The phonemic analysis deals with the methods of identifying the phonemic and the allophones in a

language.
The Phonemic Inventory:
*The set of phonemic for a particular language.
*The smallest number of different sounds needed to distinguish all its words.
*Language has unique phonemic systems.
*Two languages may on the surface have the same sounds and they differ in their inventories of
phonemic.

Phonemes and allophones: Distribution of speech Sounds:

*The way sounds are distributed within the phonology (phonological inventory; sound system) of a given
language tells us whether two or more sounds (or phones) are allophones of the same phoneme or of
different phonemes.

3 principles of phonemic analysis.

Distribution: Distribution here refers to the set of phonetic environments in which a phone occurs. The
phonetic of a sound consists of the sounds that surround it, I, e the sound that proceed it and the
sounds that follow it.

Phonological environment

The word ruler in English, the phonological environment was the highlighted one and the precedes by
the sound of r. The following preceding sounds can influence a particular sound.

1. Principle of contrastive distribution.

Contrastive Distribution– When two phonetically similar speech sounds occur in identical
environment and the substitution of one by the other brings about a change in meaning. Is the situation
in which two phone in the same environment and semantics contrast?
Contrastive distribution state that: When two sounds contrast, they are part of different phonemes.

Example:
If the sound l and r occur in the same environment, it is a contrastive distribution.
To determine whether contrastive distribution of two or more sounds occurs in a given language or a
given data set you need to find two words that have the same number of phones and that differ in one
phone in the same positions.

Example: ‘sit’ [sĪt] and [zĪt]

‘sit’ and ‘zit’, both have three sounds, and they differ in the first position, the first sound in ‘sit’ and the
first sound in ‘zit’, but the other sounds are the same and they mean two different things. This pair of
words is what we called ‘minimal pair’.
A minimal pair or close pair consists of two words with sounds that are very similar but have different
meanings.

Examples:

word- initial word- medial word- final

Not minimal pair

Example:

There may be words which have the same numbers of sounds the same number of phones, they differ in
different things, so this two words cab and sick, they have both three sounds but they different in first
sounds also different and second sound also different in third sound so this is not a minimal pair.

To sum up, Contrastive Distribution is when you’re studying two sounds and you want to know whether
these two phones in a given language or two phonemes or they are allophones of the same phoneme,
and you start looking for evidence and you find minimal pairs that is a Contrastive Distribution.

Two
Speech
sounds

Different Phonemes Minimal pair Same Phonemes

 2. Principle of complementary distribution.
*Two or more phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same phonological context and cannot
replace one another.
*These two allophones are mutually exclusive.
*When sounds are in complementary distribution, we can predict the environment in which can occur.
*The occurrence of the voiceless aspirated plosives is predictable in English.
• Complementary distribution is a relation between the variants of a phoneme, each of which occurs in
a certain set of phonological environments. These variants are called allophones.
•in other words, a phoneme takes a slightly different form, it becomes a different, depending on the
environment in which it appears.

Example: - word initially followed by a vowel.

- occurring preceded by ‘s’.

- word- finally

There are two kinds of t in the example, there is aspirated and there is unaspirated t and they don’t
occur in the same position.

-
This occurs preceded by nothing _ this is where the sound
occurs, ae- was the environment.

Only word initially followed by a vowel, it becomes aspirated. These different variations don't occur in
the same environment.

• It becomes aspirated whenever the beginning of a word

Followed by a vowel and the two stays the same.
 Examples from different
language:

• Preceded and followed by a

vowel

V_V

• Not preceded or followed

by a vowel. V_#, #_V

Distribution Statement

The slash shows phoneme, and the square brackets are the allophones. This is unpronounceable
because once it’s pronounced it becomes an allophone. This is how phoneme is a cognitive construct.

3. Principle of free variation.

*When two phonetically similar sounds can appear in the same environment and the
substitution of one by the other does not bring about a change in meaning.

Example:
There’s two words to pronounce a pasta or both words are aspirated. They have the same numbers of
sounds. If the two aspirated pasta meant to different things, then we would have a case of contrastive
analysis. But in this case the sound changes but the meaning doesn't change so these are two different
ways of saying the same word in terms of pronouncing them but both ways of pronouncing the word
mean the same thing. This is the case of free variation.

Change of meaning
=

Contrastive Distribution
Free Variation – no change of meaning.

Example in English:

• They still mean the same thing, although I and ɛ are two different phonemes. These two
pronunciations are free variants of the same word.
Distinctive Features of Phonemes
Marian Fel Demalata

Distinctive features are grouped into categories according to the natural classes of
segments they describe: major class features, laryngeal features, manner features, and place
features. These feature categories in turn are further specified on the basis of the phonetic
properties of the segments in question (Gussenhoven & Jacobs 2017). Natural classes are
phonemes that share one or more phonetic features and function together in phonological
rules. For instance: [k] and [g] form the natural class of velar stops and; [u] and [o] form the
natural class of rounded, tense vowels.
Feature values. A single feature may have two values: plus (+), which signifies its
presence, and minus (-), which signifies its absence. As an example, the presence and absence
of the feature voiced can be seen in phonemes [b], which is [+voiced], and [p], which is [-
voiced].
We consider the phonetic and phonemic symbols to be cover symbols for sets of
distinctive features. They are a shorthand method of specifying the phonetic properties of the
segment. Phones and phonemes are not indissoluble units; they are composed of phonetic
features, similar to the way that molecules are composed of atoms. A more explicit description
of the phonemes /p/, /b/, and /m/ may thus be given in a feature matrix of the following sort.

Halle and Clements (1983) defined a set of distinctive features. This set of features is sufficient
to define and distinguish, one from another, the great majority of the speech sound used in the
languages of the world (Halle and Clements, 1983).
The Articulatory Correlates of the Distinctive Features
1.) Syllabic/Nonsyllabic: [ ±syl]. Syllabic sounds are those that constitute syllabic
peaks, nonsyllabic sounds are those that do not. Syllabic sounds are more
prominent than contiguous nonsyllabic sounds. (Vowels, syllabic consonants vs.
glides, nonsyllabic consonants.)
2.) Consonantal/Nonconsonantal: [±cons]. Consonantal sounds are produced with a
sustained vocal tract constriction at least equal to that required in the
production
3.) Sonorant/Obstruent: [±son]. Sonorant sounds are produced with a vocal tract
configuration sufficiently open that the air pressure inside and outside the mouth
is approximately equal. Obstruent sounds are produced with a vocal tract
constriction sufficient to increase the air pressure inside the mouth significantly
over that of the ambient air. (Vowels, glides, liquids, nasals vs. stops and
fricatives.)
4.) Coronal/Noncoronal: [±cor]. Coronal sounds are produced by raising the tongue
blade toward the teeth or the hard palate; noncoronal sounds are produced
without such a gesture. (Dentals, alveolars, palato-alveolars, palatals vs. labials,
velars, uvulars, pharyngeals.)
5.) Anterior/Posterior: [±ant]. Anterior sounds are produced with a primary
constriction at or in front of the alveolar ridge, while posterior sounds are
produced with a primary constriction behind the alveolar ridge. (Labials, dentals,
alveolars vs. palato-alveolars, palatals, velars, uvulars, pharyngeals.)
6.) Labial/Nonlabial: [±lab]. As the term implies, labial sounds are formed with a
constriction at the lips, while nonlabial sounds are formed without such a
constriction. (Labial consonants, rounded vowels vs. all other sounds.)
7.) Distributed/Nondistributed: [±distr]. Distributed sounds are produced with a
constriction that extends for a considerable distance along the midsagittal axis of the
oral tract; nondistributed sounds are produced with a constriction that extends for
only a short distance in this direction. (Sounds produced with the blade or front of
the tongue vs. sounds produced with the tip of the tongue. This feature may also
distinguish bilabial sounds from labiodental sounds.)
8.) High/Nonhigh: [±high]. High sounds are produced by raising the body of the tongue
toward the palate; nonhigh sounds are produced without such a gesture. (Palatals,
velars, palatalized and velarized consonants, high vowels and glides vs. all other
sounds.)
9.) Back/Nonback: [±back]. Back sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively
retracted; nonback or front sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively
advanced. (Velars, uvulars, pharyngeals, velarized and pharyngealized consonants,
central vowels and glides, back vowels and glides vs. all others.)
10.) Low/Nonlow: [+low]. Low sounds are produced by drawing the body of the
tongue down away from the roof of the mouth; nonlow sounds are produced
 without such a gesture. (Pharyngeal and pharyngealized consonants, low vowels vs.
all others.)
11.) Rounded/Unrounded: [+round]. Rounded sounds are produced with protrusion
of the lips; unrounded sounds are produced without such protrusion. (Rounded
consonants and vowels vs. unrounded consonants and vowels.)
12.) Continuant/Stop: [±cont]. Continuants are formed with a vocal tract
configuration allowing the airstream to flow through the midsagittal region of the
oral tract; stops are produced with a sustained occlusion in this region. (Vowels,
glides, r-sounds, fricatives vs. nasal and oral stops, laterals.)
13.) Lateral/Central: [±lat]. Lateral sounds, the most familiar of which is [1], are
produced with the tongue placed in such a way as to prevent the airstream from
flowing outward through the center of the mouth, while allowing it to pass over one
or both sides of the tongue; central sounds do not involve such a constriction.
(Lateral sonorants, fricatives and affricates vs. all other sounds.)
14.) Nasal/Oral: [±nas]. Nasal sounds are produced by lowering the velum and
allowing the air to pass outward through the nose; oral sounds are produced with
the velum raised to prevent the passage of air through the nose. (Nasal stops,
nasalized consonants, vowels and glides vs. all other sounds.)
15.) Advanced/Unadvanced Tongue Root: [±ATR]. As its name implies, this feature
is implemented by drawing the root of the tongue forward, enlarging the pharyngeal
cavity and often raising the tongue body as well; [- ATR] sounds do not involve this
gesture. ([+ATR] vowels such as [I,u,e,o] vs. [ - ATR) vowels such as ([ɪ, u, ɛ, ʌ, a ].)
16.) Tense/Lax: [±tense]. Tense vowels are produced with a tongue body or tongue
root configuration involving a greater degree of constriction than that found in their
lax counterparts; this greater degree of constriction is frequently accompanied by
greater length. (Tense vowels vs. lax vowels.) We note that this feature and the last
(ATR) are not known to cooccur distinctively in any language and may be variant
implementations of a single feature category.
17.) Strident/Nonstrident: [±strid]. Strident sounds are produced with a complex
constriction forcing the airstream to strike two surfaces, producing high-intensity
fricative noise; nonstrident sounds are produced without such a constriction.
(Sibilants, labiodentals, uvulars vs. all other sounds.) The feature [+strid] is found
only in fricatives and affricates.
18.) Spread/Nonspread Glottis: [±spread]. Spread or aspirated sounds are produced
with the vocal cords drawn apart, producing a nonperiodic (noise) component in the
acoustic signal; nonspread or unaspirated sounds are produced without this gesture.
(Aspirated consonants, breathy voiced or murmured consonants, voiceless vowels
and glides vs. all others.)
19.) Constricted/Nonconstricted Glottis: [±constr]. Constricted or glottalized sounds
are produced with the vocal cords drawn together, preventing normal vocal cord
 vibration; nonconstricted (nonglottalized) sounds are produced without such a
gesture. (Ejectives, implosives, glottalized or laryngealized consonants, vowels and
glides vs. all others.)
20.) Voiced/Voiceless: [±voiced]. Voiced sounds are produced with a laryngeal
configuration permitting periodic vibration of the vocal cords; voiceless sounds lack
such periodic vibration. (Voiced vs. voiceless consonants.)

References:
Gussenhoven, Carlos; Jacobs, Haike (2017). Understanding Phonology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-
138-96141-8.
Jacobson, P. (2014). Compositional Semantics: An Introduction to the Syntax/Semantics
Interface (Oxford Textbooks in Linguistics) (Illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press.
Halle, M., & Clements, G. N. (1983). Problem Book in Phonology: A Workbook for Courses in
Introductory Linguistics and Modern Phonology. The MIT Press.

JERAO, Charwen Carl A.

MORPHO(PHO)NOLOGY
Morpho(pho)nology is a branch of linguistics which mainly occupies the
combinatorial phonic modifications of morphemes. It is concerned with the
systematic realization of morphemes and how they depend on their respective
environment whereas Phonology deals with speech sounds and pronunciation in
a particular language. Morpho(pho)nology involves lexical and grammatical
information, combined with phonological details. It also tries to set up rules
which apply to phonological elements but only under certain morphological
conditions. Morpho(pho)nology contains:
1. A study of the phonemic differences between allomorphs of the same
morpheme.
2. The distribution of allomorphs in one morpheme.
3. The structure of a language in terms of morpho(pho)nology.
4. Morphemes are the basis of morpho(pho)nology.
Morphophonological analysis often involves an attempt to give a series of
formal rules or constraints that successfully predict the regular sound changes
occurring in the morphemes of a given language. Such a series of rules converts a
theoretical underlying representation into a surface form that is actually heard.
The units of which the underlying representations of morphemes are composed
are sometimes called morphophonemes. The surface form produced by the
morphophonological rules may consist of phonemes (which are then subject to
ordinary phonological rules to produce speech sounds or phones), or else the
morphophonological analysis may bypass the phoneme stage and produce the
phones itself.

MORPHOPHONOLOGY’s RELATION with PHONOLOGY

Back in the 1950s, it was assumed by many phonologists that
before allophonic rules, neutralizing rules generally applied. The phonological
analysis was split into two parts. The first part is the morphophonological part,
where neutralizing rules were developed to derive phonemes from
morphophonemes. The second is the phonological part, where phones were
derived from the phonemes.
In particular with the notable work of Chomsky and Halle's The Sound Pattern of
English since the 1960s, instead of regarding the surface phones as being derived
from the underlying morphophonemes through a single system
of (morpho)phonological rules, many linguists have moved away from making a
split.
To produce simpler underlying descriptions for what appears on the surface to be
complicated patterns is the purpose of both phonemic and morphophonemic
analysis. Phonemic analysis, in its purest form, the data is a set of words in a
language. For morphophonemic analysis’ purposes, in order to take account of
the underlying morphemes, the words must be considered in
grammatical paradigms. Also, postulated that recorded in the speaker's "lexicon"
in an invariant (morphophonemic) form, which, in a given environment, is
converted by rules into a surface form are the morphemes. The analyst attempts
to present as completely as possible a system of underlying units
(morphophonemes) and a series of rules that act on them, so as to produce
surface forms consistent with the linguistic data.
REFERENCES
http://www.ello.uos.de/field.php/EarlyModernEnglish/DefinitionMorphonology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphophonology
ENGLISH PHONOLOGY AND
MORPHPOLOGY
Prepared by:
Alteros, Shirly C.
Demalata, Marian Fel I.
Jerao, Charwen Carl A.
Magangcong, Almaira P.
Phala, Honeylyn G.
 Villanel, Jay Kho M.

Mindanao State University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities
Fatima, General Santos City

PHONOLOGY
Lesson 5
THE STUDY OF THE SOUND SYSTEM

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Define Phonology;
2. Differentiate Phonemes from Allophones;
3. Differentiate the Complimentary Distribution from Overlapping Distribution;
4. Familiarize how Phonemic Analysis works;
5. Define Morphophonology;
6. Give or list down the Distinctive Features of Phonemes; and
7. Give or list down some, if not all, the Phonological Rules.

Introduction:
Whenever we hear someone say a word or a phrase differently from what we are used to
hearing, we tend to judge or question whether the speaker pronounced that word or phrase
poorly and or is not a native speaker of said language. Most, if not all, the sounds of a language
can be produced differently depending on the context. As there are different languages and
accents they will certainly have their own variation. In this module, we will be discussing about
phonology, the study of the sound system of various languages, and everything it encompasses.

Activity:
Watch the video and answer the following questions.

(add yt links)

______ 1. It is the study of the pattern of sounds in a language and across languages.
______ 2. It is a process by which a speech sound becomes similar to a neighboring sound.
______ 3. It is a general term in phonology and historical linguistics that refers to the process by
which two neighboring sounds become less similar.
______ 4. It is a process where a sound segment is removed from a word.

______ 5. This happens when a sound segment is inserted in a word.

______ 6. It is a process of rearrangement of two consonants in a syllable.

______ 7. The term "assimilation" comes from the Latin meaning…

______ 8-9. They are part of communication through language, whether spoken or written and
knowing what they are and why they exist can help us better understand our world.

______ 10. They are the basic unit of sound and are sensed in your mind rather than spoken or
heard.

Analysis:

Identify what is being described in the sentences below. Then identify which
letter is the correct answer in the multiple choice section by encircling it.

1. /k/ in call and ke have the same mental representation.

/k/- [k^hal]
/k/- [ k^hi]
2. /k/ in call [k^hal] and in key [k^hi] are distinct.
3. This is where one symbol corresponds to a single phoneme.
4. A symbol that always corresponds to a single phoneme.
5. The study of the sound system of language is called ________.
1. Which set of words is a minimal pair?
a. Single-sink c. These- Those
b. Their- There
2. Which word has two voiced consonants?
a. Tall c. Big
b. Side
 3. If two phones contrast they are ________.
a. Levels of representation
b. Places of articulation
c. Allophones of different phonemes
4. The meaning of words and phrases in the Mandarin Chinese language is mostly altered by
changing:
a. Word order
b. tones of sound c. prefixes and suffixes of words
5. The initial sounds in the English words pill, sill, and till are different:
a. Phonemes
b. Morphemes c. neither of the above

Abstraction:
Phonology is t
systematically to form words and or utterances. (Katamba, 1989)

Phonemes are used to mean ‘sound’. They are referred to as the sound element of
a language and are the smallest units of speech.

Slashes or “/ /” indicates that the element in the middle is a phoneme.

/t/    /p/    /k/

Allophones sounds which are variants of a phoneme: sounds which differ, but which do not
contrast.

Brackets or “[ ]” indicates that the element in the middle is an allophone.

[t] and [th]        [k] and [kh]

(insert)

Application:

Put the following words in the word pool to right phonological rules.
 cruise ship asks
cartridge beautiful
desktop February
menu last week
Oprah ten mice

Assimilation Dissimilation Deletion Insertion Metathesis

Congratulations! ¡Félicitations! Bravo! You have successfully completed Module 1, Lesson

5. May all the information you have read and learned from this topic were understandable and
may it help you to better speak and sound more fluent in English. The topics you have learned
from this module will prove to be helpful in the following topics and in your future
conversations.

References

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. and Hyames, N.M. (2003) An introduction to Language. New York :

Hardcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

Katamba, F. (1989) An introduction to Phonology. UK: Longman Group Limited. Free Variation

in Phonetics: Definition and Examples (thoughtco.com)

(APA later)https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/language/quizzes/langqui3.html