formed,
everything can be obtained which can either be used as one of the intermediates, or they can also
be further converted back to the.

They can be comparison you know, used for a lot of applications or can be converted back to the
alkene product that is desired.

Further, you know we also obtained. I forgot to mention C4 plus you know stream from the deep
properties are bottom.

You know this is depicted in the column 10. OK, so you can see that you know multiple products like
methane, ethane, propane.

Are obtained in addition to that, you know we have the ethylene propylene so so many things or so
many products can be obtained using. You know this team cracking process.

OK, so in in general, as I mentioned, I'm just repeating this. OK, you have this team cracking propane
process where steam is mixed with. You know two different kind.

The gas is a mixture of gases and the entire process is divided into 3 main steps, the cracking and
quenching.

The compression and drying.

And find finally and the separation of the the products and you know as you can as already
described, there are multiple products that are formed in this product. Although our main interest in
this is to produce alkenes, especially ethylene.

But we also and I end up getting this propylene gas and lot of other feeds or lot of other smaller
gases.

Which are also high value and these gases can directly be used as some kind of products, or they can
also be sent back to the feed.
For further cracking.

So this is a very efficient process and very widely used industrially, and of course is a very important
process because you know, based on the requirement or based on the types of gases you want to
separate and based and the gas station that are generated from the oil that is obtained from the
refining process. We can modify this the entire.

Process OK, we can add more reactors. You know, more cooling towers, bigger fractionating
columns. So this all depends. OK on the type of crude oil that is available and how efficiently we are
conducting the process of this team crack.

OK so please make sure that you read this very very carefully. Every step you know every process or
every reaction vessel and tower that is shown here has a very specific rule that helps in generating.

This, you know, pure alkenes as products from the centre. You know this is a flow diagram.

Slide-13 Part-1
So in this slide.

I am going to explain.

The mechanism.

Of the reaction.

Thermal cracking, especially, you know I mentioned during the in the flow diagram, the two gases
are used, the ethane and the propane.

So here I will describe.

How this ethane?

Is cracked.

To obtain.

Or decide product.

The alkenes.

OK, various alkanes.

So usually this thermal cracking process. It involves the heating of the alkanes.

You know this. Ethane and the propane to high temperatures in presence of steam, usually at
around 800 degree C and sometimes as I had mentioned in the modern thermal cracking process.
You also apply pressure up to 7000 kilopascals.

OK, this what does this mean? This means that you know very high energy.

Is usually required.

To break.

The CC bonds.
As shown here and you know this process is what is called initiation reaction where you have this
ethane molecule that CX3CX3 and in the presence of the heat and sometimes also pressure OK it
gets.

Uh, cleaved? Or there is a homolytic fission, and the bond breaks between CC and it breaks in such a
way that one electron.

From the pair.

In the covalent bond now it goes to each end of the carbon atom by or in the chain. OK, here there
is, you know, not a long chain.

OK, say only CSS3, so you see that the dot that you see that that is what it depicts the electron.

OK, or you know when the CC bond breaks OK, the carbon carbon block that breaks it is an example.
Shown this slide.

This is Ethan, one electron from each pair goes to each carbon atom of the methane or the the
methyl radical.

Hence 2 shorter chains are generated here usually, and in this case, since as I mentioned, only only
one carbon atom is there, you know that it's not a real chain, but you know here also, you see that
ending of each carbon atom has any unpaired electron.

OK, so you can see that dot.

Electron, now these are called the free radicals and they are very reactive as you all would
remember, you know studying from your earlier chemistry classes.

Yeah, so these free radicals are very very reactive and till the time you know these radicals are
present, the propagation step as you can see you know it can continue.

OK, so this methyl radical can react with an ethane molecule and it can form methane and generate
an ether ready.

OK, and you.

You know this if sufficient number of hydrogen are not present in this reaction to produce alkanes,
then one of the chains. What it does that it pulls the hydrogen.

OK, off from the other and that is how you know the alkenes are generated. OK, so consequently 1.

Of the chains.

That that needs to be, you know, double bonded due to the lack of this.

You know hydrogen, so one of the chains it forms a double bonded to fulfil the necessary amount of
bonds. OK, so this is shown in the.

In the step C.

OK, resulting in the formation of alkenes as part of the propagation step. So you can. You can already
see that you know you have this.

This is what you wanted to make and.

You know, by the process ZC.

And you can get this in alkenes.

Further, you know the radical that is present on this hydrogen. Hydrogen can also react and continue
the process with the ethane molecule, and again you know due to the lack of this hydrogen it
conform this hydrogen molecule, whereas you know there's an ethyl radical that is formed.

And then ethyl radical. What can it do? You know it two ethyl radicals can combine together the
radical radical come together and they can form again.

You know larger molecule. This is again a termination step. OK, very very important thing or as part
of the termination reaction. What happens two free radicals or two practical ends? They can come
together?

So either you know two alkyl chains or that it can also be you know one hydrogen as shown in the
the reaction East, and if it can come together to generate new alkanes.

Like what is shown here, the methane propane, butane with four carbons.

OK.

Oh, or it can also form an alkene.

Uh, product? OK, so anything can confirm.

Usually you know another observation is that the hydrocarbon chain does not break necessarily. You
know, in the middle.

And hence you know this entire this type of this cracking and this procedure it produces, you know,
a high proportion of alkenes.

OK, it is not just a single alkene. That is why we had these multiple outlet feeds. You know where
you can get out ethylene or propylene.

OK, so this is an important step and since we are using a mixture of gases, you know ethane.

And propane we are bound to get, you know, various proportion of these alkenes. And of course you
know all these components are very, very important.

The challenge is to separate them efficiently, which is which is also possible as shown in the flow
diagram in the previous slide.

OK, so in addition to the initiation, propagation, and termination steps you know there is also
another important step is called the disproportionation.

OK, so various kinds of this disproportionation reaction can also takes place OK, and they all this
thing you know.

They also result in in in a variety of alkenes and alkanes as depicted here. OK, so if you see that the
reaction G you know there is an ethylene and ethyl radical, it can come together to form this.

Butyl radical, and when two brutal radicals they come together, you know they they can either form.
They say no one butene

Or, you know, it can also form a butane. OK, so again, you can see a large molecule is formed or a
new large molecule is formed.
A flow diagram I have not discussed about the butene separation, but you know, the C4 feeds that
could be taken out and that is what it is mentioned. OK in in addition to that in the in the reaction.

You have the ethylene molecule and the methyl radical. They can also react. It is the reaction very
similar to G and in this case you know you have this.

The profile radical and two profile radicals can generate either this in a propane.

And gas, or the propylene gas and the propane molecule. OK, so it's a mixture of various products or
a combination of, you know various gases and that can be obtained through this reaction.

They all can be separated out in a very, very efficiently. So through these various towers and you
know various columns, you know that.

Depicted in the flow diagram.

And as I had mentioned, you know the alkanes, both death and and the propane. You know, they are
usually not kept, or you know they're they're not exposed to this.

You know, very hot conditions for for, for, for, for very long time. In fact, for a very, very short time
to prevent access thermal decomposition. OK, so this process is done very, very carefully.

The exposure of these gases you know 2 high temperature and pressure is not for very high time to
prevent formation of improvement formation, unnecessary byproducts.

OK, so only the pure gas is what you want the alkenes and even some kind of alkenes with the
ethylene propylene and and the butene gases.

You know that I have shown here and only only. Only they are formed and formed. You know, very
in very, very inappropriate quantity.

Slide-13 Part-2
This slide it depicts.

The steam cracking of propane gas.

OK so please recollect in the flow flow diagram.

Along with the ethane gas, the propane gas was also the second feed gas. OK, so also the.

The proportion or the ratio is, though it may be almost the same. OK, this slide is depicted mainly to
show that unlike the previous, you know where you have the splitting of this methane gas into
method.

Radicals 2 equal methyl radicals. This can also happen. The initiation can happen also through profile
radical directly or in hydrogen radical as shown in the reaction I.

Now in this you know I after the IT is, you know hydrogen, the radical, that is there, it can react with
the propane now.

OK, you can see here and when that reaction whether the propane happens, you know the you can
see the hydrogen is generated and you have one.

A new radical that is formed now OK, the profile radical. This and this profile radical can now you
know, once again, due to the lack of hydrogen it conform this.
One propene and you again have the radical that is shown in the in the reaction high. So both I and K
you have this. You know the radical that sits on the hydrogen, OK?

Now is ethyl radical that is present as shown in the reaction L. You know it can further split up.

It can also give this Ethereum product and generator methyl radical. OK, so you can see there is
multiple products are formed by these reactions OK, and usually by the combination of you know.

Two or three or two or more of these products. You can also get long hydrocarbon chains. You can
get you know these alkenes, or you know, by beta session.

Also, you can generate these alkenes or these. You know radicals based on these alkenes and these
alkanes alkyl ready.

All this you know, can be either taken out. You know if you can quench the the radicals, it can be
taken out as products or the alkanes that are generated.

OK, these alkanes can if they are in a very very long they can further be cracked and broken up into
smaller. The lighter hydrocarbons and.

Taken out, as you know, this smaller products or you know we can continue the reaction to until we
get the.

Add products OK, so this slide was has been put here mainly to compare the type of reaction. Now
that can happen with both the products, the ethane and the propane that are the main feed
products. In this the thermal cracking process. So in both the cases you end up having alkenes.

Of of your choice and other products are the larger hydrocarbon that represent that can be taken
back in the in the field.

And you can use it for various other you know processes to break it down further and you know get
these alkenes by the same process.

Slide-13 Part-3
So this slide is in general, you know self explanatory. I have put this slide mainly to show or to give a
precise example of.

You know how some using this thermal cracking process? We can breakdown large molecules into
various different kind of fractions. OK, so the the.

First example on the top you see that in large molecules such as decaen OK with 10 carbon atoms,
you can count the carbons. Here they can be easily cracked.

OK into into smaller products such as propane, OK, the CX3CH and then double bond CH2 and this
can be also broken, cracked into heptane, so three are there on the on the left and on the right. Your
product within a 7 so 3 + 7 so 1010 carbons are, you know satisfied here.

So the heptane is an alkene and the propane is an alkene, so you can get a mixture of an alkene and
in.

Alkane OK, you expose them. Now you take the heptane and you expose it to this cracking process.
You can maybe further breakdown into into three and four.

OK, you can further getting a propane from that and you can get a butane so this is how you know
the entire reactions take place or you know the how the thermal cracking is done. So you get you.
Take a heavier or the large hydrocarbon the North Alt.

You expose them to, you know high temperature and pressure and then you know you start
breaking them into useful smaller factions which are extracted continuously whereas the long
alkanes that represent you know they're again fed into the cracking chambers and you again break
them into smaller these fragments and you get you know whatever.

Decide gases or the alkenes that you want.

OK so very very simple. This was just in a representative example. Of course you can consider that
for, you know a lot.

Of other, uh?

By this long chain hydrocarbons.

The further you know in in the lower part of this slide in the in the green border you know you also
have the radicals that are formed, and as you all know radicals are, you know highly reactive and the
radicals are the same or different type can also combine OK and you can get a series of you know
various kinds of products I have shown here.

Mainly alkanes, but as shown in the previous step, you can also get alkenes OK, so I'm not going to
read all the reactions, but you can see that you know if I if I see the first this reaction, it's it's the
methyl radical, you know they combine together to form, you know this.

OK, so the missile and these radicals are in a very, very.

Reactive, so methyl and.

Ethyl can reacts and missile can react with you. Know the longer the Ethel profile.

In the beauty line, you know it can form a very very long chain. Similarly you also have this in ethyl
radical combined lethal.

To form this you know butane or ethyl combining with you know profile radical to form this pentane
and you know lot of other fraction. So this is how this you know the radicals can combine to.

Weather and form. You know various kinds of products. You know if you have a large alkane that is
formed like the C8H18 or this you know C7F16C6H14 probably you know they.

May not be.

Of too much interest to the industry, you know, so this is the the petroleum industry.

What they do? The refining industry. They have these products and they combine and then they
pass it on the chemical industry, sometimes also called this you know petrochemical.

Industry OK together you know they.

Uh, bring together all these products or you know water products are not very useful or thought not
to be very useful for the petroleum industry.

There they are taken over by this petrochemical industry or in other chemical industry. And they do
this reaction and lot of products obtained from here.

Both alkanes as well as these alkenes are. You know, very good intermediate useful products for
preparing various other in finished products. Or you know, large polymers.
And which are used ultimately to get the.

Decide you know products, so ultimately you know in the in the in the three to four slides that we
have studied till now the thermal cracking process as you all would have seen.

Can be utilised very very efficiently to convert.

Any kind of you know large hydrocarbons into into smaller, useful, lighter hydrocarbons. This can be
alkanes. This can also be alkenes. This can also be you know, very useful gases.

And also gasoline. OK, so everything is possible. All these products can be obtained very easily by
converting this heavier hydrocarbons into the lighter fractions. Or, you know lighter hydrocarbon
fractions using this cracking or a.

Thermal cracking process very very efficiently.

Slide-14 Part-1
So this slide is in general, you know self explanatory. I have put this slide mainly to show or to give a
precise example of.

You know how some using this thermal cracking process? We can breakdown large molecules into
various different kind of fractions. OK, so the the.

First example on the top you see that in large molecules such as decaen OK with 10 carbon atoms,
you can count the carbons. Here they can be easily cracked.

OK into into smaller products such as propane, OK, the CX3CH and then double bond CH2 and this
can be also broken, cracked into heptane, so three are there on the on the left and on the right. Your
product within a 7 so 3 + 7 so 1010 carbons are, you know satisfied here.

So the heptane is an alkene and the propane is an alkene, so you can get a mixture of an alkene and
in.

Alkane OK, you expose them. Now you take the heptane and you expose it to this cracking process.
You can maybe further breakdown into into three and four.

OK, you can further getting a propane from that and you can get a butane so this is how you know
the entire reactions take place or you know the how the thermal cracking is done. So you get you.

Take a heavier or the large hydrocarbon the North Alt.

You expose them to, you know high temperature and pressure and then you know you start
breaking them into useful smaller factions which are extracted continuously whereas the long
alkanes that represent you know they're again fed into the cracking chambers and you again break
them into smaller these fragments and you get you know whatever.

Decide gases or the alkenes that you want.

OK so very very simple. This was just in a representative example. Of course you can consider that
for, you know a lot.

Of other, uh?

By this long chain hydrocarbons.

The further you know in in the lower part of this slide in the in the green border you know you also
have the radicals that are formed, and as you all know radicals are, you know highly reactive and the
radicals are the same or different type can also combine OK and you can get a series of you know
various kinds of products I have shown here.

Mainly alkanes, but as shown in the previous step, you can also get alkenes OK, so I'm not going to
read all the reactions, but you can see that you know if I if I see the first this reaction, it's it's the
methyl radical, you know they combine together to form, you know this.

OK, so the missile and these radicals are in a very, very.

Reactive, so methyl and.

Ethyl can reacts and missile can react with you. Know the longer the Ethel profile.

In the beauty line, you know it can form a very very long chain. Similarly you also have this in ethyl
radical combined lethal.

To form this you know butane or ethyl combining with you know profile radical to form this pentane
and you know lot of other fraction. So this is how this you know the radicals can combine to.

Weather and form. You know various kinds of products. You know if you have a large alkane that is
formed like the C8H18 or this you know C7F16C6H14 probably you know they.

May not be.

Of too much interest to the industry, you know, so this is the the petroleum industry.

What they do? The refining industry. They have these products and they combine and then they
pass it on the chemical industry, sometimes also called this you know petrochemical.

Industry OK together you know they.

Uh, bring together all these products or you know water products are not very useful or thought not
to be very useful for the petroleum industry.

There they are taken over by this petrochemical industry or in other chemical industry. And they do
this reaction and lot of products obtained from here.

Both alkanes as well as these alkenes are. You know, very good intermediate useful products for
preparing various other in finished products. Or you know, large polymers.

And which are used ultimately to get the.

Decide you know products, so ultimately you know in the in the in the three to four slides that we
have studied till now the thermal cracking process as you all would have seen.

Can be utilised very very efficiently to convert.

Any kind of you know large hydrocarbons into into smaller, useful, lighter hydrocarbons. This can be
alkanes. This can also be alkenes. This can also be you know, very useful gases.

And also gasoline. OK, so everything is possible. All these products can be obtained very easily by
converting this heavier hydrocarbons into the lighter fractions. Or, you know lighter hydrocarbon
fractions using this cracking or a.

Thermal cracking process very very efficiently.

Slide-14 Part-2
So up to now.

We have studied.

About what is cracking?

And the two major methods of cracking, which include the thermal cracking and the catalytic
cracking.

We have also seen in the previous slides that in thermal cracking process.

We know that you know different kinds of long chain hydrocarbons can be broken down efficiently.

Under the influence of high temperature.

And pressure.

To obtain.

Various kinds or useful fractions.

OK, so in the in the towers, multiple towers that was there in that scheme in the in the in the
diagram where you know very useful fractions from, you know 4-5 carbon, 6 carbons, 4 carbons, so
various factions are obtained and especially in the steam cracking diagram I am referring to the
steam cracking and diagram OK.

So now we know. So there we realised that in high temperature was necessary and sometimes a
very high pressure. Up to 7000. You know kilopascals was necessary to breakdown.

This, you know, long chain hydrocarbons into smaller useful fractions. And later on I had also shown
few reactions. You know where the smaller this you know radicals are formed and how these
radicals they recombine.

OK, it may be that the same kind of radicals, for example in the in the last slide I I know that I had
shown I had mentioned that it is a self explanatory slide, but I would like to mention here that you
know in the previous slide the I had given an example of decane being broken down into two smaller
molecules.

In addition to that, you know the various other smaller radicals. For example, I would give an
example of two methyl radicals.

They come together. They combine to form methane, similar in a methyl radical. It also combines
with ethyl radical to form the another hydrocarbon. Another alkene called propane and Cindy.

Similar way to ethyl radicals can also combine together to form butane, whereas the same butane
you know can also be made by a combination of you know, methyl and appropriate. So many types
of combinations are possible to generate this kind of alkanes.

And in addition to that, you know there are lot of other important products that were listed in the
previous slide where you can generate a pentane.

You can generate hexane, you can you can generate in heptane, octane and so on. OK, so in this all
this thing you you would have seen there is a combination of, you know various radicals which may
be of the same kind.
Or which can be of the of different kind like methyl and butyl and ethyl and profile or you know in a
similar way you know you can also have hexane which is you know very very important organic
solvent and it is also a major component in gasoline.

Can also be obtained from a mixture of either in ethyl and butyl or even two profiles which are
similar number of carbons, another three carbons radicals can combine to form this hexane.

In addition to that, you know this profile radicals which are there. They can also combine to form
various these brutal radicals.

To form this hip pain while even obtain can be formed by combination of two brutal radicals, so as
such we saw that you know by this by applying heat and.

Pressure, you know you can generate these smaller radicals of various kinds and they combine to
form different kind of alkanes which are useful components of the gas solid.

So ultimate aim you know to do these kind of reactions you know is to generate important
components for gasoline. OK, and there is always a question.

But you know, if you are able to do this by applying so much heat, can you develop a process or you
know, can you utilise and some alternate method where you can get the same products but the
conditions are much milder. That is where this you know catalytic cracking reaction or the catalytic
cracking process comes into.

OK, is it clear?

So I continue in India this slide. So overall, you know, coming to the this catalytic cracking thing there
are.

There are several advantages, several inherent advantages of this method, or, you know, I will not
say very this harshly that you know that thermal catalytic method or the thermal method is.

Is not good or is it? It is, you know, not preferred. Of course it is still used very widely in the industry,
but catalytic cracking method as it uses various.

Catalyst and the conditions can be milder, hence this method these days finds you know preference
over the thermal catalytic process OK, or the thermal this process in the catalytic process.

Also, there is small amount of heat so you know sometimes it is also referred as in a catalytic,
thermal or thermal catalytic process. Plus you know. But.

Please do not confuse it with the thermal.

Method it, it doesn't mean that you know whenever you use a catalyst you do not heat. In the case
of the catalytic cracking reaction.

Also, there is some amount of heat that is necessary to efficiently breakdown the hydrocarbons in. In
this case, you will see that at another terminological feedstock is used.

For the long hydrocarbons, so this feedstock, if you want to break down here, also some sort of a
heat or temperature, is necessary to realise the reaction OK.

So basically, moving on to this catalytic cracking reactions, because this is another method.
Or another important method of this? You know cracking process. However, the main difference in
this is you know, so various catalysts are included here and hence the process overall becomes, you
know much milder as compared to the thermal reaction process.

So in general it is believed that the catalytic cracking process has, you know, several advantages over
the the lesser efficient, slightly lesser fee and thermal cracking meth.

And as the name mentions, you know in. In this case, the entire process is usually carried out in the
presence of a suitable catalyst, or there is more than one category. It can be suitable catalysts.

At a much milder condition like lower temperature and pressure, or in many cases there, there is no
pressure needed at all.

OK, this is completely in contrast with the thermal cracking process, where the temperature that we
used is in a very high or above 800 degree Celsius and pressure.

Also is you know very very high. OK so under this high pressure and very high temperature the
cracking was realised in the thermal cracking process.

So this at catalytic cracking process. You know though, it's a milder process in this case. Also, it is
divided into 2 main types, so this includes the fixed bed catalytic cracking reaction.

And the second is the the moving or the fluidized bed catalytic cracking process.

OK so I am repeating one is a fixed bed catalytic cracking process and the 2nd is the moving bed
catalytic cracking process.

So among these two process.

OK, the two among these two processes, the fluidized bed catalytic cracking process or it is also
known as FCCOK. The point #4 in this slide.

You know has more advantages over the fixed bed catalytic cracking process.

Hence, you know this method has you know more preference in the industry over the fixed bed
catalytic cracking process.

I will be showing you know how the what are the advantages how this method is advantages over
the fixed bed in the next slide isolation some explanation.

OK, so even in the fluidized bed cracking reactor or the cracking reaction, there are two kinds.

Of design in the in the reactor or the FCC reactors, one of them, you know it is called the stack type
reactors, where the reactor.

And the catalyst generator. OK, so usually in the reactor you have the feedstock and the catalyst
together, but you know at the end of the reaction you also need to regenerate the catalyst. So in the
in the STACK TAP reactor. What happens the react?

And the catalyst generator.

Are usually stored or or usually kept.

In a single vessel or in the same vessel with the reactor.

OK, that is kept above the catalyst generator.

OK, whereas in the second type of reactor what happens is that in this case the reactor.

And then the catalyst generator.

OK, they are kept side by side in two separate vessels.

So in one it is, you know kept 1 / 1 above the other. In second it is kept side by side or you know.

One reactor as the.

The one vessel has the reactor and then the second has the catalyst generator OK and both there I
will not say that you know one method is bad. The other method is good. Both these reactors have a
very very unique features.

And parameters you know, and both of them are used or they are in operation satisfactorily all
across the.

OK, so both of them are very very useful in the. In the next slide I will show you you know how these
catalytic reactors have advantages over.

You know the normal process of this thermal cracking and I will show you the process of the side-by-
side reactor by a simple simplified diagram.

Hopefully hopefully you know that will help you understand why this method is. You know,
important why this method is simple and how it has been taken to a great advantage by the.

History to breakdown large feedstock or large hydrocarbon feedstocks into smaller useful fractions
that are added or that are part of the gasoline.

OK, so it is an interesting catalytic process where you know the catalyst you add and you can
regenerate.

And you can reuse it multiple times, so I will be showing this in the next slide with a very simple
diagram.
Slide 15

Audio file
media1.m4a

Transcript
This slide.

A diagram.

Of the fluidized catalytic cracking process or a cracking reaction.

In this slide I will try to explain the principle.

And the details of the fluidized bed cracking process or the FCC process.

As you all can see from this diagram.

Of the FCC reactor.

That there are two main chambers on the right.

You have the cracking chamber.

And to your left, you have the regeneration chamber.

Below the right chamber you have an inlet.

From where the feedstock is sent inside?

In between the two reactors.

I have shown a arrow.

The catalyst or the spent countless.

Once that cracking is over, is sent to the regeneration chamber.

Where the regeneration occurs, or.

The carbon that is deposited on the catalyst.

Is stripped off.

And then.

It is sent back.
To the cracking chamber.

The crack products.

Are usually drawn out.

From the top.

Or the cracking chamber.

And if.

The desired fractions are obtained.

Or the crack products are obtained.

They are sent to the fractionating column and a fractionated or they separated out.

Carbons or compounds having different carbon chains, they are all separated out very efficiently,
whereas if there is an unreacted.

It is again sent back to the Chamber and this process continues.

All the products.

Are cracked and taken out.

So you can see from the right side the black fonts where I have mentioned that the feedstock is usually
gas oil and heavy oil fractions.

OK, so in general let me explain to you how this the entire process works.

So what happens is that in the FCC reactor, both the reactor and the catalyst regenerator.

Are kept in two separate vessels.

So in this FCC method, the finely divided catalyst you know it is kept agitated.

Buy gas streams.

You know, or it says, the cracking fuel or the brown arrows so that.

It can be handled like a fluid system.

And pumped as a true liquid.

This also ensures.

You know better contact between.

The catalyst.

And the reactant feed or the feedstocks?

And this also helps overall.

To improve the yield of the fractionated or the cracked products.

OK, so this is very very important.

Please note that if you do not blow this error you know then it it does not.

The entire aim of this process to keep it in the fluidized way.

Or basically you know, in, in, in, in liquid way you know it is not realized.

So this is very important that you know there is no additional agitation or anything so.

This air is blown continuously so that there is a continuous.

Uh, contact between these two in the liquid and the.

The catalyst so everything is kept in a fluidized way so that there is a.

It is ensured that the contact between the catalyst and the reactant or the feedstock you know is high
and only then it is possible to realize good yield of the desired product.

So overall in the feedstock in the that you I already mentioned some time back in the FCC is usually the
the gas oil.

OK, the heavy oil fractions and the catalyst that are added to this and as mentioned on the on the right
side you can see the catalyst that is used in this reaction is aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide.

So al two O 3 and Scioto mixture is used and that is also in.

The fluidized form.

So that the contact.

Of the feedstock and the catalyst is maximum OK.

Please note that you know usually this is you cannot mix these.

These are solid compounds and it cannot be mixed very easily with the reactants.

OK, hence it is necessary that if if the output of the product is maximum, if you want that the output of
products is maximum.

Then you have to keep it keep this thing also in the fluidized form.

So the temperature of this Chamber is usually in the range of 350 degrees to 450 degrees Celsius, while
the pressure is usually normal, but so in some cases you know it can be kept slightly above the normal
pressure.

Hence, you know this is an important, very important indication.

A very important point or very important you know.

Points where we can.

We realize that this catalytic cracking method or the FCC method is, you know, very much mild.
As compared to thermal cracking process.

OK, and you all would remember that in thermal cracking process the temperature is in more than
double of what I mentioned here.

It is more than 800 or you know it can go much higher. The temperature is very very high and the
pressure is also extremely high.

OK, so in this case everything comes down, the temperature is less.

There is almost no pressure.

In many cases you know the temperature can be even read.

Used OK, but usually you know they don't go below this, otherwise you will realize that in the process
the amount of products that are coming out is less.

More of this unreacted fit stock comes out, hence you know this is, you know you have to optimize both
the catalyst, the catalyst quantity, the catalyst.

What we call the surface of the catalyst, you know it, it is activated and also the temperature.

OK, so this finely divided catalyst bed is fluidized now by an upward movement.

Of the feedstock vapors in the cracking chamber I have shown this on the on the right side vessel of this
slide, where the feedstock also, you know the arrows that you know it is.

Sent up.

And this is a continuous process, and this upward passage of this feedstock vapors in the in the cracking
chamber you know, will will also help the catalyst and go up, and as the temperature is raised, and as it
comes in contact with the catalyst, the reaction process starts and the whenever the products are
formed.

You know they are taken out from the top of the cracking chamber.

And send to the fractionating column.

So this is a sort of a continuous process.

It is a continuous process, you know, as long as the catalyst is active and as long as the feedstock is
thread continuously or passed into the reactor as shown in this figure from the bottom, the reaction
never stops.

OK, it continues.

'til both the catalyst is active and the and the feedstock is continuously passed so that is the biggest
advantage.

OK, this reaction can continue.

You keep on going, you know until and unless the the catalyst goes bad or there is some drop in the
temperature or.
You you stop sending the feedstock so overall you know this because of these advantages, milder
conditions and this continuous process.

You know this has been preferred over the thermal over the steam cracking process where you know
the conditions are more, huh?

Finally, you know if this process continues, the cracked vapors are generally withdrawn continuously and
from the top, as shown in this figure and the of the cracking Chamber and therefore directly fed into
fractionating column, which also work continuously.

OK, so if this reaction is successful, and if the products come up successfully.

Then the fractionating column also runs continuously and they can in the fractionating column as
mentioned earlier.

If you recollect, you get fractions that can be separated out into various kinds of gases.

OK, and various important fractions of gasoline.

And also you end up getting uncracked, oil OK so whatever uncracked oil is there.

I am just repeating this you know that is again taken back into this.

The cracking chamber.

As part of this, you know feedstock, so this is also a continuous process.

I should have put an arrow here, but I think you know you all can understand there is a fractionating
column shown here and whatever.

Uncracked products are there.

It is taken back into into the feedstock.

So to increase the overall yield of the desired small hydrocarbons, what happens is that again subjected
to second round or the second stage of cracking.

OK, this is again very important process.

That is why this process needs to be continuous.

So this will ensure that you know.

Although lot of uncracked oil.

Has come out and through the continuous process all this uncracked oil is again subjected to this
cracking chamber.

It is cracked and converted to desired high value gasoline fractions by the same process.

OK so until and unless this.

So, until and unless this uncracked oil is not fully cracked, usually you know you do not consider this as
an you know successful process, so this is continuously done and every time you have an uncracked, the
quantity of this uncracked Doyle increases.

What you do is you know you surely try to increase the temperature slightly.

Or you try to regenerate the catalyst.

OK, so if this reaction overall you know has to be carried out efficiently and continuously, you know we
have to ensure OK we have to ensure that the catalyst that is present in this cracking Chamber or the
FCC process it always remains activated or in the best possible condition.

OK, if the catalyst is not in the best possible condition then you direct indication is you don't see enough
crack products.

OK, you only see the uncracked oil coming out from the top.

OK, so once that you you reach a condition where you know more uncracked doll is coming out rather
than the crack products.

That is the time you realize that the catalyst is, you know, has to be activated, or you know this catalyst
is called, uh, spent catalyst.

OK, so the spent catalyst that is there, what what has to be done?

That means that means you know.

This has to be taken out.

OK, it has to be regenerated and then you know once again the reaction has to be started.

In that case the spent catalyst isn't taken out, it is drawn from the bottom of the of the cracking
chamber from the left side.

It is transported in the Airstream as shown in the middle part of the figure.

Although the arrow is not in contact with both the Chamber.

Usually, you know it's it's there is a.

Connection that is made.

Usually it's the connection is, you know it is sealed.

That is why I did not show it a continuous thing.

OK, so it's sealed and whenever it is needed it is open and the catalyst is transferred to the regeneration
chamber on the left side of the slide.

OK, and it is also kept, you know, adjacent to the main process chamber and what happens is that this
calculation, now you are breaking you are breaking the bigger hydrocarbons into smaller hydrocarbons.

So what happens is there is lot of deposition of elemental carbon on the catalyst so that.
Has to be removed and how is that done in this regeneration team in chamber that in hot air or at high
temperature is a again it is the catalyst is exposed or you know is a is a.

Exposed to this, you know, hot air and this carbon is burnt off and stripped off from the surface.

So once the catalyst is, you know, regenerated, then then it is once again sent back to the cracking
chamber from the bottom of the regeneration temple.

You can see the IT is shown by the arrows across the blue pipes.

OK, and this process is done whenever it is felt that the efficiency of the reaction has come down.

So in the and the more uncracked oil is being generated so the regenerated catalyst is once again
carefully and send back to the cracking chamber.

Along with the feedstock as shown in the diagram you know on the right side below and that arrow, the
black arrow that goes to the cracking chamber.

And it is written to the cracking chamber as a regenerated catalyst to be reused again.

So you can think the of this process that is really continuous where you know not only the the this
uncracked fractionating an uncracked these heavy oils are.

Re generator or transferred back to the feedstock, but even the catalyst after being spent or after being
used.

You know it is regenerated again, sent back to the cracking chamber so you can see that you know the
same amount of catalyst.

The same catalyst is, you know, reused again and again for you know very, very long time for multiple
processes and this process as such is, you know, very very efficient and in general most of the time at
these kind of reactions or these kind of processes you know.

Don't require any maintenance is usually a maintaining maintenance free.

Process OK so the catalyst is, you know, kept on you know is regenerated.

And every time you get this, you know new quantity of this feedstock is complete.

It is continuously fed in this process and hence you know this process.

This FCC method it has become a very important or a very prominent.

Part of most of the modern refinery, and because of this, you know, this advantages of this method.

Now this the same catalyst and then same reactors.

They can be operated for years together so and yes, together they never need to even shut down the
process.

OK, so it's a very very simple.

This reaction and you know you do not need really a very highly trained you know persons to even
operate this.
You know, once you have this catalyst and the feedstock is fed continuously and the catalyst is
regenerated from time to time, you know there nothing happens to this process.

OK, and these days with the.

A lot of automation in this refinery process OK.

The output of this hydrocarbons, or the output of this cracked products is continuously monitored, and
from there you can directly get an information whether the feedstock that is being sent in is being
cracked completely or know the health of the catalyst is being monitored continuously by various.

Other sophisticated techniques.

OK, so it is a continuous process and it is always possible that you know all the products that are
obtained and then the thing you know they are sent to the fractionating column and they separated out
at.

You know as individual components or sometimes in the case of gasoline.

Important components are also mixed and taken directly as the final product.

So overall this process has been highly successful in the industries and the production in the yield per
day is so high that in a in a normal refinery also.

You know you can get an excess of 10 to.

The power 6 gallons per day, so that is a very very high quantity of, you know refined product.

Oh, are you know the correct product?

You know that you can obtain OK, so this is a very nice thing that you know you can see.

So one more thing before I end the.

This slide I would like to mention that you also get from this regeneration Chamber various kinds of flue
gases and water. These flue gases. You know this also includes a combination of CO2.

Which includes H2 vapors.

It includes the nitrogen, oxygen and sometimes also it includes a small percentage of this in carbon
monoxide. The north and the South 02.

OK, so these are sometimes a problem because you know if you.

A lot of the.

The percentage of the percentage of this sulfur containing compounds, or this you know and so
increases, then especially sulfur and what happens, is that you know it poisons the catalyst and many
times you know in such conditions the catalyst has to be completely replay.

So if the sulfur is there, sometimes it happens that it cannot be burnt off.

In many cases, the sulfur is a major problem.

It remains a problem in the petroleum industry, so the crude oil that is free of this sulfur you know is
extremely important in the sense you know.

If the last three.

Component the oh I know, and so too are not there then you know it is believed that the crude oil is of
good quality and the health of the catalyst and health of the reactor also increases manifold.

OK, in addition to that you know the the flue gas stack that I have mentioned here.

It is nothing but it is a very long chimney.

Is a vertical pipe where you can you know get lot of different kind of combustion products.

This is very common if you all would absorb carefully in refineries.

This long chimneys are very very common so.

Set, you know, separated out during this regeneration chamber are also seen thrown out in the open
environment.

OK, so in general you know I would like to say that this process you know is is quite simple, not very, you
know, sophisticated the conditions are.

Mild compared to the steam cracking process where you know unit higher temperature and pressure.

In this case the catalyst does this job instead of higher heating at higher temperature and we can very
efficiently get a mixture of crack products in the presence of this catalyst.

And it's you know, important thing is that you know here you don't have any agitations which is kept in a
fluidized.

Formed by the continuous flow of this hot air OK, the brown arrows have shown at three places in this
slide, and that is what you need.

Indicates OK and the temperature, as I mentioned, is also less than around 400 degree Celsius,
sometimes even less than that or 350 degree Celsius and in the presence of a suitable catalyst. In this
case we have used AL two O 3.

And a silicon dioxide.

However, this can be replaced by, you know, various other catalyst.

There are lot of other modern catalysts and you know the size and the shape of this catalyst also is very
important these days.

You have that the nanotechnology which has come in a big way, so the smaller the size of the catalyst or
a specific shape of the catalyst.

You have better surface area the more the surface area of the catalyst that is available, the more.

The hydrocarbons or the feedstock come in contact with the surface, and the more they come in contact
with the surface, the better they are agitated.
We are able to obtain a better conversion of the feedstock into the desired products.

OK, so overall you know this scheme is, you know quite.

Very efficient, much milder than the thermal cracking process.

Everything is, you know, you all would have seen.

Everything can be regenerated and you know the process is continuous.

You do not need much of you know trained manpower and years together.

This reaction vessel.

Can keep on running without requiring in a major maintenance product.

Both the by products and the main products can be separated.

Whatever products are not needed, whatever have spoiled the catalyst or whatever responsible for you
know, stopping the activity of the catalyst that also can be stripped off from the catalyst on the left
chamber that is kept.

You know adjacent to the main chamber, and the catalyst is one second or kind of once again be sent
back to the cracking chamber.

To regenerate it and reuse it.

OK, so these are the the multiple advantages that this method has.

The fluidized catalytic cracking process.

Hence it is you know very very popular in the Indus.

Sees these days.

So Please note that you know it is not that because this method has a lot of advantages.

The other method of thermal cracking is not used.

That is also still in use in the industry.

However, people are finding or the industry is finding that utilizing the FCC method or the catalytic.

Process has many more advantages compared to thermal cracking process, but however in a Please note
both of them are quite popular and even in the the fluid as cracking method you know you have shown
that you know the catalyst is regenerated in the chamber on the.

Right, but even the stat chamber you know where the catalyst is above the reaction chamber is also
quite popular in the industry.

However, you know, since this is more popular and I think you know they, I thought that discussing this
in the class would be better than the other methods, so I hope you all have understood.

The importance of this, you know cracking process.

You know why you have this?

Why is it necessary to do the cracking?

And you know what are the different existing methods that are used for cracking and by this cracking
method you know the long hydrocarbon which have lesser value can be broken down into the gasoline.

You know who demand is steeply increasing.

You know every time you see, so the demand for the smaller fraction is still very very high.

Hence both the processes are, you know, quite popular or they used to know.

In industries and this is going to remain in the industry for quite some time with the development that is
taking place these days is in the modification of the catalyst.

The modification or type of catalyst or what are the other additives that are added to the catalyst and
you know how you can overall increase the yield of the.

The desired products, while not compromising with the safety and in other aspects of the industry while
also maintaining that you know the conditions, become more and more milder overtime.

OK, so the.

FCC method you know.

Please note that you know this is one of the most popular methods and try to understand this entire
process by looking at the figure.

I've simplified the the figure by drawing it, preparing it by myself, and hopefully you know this will help
you all to understand this in a simpler way.
SLIDE 16

Audio file
media1 4.m4a

Transcript
Up to now we have studied.

Various processes.

By which you know we can convert large.

Long chain.

Or the heavy hydrocarbons?

Into light, refractions, and you know which are more useful products, especially as fuels.

So in this slide you know with this catalytic reforming reactions entitled the catalytic reforming reactions
from this slide onwards, we will now learn about the reforming reactions or the reforming processes.

Which is, you know, another very important method.

Through which we can convert or reform.

OK, we can convert or the other name is in a reform.

The long or the large chains of hydrocarbons or the heavy hydrocarbons into very useful, or in a very
valuable products, mainly as you know, gasoline or you know the additives of gasoline.

So what exactly is the re forming?

As the name suggests, no, it is a re forming is a chemical process.

OK, through which we can convert.

The straight.

Or the you know the long chain.

The heavier hydrocarbons into branched chain molecules or the branched molecules the cyclic
molecules.

As well as you know, aromatic hydrocarbons.

OK, and together you know water products come out of this reforming reactions.

Now they are known as reformats.

OK, and overall this you know it's a.

It's a combination of different products that can be obtained from this reforming reaction, and oh are
you in the petroleum reforming reaction.

So whenever we do this reaction, in the absence of catalyst, they just call it reforming reaction, whereas
you know when we do this reaction in the presence.

Of a catalyst you it is called as you know catalytic reef.

Forming reaction, so in this case you know like the the process is quite similar to the reforming reaction,
but in this case we use a suitable catalyst.

During the reforming process.

OK, so as such in the in the catalog catalytic reforming, it's one of the very basic petroleum refining
process.

This is for the upgrading for upgrading light.

These hydrocarbons you know before upgrading into light hydrocarbon feedstock into more useful
products.

Of you know something which is much higher demand.

So please keep this in mind.

You know all the processes in these petrochemical industries or the refineries.

You know they are aimed at converting the large hydrocarbons into more useful in smaller fractions.

You know that are of more practical value.

So by performing this re forming process the octane number Please remember this term I will be
discussing about this very soon.

The octane number of the hydrocarbons increases as they tend to become more compact.

As I mentioned, I will explain to you all what is the importance of this octane number in the.

Next few slides.

So like you know, any other processes in the petroleum industry.

This petroleum, you know, like one of the processes, the catalytic cracking process that is also part of
the most refining industry or the modern refineries or the petrochemical industry and other products
are obtained.

From these, you know, other processes, and one of them is, uh.

Catalytic reforming processes.

Through which you know we can get this high grade gasoline or the high octane number products which
are useful, very useful as a fuels.
You know the automobile industries, you know it can also have in various kind of aromatics, and it also
generates you know hydrogen gas.

OK so Please remember this all these are products that can be obtained from this catalytic reforming
processes.

And you know there are few typical reactions that are specifically involved in this catalytic reforming
process, which I will again be discussing very soon in the outing after three to four slides.

So basically, they, you know, involve or primarily they involve the reactions such as in a dehydro
cyclization.

OK, isomerization reaction and the dehydrogenation processes OK, so these are, you know, the primarily
the most prominent reactions that are followed in this catalytic reforming process.

OK among them you know there are two other typical reactions that are the part of the catalytic
reforming process.

You know they are these the D alkylation process and the hydro cracking reactions, and both these
reactions are really undesirable.

And because the products that they give out.

Are usually of low.

Value and the resulting hydrocarbon is, as you know, not very useful in the gasoline industry.

So these two reactions, the D alkylation and the hydro hydro cracking reactions are usually considered
to be undesirable.

And typically they know they are avoided in most of the petrochemical industry.

Rather than this, you know, to accomplish the reaction that I mentioned earlier, you know various kinds
of catalysts are usually used in the catalytic reforming process, and you know the catalyst as I, as you
saw in the previous FCC reactions.

Also here also the most commonly used catalyst.

That are that have performed very well over the several years.

They include mainly the platinum.

Or the Palladium based catalyst.

OK, in addition to that you know there are also certain industries which use the group 8 metals such as
iron, ruthenium, or the awesome based catalyst you know.

Along with you know second catalytic metal and the 2nd catalytic method.

Why do you use it?

So they are usually.

Used as you know, promoters in these reactions so it can be platinum, Palladium or this in iron,
ruthenium and osmium, but in addition to that there can also be secondary metal as a promoter and the
secondary metals may include metals such as you know, rhenium.

Ortin then tungsten germanium.

Cobalt nickel rhodium.

Or it may be ruthenium and Iridium, so I have not mentioned the name of.

You know these metals in this slide, but however you know, I am sure that you know it's it's not very
difficult to remember.

I will be showing you know the some of this catalyst when I explain the reactions.

The few different reactions that are part of this.

Forming process OK so Please remember this metal catalyst.

You know it's either platinum or Palladium along with you know or they may be ironed out time and
awesome.

And in addition to that there are also promoter metals which include the rhenium, tin, tungsten,
germanium, cobalt.

Can be nickel.

Rhodium, ruthenium and you know Iridium, so it's a series of you know few few metals and usually this
is a catalytic metal.

It is dispersed, usually dispersed, on a support solid support.

You know.

Again, the name that I'm going to mention you all will recollect we have used it in the FCC also.

So this catalytic metals that I just mentioned you know they they are usually dispersed on a solid
support such as alumina or silica.

Or it can be a combination or both.

This you know silica and alone.

And as you all would, I am repeating this as you all would recollect.

This alumina and silica catalysts were also used for this.

You know fluidized catalytic cracking reactions.

You know that you know just studied in the previous set of slides, and here also you can see that you
know the same you know.

Is used as a solid support on which the catalytic metal is usually dispersed very, very uniformly.
And another important thing is that you know, typically in such catalyst hydrogen atom, such as as sorry,
I mean, the halogen atom such as chlorine is also incorporated on solid support, you know, or this
alumina, silica or this.

You know silica alumina to add an acid functionality.

OK so Please remember this or chlorine is added as an acid.

Facility and these days other than these, you know there are several other reforming catalysts that are
also utilized such as this.

You know molecular sees which also include this borrow silicates or this in silico aluminum phosphates
and they can also be no layered crystalline clay teep phyllosilicates.

Including several kinds of amorphous clays.

OK, so this is another important development that has come up in this petrochemical industry, so all
these you know, these are different kinds of clays, and molecular seeds are also used in the
petrochemical industry.

Has solid support where the catalysts are dispersed very nicely.

So in general, the petroleum refineries or this petrochemical industries, they usually have a you know,
multi stage catalytic reforming process and in this multi stage process what happens?

You know they usually employ a method which usually comprises the passing of this you know.

Refinery grade stream through at least in two different reforming vessels or reforming processes, and
which are usually arranged in a series of, you know, continuous process like that we saw in the previous
few.

The the reaction diagram window.

We have quite simple.

To that, and it is a continuous process where the catalytic reforming happens and the re formats that
are obtained.

The desired reforms that are obtained.

They are continuously drawn out and transferred to, you know, vessels that if needed.

They can also be further, you know, improved or purified.

To get a better quality additive or better quality and gasoline.

OK, so I am not showing you all hear the reaction vessels because that is quite similar to the earlier
thing.

You know you can have this parallel vessels 2-3 and usually you know the re formats that are obtained
there. They were taken out.

Out of the results, continuously and then purified to purified by an additional.

This vessel that is kept next to it.

And usually you know in the in the RE formats that are obtained you know, of course, octane number is
always better than the feedstocks, but usually the aromatic hydrocarbons.

That roplanes from these have the highest octane number, then then then the other products that are
obtained which includes the linear or branched aliphatic hydrocarbons.

And you know you have cyclic hydrocarbons.

Also that are obtained and.

Other than this, you know we also have this, uh.

What we call the alkenes.

OK, so I will be discussing about this in the coming slide.

So overall in general I opolo you all would have got an idea that by performing this catalytic reforming
process, the overall quality of the of the gasoline or the products that are obtained.

Re formats from the long chain, the hydrocarbons that were used in this process, you know that can be
broken down into smaller or the compact Malick.

Rules and in general they are.

The quality is and then significantly such that the market price of the RE formats that is obtained from
this process is much much higher.

Compared to the feedstock or basically you know, in the entire process, in the presence of.

For various metal catalysts which are loaded on the solid support, we can convert.

Large hydrocarbons, you know which which have lesser this aromatic, which have lesser market share.

You know they can be converted into products or gasoline products, or additives, or reformats now
which have higher, much higher market value.

And this is where the entire efforts.

In the industry, the refineries and petrochemical industry is focused to to obtain higher value or value
products at the end of this category forming process.
Slide 17

Audio file
media1 2.m4a

Transcript
So in this slide, before I go into the details of different type of reforming reactions, let me briefly
describe to you all about octane number.

And its importance.

So the the the word obtained number, you know it is often associated with the performance offered by
you know any gasoline fuel you know.

Hence it is very important to know what exactly is this octane.

Number, so in general it is assumed that you know whenever a fuel is there, you know whenever there
is a higher octane rating of a fuel we we discuss about, you know various octane numbers.

That means that overall, the performance of the fuel you know is is better, OK, and usually everyone
prefers to buy a fuel.

Which has a higher octane rating or higher octane number.

You know, for using their automobiles or you know any any.

Machines, but you know what exactly, does this octane number or this in octane rating mean is very
important for us to understand so that we know that you know when we discuss about fuels, you know
why?

It is very often seen that this octane number you know is discussed in most of the places.

So in general this in octane number it is defined as the detonation resistance of the gasoline.

You know with reference to two compounds, the North.

10 which is the linear hydrocarbon chain you all know within 7 carbons and the obtained number of you
know this linear Northampton is zero and this is compared with another compound that is the isooctane
or it is the 224 trimethyl pentane.

The structure is shown on the right side.

You know the slide top of the slide and the North Hampton structure is shown on the left side.

It is a linear chain. Then obtain with seven carbons. So in this case the 224 trimethyl pentane structure
that is shown you know it is.
It has obtained number of 100.

So you having two compound one is zero and the other is 100.

Hence you know it it this is used as a standard and it is called as the octane.

Number so higher the obtained number you know lesser is the knocking tendency.

OK so I will also explain to you all know what is the knocking.

OK underlined in this slide.

The red this fonts so and underline.

So I will be discussing about that also in the coming slides.

Or you know in general what we can say is that the octane number of, uh, gasoline is also the
percentage volume of isooctane in a mixture.

Of North Hampton and isooctane Blend, which has the same knocking characteristic as you know, the
gasoline sample and that is under test OK.

For example, let me give you one example. You know if you have a fuel and it is mentioned that you
know it has an octane number value of suppose 87.

I am telling this number 87 because this is this kind of fuel is you know very commonly used across India.

It does not mean exactly that.

You know, in this fuel the amount of north obtain the isooctane and North heptane.

You know is.

You know 87 is to 0, but it is a fuel. It can be in any fuel in which you know if if you test that fuel with the
percentage ratio of 87 is to zero of isooctane and hope to North heptane, then this fuel.

Will be.

Showing the performance with exactly similar to is 87 to 0 of isooctane and N 10 OK, and then the ratio
87 is to 0. So you know this is where you know because you know one of them has this thing. You know
the octane number of 87 and 910 of 100, and otherwise you know.

But otherwise, this ratio of 0. So when you mix the both these compounds in the ratio of 87 is to 13.

OK 87 inches to 13. That is where you have the fuel performance of this. This ratio, which is equal to the
fuel that is sold with an octane number of 87.

OK, I hope I am clear with this so you know if if somebody tells that you know the octane number of fuel
is 95.

That means that fuel you can compare with the ice octane and heptane where the ratio of these two
compounds can be.
95 is to five OK, so this is a very important change and this is how they determine you know the
obtained number. So the performance of that in a vehicle.

We will be similar to a mixture of you know these two standard compounds, the ISO octane and the
north heptane.

OK, so while we are discussing this topic, you know it is also necessary to understand the importance
and the use of this in octane rating or the octane number.

And you know, we have to first realize and understand what are the qualities that any fuel must possess.

Would be suitable to be used as a, you know, as a gasoline or no good here.

So you know you all would have heard about different kind of engines in the in the vehicles.

For example, let us take the case for, you know, these four stroke engines.

OK, so in this in the case of.

This you know.

Of all of these four stroke engines, the air and the fuel, what happens is that in the air in the fuel they
get the.

Mixture of the air and film.

They get compressed.

And then in the vehicle you know there is a spark is ignited by the spark to create a controlled explosion.

OK, and this control explosion by control explain what we do is, you know, we the piston that is there.

You know it starts moving or we we turn what you know it moves the.

System, but no.

During this process recognition.

If the fuel that is there you know it happens to ignite so prematurely because of the heat that is already
present in the engine, or because of the higher compression even before the the spark.

You know that we gave, you know it kicks in.

Then what would happen?

You know it it completely disturbs.

The desired functioning of the engine, so this is really really very bad.

OK, so this is completely unwanted, I know and this premature combustion and if such unwanted and
this premature combustion event occurs in this in ignition process, you know, then you know there is a
unwanted or in there is a loud noise.

And this noise is known, as you know, knocking.

Sometimes they also the term it as you know you know this pinging I will be discussing about the
knocking also in the in the later slides so that you know we can realize that this process of this knocking
it was not expected or it was unwanted.

And it was not in our control.

And because of this, you know the engine parts also get damaged many time.

Or sometimes you know the explosion, or you know the engines are not designed to take up.

You know this kind of an accidental noise or accidental.

These large knocking or large explosions, and because of this process you know.

And this lot of unwanted noise, another excessive vibrations in the engine.

And it it can damage the entire engine or critical components of the vehicle.

That is why you know it is necessary that the fuel that we use is of, you know, high octane.

And usually, you know, since the temperature and the pressure that the air fuel mixture is subjected to.

In such engines relatively, you know higher so you know sometimes there are you know engines which
operated.

You know this mild air condition.

So suppose if the temperature and the pressure.

In which this air fuel mixture is subjected to in this engines is relative.

Less the fuel you know.

Generally it the combustion hookers at a milder condition and you know we can very nicely predict that.

When when is this ignition going to happen?

OK, but you know if these are there are several.

You know high performance engines.

You know, as I mentioned earlier, and they usually operate in a much higher compression rate.

OK, and in in such engines you know if the.

If the fuel compression, the fuel combustion process, you know if it is, usually it tends to be you know,
more violent than you know.

In this case, the engines or its components may, even, you know, sustain this permanent damage
because of the large accidental explosions.

OK, that is, it is very, very important for us to understand the you know why this higher octane rating of
fuel is needed?

Or you know why do we need to use a fuel of you know higher octane number.
OK, so in this higher octane rating you know in this case what happens.

It is the resistance of the fuel by which it you know, spontaneously combust, or even at relatively high
temperature and compression.

OK, so basically if you use a fuel of lower octane number then the the temperature and the compression
by this process you know much lower and this is where the knocking happens.

And this is what causes damages to the engine.

So the higher octane rating or the fuel within higher octane number will behave in.

More proper way and you know they they can combust in a more predictable manner.

So in general you know as I mentioned in the middle of the slide.

OK, you have a trend that is generally observed in the octane rating and this trend is usually seen in this.

You know, in all kind of hydrocarbons.

Where you have this in a straight chain, hydrocarbons and molecules like North Hampton, which have
the usually the lowest octane number.

We already saw that it is zero, and the branch.

These are followed by the branch.

Chain hydrocarbon which have slightly higher or sometimes it can be close to 100.

Also, like in the case of isooctane you know, so they have slightly higher octane number.

This is followed by cyclo alkanes or and then you have a series of alkenes.

Also whereas aromatics which is on the right side they are the highest or they are.

You know they have much higher octane number and these are important reformats.

All these are very important reformats that are part.

How this catalog?

Re forming purpose.

OK, so for the information purpose.

This wording obtained number.

It is derived from this in ISO octane, which shows an excellent combustion properties and it is also very.

It also shows high resistance to spontaneous compulsions, OK?

So that's the, you know, the octane rating we can say of any fuel is a reference.

Used after testing a fuel against the ideal high quality fuel, which is usually extremely resistant to this in
undesired combustion process.
So you know there are certain hydrocarbons.

You know that that have this, you know, knock resistance that are even more than the ISO octane.

OK, so it is not that 100 is the highest. OK, so by definition you know the obtained number has been
extended to even now even allow for including hydrocarbons OK with octane number that are even
greater than.

100 OK, so it is not there. I soaked in is the is the is the best compound but now you know test some
compounds you know you need a. You need hydrocarbons or you need molecules which.

Have these ratios of 100 to 0.

Hence even today this North heptane and this isooctane are used as standard compounds.

OK, but we have many molecules, even certain alcohols are there like ethanol and methanol who's
octane number is. You know, greater than 100. OK, so we can say that you know we're there for.

There is a fuel with high octane number, if it is available then it can run an engine with very high
compress.

And the fuel that is there.

You know it burns only when it is compressed and it when it is supposed to burn.

OK, hence this high octane fuel, you know if you are that we get every formats in the catalytic reforming
process.

You know they they usually give in very high performance and it usually results in a very smooth.

And not free the power delivery and the efficiency of the visual is also very, very good.

The life of the engine is also very good and the life of the components of the engines are is also in a very
very high OK.

So this is where the importance of this high grade fuel or high octane number fuel comes into play.

You know.

So if you want the engine.

Perform in a better way, or if you want a better performance of an engine, it is always advisable to use
or utilize.

You know, fuels you know that.

Have you know higher octane number?

OK, so I hope that I gave you an idea of you know what exactly is an octane number and the importance
of this octane number.

There are two basic compounds as shown in this slide on the top north, heptane and isooctane and a
mixture of this.
You know determines you know what exactly is the octane number and that is what is compared with
any any other compound OK.

Always remember that you know there is always a an effort to improve.

The quality of the fuels and when they refer to the quality, they always refer to the octane number of
the higher octane rating of the fuel.

You know that is obtained as reformats and it is not necessary that always you know everywhere they
use fuels that has obtained number of 100.

And as I mentioned in India, you know we also have fuel which have obtained which have octane rating
of 87. But in many countries or even the racing cars and all you know they even use.

Fuels that are, you know, from 85 to 9596. Ninety seven various kinds of this octane number.

So depending on the type of the engine and depending on the type of application, you know, various
kinds of fuels, or fuel's with various kinds of octane. Numbers are used by industries for as fuels.

And for in machines.

And you know, various other applications.

So please keep this in mind that you know getting over.

You know, determining higher octane number and you know using an appropriate type.

For fuel is in at most important for in the proper life of the engine, and to avoid this knocking which is
unwanted.

A process in the engines.

OK, so this is an important aspect.

You know to get a fuel with, you know better obtain number.
Slide 18

Audio file
media1 3.m4a

Transcript
As mentioned in the previous slide, while discussing about the octane number in a very briefly, I
mentioned that the knocking.

Process for the knocking phenomenon is an undesired property.

In an engine.

That harms

Or damages either the entire engine or several components of the engine.

You know, by the unwanted explosion, or you know the the loud sound by the premature combustion of
the fuel.

So in general is knocking.

You know it can be defined as a phenomenon that.

Occurs due to the ignition.

The the spark plug that results in the combustion.

Of the air.

Fuel mixture in the cylinder and you know when the cylinder starts and the compression is initiated.

OK, so this is the process, but you know you do not want this to happen in an uncontrolled way.

You know there should be a proper control in order to.

Avoid this knocking process, so in general you know this is a process.

If it is controlled, you know there is no problem, but when this you know the process happens
uncontrolled way.

That is where this knocking comes into picture and this is what is unwanted.

OK, so when the when the fuel that is usually remaining in the engine, you know after the normal this
combustion process and if it ignites explosively, you know under the under very high temperature and
pressure.

That is when this you know this this thermal this shockwaves.
OK, and you know, and this is what the thermal shock and that is what hits the cylinder walls.

OK, the thermal shock as as you know there there is no other way of where we can hear this.

You know the knock knock sound.

OK, so it's a thermal shock.

Waves which hit the side walls of the you know the.

The engine and also the piston.

OK, and usually it's also like a rattling sound and you know this rattling sound that is produced by this.

It is known as.

Working or it is also known as a pinging.

OK, and both you know whatever the sound loud sound comes out now.

They're generally very, very characteristic of a metallic sound.

OK, so this is very important to know it and just imagine that you know there is no metal.

It is only because of the thermal shock.

You know that goes and hits the wall of the engine, you know, and you you think that as you know, two
metals are are 1 meter.

Or hammer is hitting something else OK, so it is so loud that you feel as if a metal is hitting other metals
as it is not a metal hitting or the other metal.

It is a thermal shock that is produced that is hitting the.

Walls of the the.

Engine and because of this you know knocking effect or the knocking phenomena.

What happens is that you know the the fuel.

It reduces the efficiency of the fuel is reduced and the and the performance of the engine also over
time.

It comes down significantly.

OK, so this is not at all, you know, good for both the life of the engine and the vehicle.

OK, so you have if you think that you know there is a knocking sound or there is problem with the
ignition.

The fuel you should immediately, you know, replace the fuel or you know what is the problem with the
fuel and make sure that engine is not damaged.

OK, and usually I have listed here in a five point the knocking it produces several adverse effects and I
have listed the five points here.
OK, the very first one is the I have been discussing now is undesirable rattling sound and the sound can
you know many times they're very loud and also it can be explosive.

And it can.

And this experiment is very explosive you you can imagine that you know there is some damage that has
happened to your vehicle engine also.

Now the next thing is that you know the fuel consumption is also very very high in this case, because you
know there is an excessive combustion that is happening OK.

Successive fuel is getting burnt without any reason, so that is also also not good.

You also generate a lot of pollution in addition to that you know, since there is a premature.

This, in a combustion there is also decreased power output when you want that vehicle accelerating
whenever you want.

At that time the energy or power is, you know, not available.

So this is another.

In major drawback, you know in addition to the increased fuel consumption, there is output of the
power is also quite less.

Most importantly, this also I have discussed, you know, there is really a mechanical.

Damage that is happening to the engine and it's all due to the overheating of the spark plug.

OK, and this is not a spark plug, but also the the piston engine walls.

Other components of the engine.

They also get you know, mechanically damaged, so this is, you know very very bad.

The vehicle, because this is like a permanent damage to the vehicle and overall what happens.

You know when you have the loud sound and you know this fuel is getting excessive heating in the
vehicle and overall the driving experience.

You know that you have is of course very, very unpleasant or you do not want performance in the
vehicle.

Now that is not really suit.

Table 2 for smooth drive.

OK, so as far as possible, you know in the last two slides we have seen unless and until you use this high.

Yeah, octane rating fuel.

You cannot avoid this knocking phenomena.

OK, so you have to avoid knocking processor the knocking phenomenon and for that you need a high
octane rating fuel.
OK, so you know whenever you you are this knocking sound or a loud explosion in the vehicle you you
are sure that this is knocking sound and this is because the fuel that you are using as a octane number
which is not very good.

OK, so it's necessary that we use an optimum type of fuel with a higher high rated.

Or high rating A?

High octane rating fuel.

Part – 2

Audio file
media2.m4a

Transcript
Now in this slide I will be discussing briefly about what I continued from what I continued from the
previous slide about knocking and also about the anti knocking process and you know, in general the
remedial measures that are needed to prevent these.

Knocking process.

OK, the further I will also mention that there is a line you know the the blue color.

The second listing like you know the heading, the anti knocking.

I will also discuss briefly about anti knocking and you know how you know what are the things that we
can do to prevent this knocking by agents which are known as an anti knocking agents.

OK, so from the previous slide and the earlier discussions, we already know that the knocking process in
general.

It isn't very undesirable phenomena or undesirable process, and because it is, you know, very, very
important in that you know one finds out methods or we utilize, you know certain processes.

Through which you know we can get better quality of gasoline or methods.

So where where we can reduce or completely eliminate this knocking in the fuel's?

OK, so sometimes you may have a fuel.

You know it is always better to have fuel.

We doesn't have knocking at all, but if you have this limitation of getting those kind of fuels and if you
know that you already have a fuel which has this much amount of knocking, then it becomes at most
important to determine or to add certain kind of anti.

Knocking agents to the fuel so that this knocking process is always less.
OK, so you know there are very remedial processes or procedures that are followed here.

I have listed here threes.

You know, if you want to reduce the knocking, the very first thing that you need to do it is always better
to use gasoline, which has you know which are having usually higher octane rating.

OK, so that is the main thing, so if you if you have access to gasoline, higher octane rating is always
better.

Go with that.

OK, next is you know to utilize.

A very critical compression ratio fuels, you know, and that should be in as per the engine specifications,
but that also sometimes is.

You know not not available in the gas stations or the petrol pumps, so you know we don't have multiple
types of this thing, so you know of course.

Few different ratings are like power and other available, but sometimes.

You know if it is not available.

In that case you know what will you do?

OK for that you know we have to utilize this.

You know critical compression ratio of fuels and if that is not available then we have this additives that
are added.

To that.

And the Third Point is about that.

You know, if necessary, if we do not have the fuels that.

We want to use.

In that case we always have to use appropriate anti knocking agents, so these are chemicals or
compounds which are added to the.

Yeah fuel.

OK so I will be explaining a little bit about that very briefly.

So before that you know, let me tell you now what is this anti knocking?

So as such you know the anti knocking is nothing but it is a tendency of, you know, reducing the
knocking phenomena in a very very simple you have the knocking when you reduce this knocking it is
called as the anti knocking and this can be achieved.

And of course you know the the.

Slide on octane number.

Also, I mentioned that you know this can be achieved if we use gasoline.

Of you know higher standards or you know higher rating.

OK, and in many cases you know this.

This is also we can also obtain or we can get this fuel or we can achieve this anti knocking behavior in
any fuel by mixing it or you know the correct what is only doping it you know certain organometallic
compounds.

OK, so in which there is metal carbon bonds which are organometallic compounds that there is a direct
linkage between carbon and metal.

OK to the gasoline.

As in anti knocking agents so I have not mentioned here the name.

I am just briefly explaining now there's you know there are a wide variety of anti knocking agents that
are available in the market and this include you know certain compound that is like the Tetra ethyl lead
in our four Ethel.

And groups are attached to a lead.

This metal.

And this is quite cheap and it is really in a very, very widely used distance and anti knocking agent in
addition to that we also have molecules such as Tetra methyl LED.

OK, so in in the case of traction there were four ethyl group.

In the case of Tetramethyl there are four methyl groups.

In addition to that you have mixed methyl lead.

Compounds you have.

In addition to this, you know metallic compounds.

Also ether compounds like the methyl tertiary butyl ether compounds and methyl tertiary butyl ether
compound so there are lot of compounds that are available.

Other than this and metallic compose.

But you know that there is a small problem with this that amongst the combustion process is over.

In that case, what happened at the lead that we have used?

The LED organometallic compound that we use?

You know they end up.

Giving you know the lead metal.

And the lead oxide, you know will comes out as an emission or as a deposition, and both these
compounds, or you know all lead compounds are usually quite hazardous to human and to.
OK, hence you know to avoid this, you know like the lead coming out in the form of lead or lead oxide.

You know a compound known as ethylene dibromide or ethylene dichloride.

That is also mixed with the with the fuel.

And what does you know, the ethylene dibromide or the dichloride?

Do they convert this lead?

And the lead oxide into this inlet dibromide.

Or, you know, lead dichloride OK and these compound both LED dibromide and the lead dichloride are
much more volatile and they can escape into there rather than getting deposited into the engine.

And the volatility know they.

Think that it can escape into there.

In addition, you know the.

The methyl and ethyl tertiary butyl ether salts that are.

They also have several advantages as you know they do not absorb any moisture, so that is very very
important.

If the moisture is mixed with this fuel you know, then there is a problem with ignition.

You all know that yes, that whenever there is a water present, you know it's.

Very difficult to ignite that because you know it cannot be combusted very easily.

OK, so as you know they do not absorb moisture.

In addition to that you know the by products that are obtained from this component they are not
explosive.

OK, like other compounds and when they're not explosive then you know we do not have this knocking
sound so this is very very important.

And like other ether compounds you know or you will explicit.

That is why it is important to mention that this, although the product is an ether, you know it is not
explosive.

So when these compounds are mixed with fuels, you know they asked they they can act very efficiently
as an anti knocking agent.

And they can also stop the combustion chain reactions that are happening in this process.

OK, that is why these anti knocking component.

There are few anteroom compounds that are they are used, so in general these anti knocking agents
they work by preventing the unnecessary.
Combustion processes to happen, especially the the chain reactions.

OK, so on the knocking process is completely unnecessary.

It has to be stopped by using this higher grade or higher octane rating fuel.

But if this higher octane rating, sometimes if it is not available in that.

Case now you add certain agents to the you mix it with the fuels and when you mix it with the fuels you
know these are usually known as anti knocking agents and what this point in looking agents do is you
know they stop this.

Products from the early combustion and unnecessary.

This is a chain reactions, so overall it is possible to still achieve this.

You know, prevent this knocking from happening in, you know, and fuels who's octane number is not
very high.

By mixing it with Auntie.

Knocking agents along with the fuel and using it in any application like automobile or machines so this
will overall improve the performance of the engines.

You will have a smoother ride in the in the vehicle and the life of the engine as well as the this thing is
much better compared to fuel Ziva.

Though the fuels having you know no and anti knocking edges OK so it is with combined process you
need and higher octane rating fuel you need.

If you don't have that you you need an anti knocking agent and combined with that you know if you use
it in any application the performance of the engine and the performance of the fuel both both are.