The Philosophical Self

The traditional philosophical answer, found in the writings of Plato, Kant, and many
religious thinkers, is that the self is an immortal soul that transcends the physical being.
However, some philosophers who don't subscribe to this metaphysical view have swung
in the other direction and rejected the idea of the self altogether. David Hume, for
instance, said that the self is nothing more than a bundle of perceptions, and Daniel
Dennett dismissed the self as merely a “center of negative gravity."
The Self has been defined as “as a unified being, essentially connected to
consciousness, awareness, and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational
choice) “. Different philosophers have come up with more specific characteristics of the
Self, and over time, these meanings have transformed from pure abstractions to
explanations that hold scientific evidences.

https://www.greeka.com/greece-history/famous-people/socrates/  (Links to an external

site.)
Socrates
The ancient philosophy of self can be traced back from the ancient Greek aphorism
(one of 147 aphorisms prominently inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi), “know
thyself” (Greek: γνῶθι σεαυτόν, transliterated: gnōthi seauton).

 The aphorism (or principle) was used by Socrates as his guiding principle that
he passed on to his students. Since Socrates as a guru preferred to engage his
students in endless discussion, it is said that he had never written down any of his
ideas but instead untiringly discussed concepts and principles with his students.
Socrates believed that the real self is not the physical body, but rather the psyche
(or soul). He further posited that the appearance of the body is inferior to its
functions.

Plato
It was Plato, Socrates’ prized student who thoroughly expound on Socrates ideas of
self. Plato’s conceptualization of the Self was profoundly introduced in his
dialogue Phaedrus, which has been a popular text for many decades in the subject of
Philosophy. The main idea in this dialogue is about truth-seeking, and that the truth can
be can be distinguished in two forms: the metaphysical realm (mind) and the physical
world (body). Plato suggested that the existence or the truth about the human self is
fundamentally an intellectual entity whose nature exists independent from the physical
world. Plato bifurcated the truth or reality into two: the “ontos” (ideal), the ultimate reality
which tend to be permanent and spiritual, and the “phenomena” which refers to the
manifestation of the ideal. In contrast with ontos, phenomena is imperfect, impermanent
and inferior to the latter.

Aristotle
Plato’s idea of truth about the human self was even more expounded and formalized by
his prized student, Aristotle. While Plato emphasized the separation of ideal and
phenomenal existence (or being), Aristotle suggested that the ideal is subsumed in the
phenomena. Aristotle called ideal as “essence” and the phenomena as “matter”. He also
emphasized that the two co-exist and are co-dependent, the essence provides meaning
and purpose to the matter, and the matter provides substance and solidity to essence.

The Philosophical Self

Philosophy of the self has been defined through two distinct philosophical lens:

  Empiricism - derives explanations of the self from sensory and bodily

responses. We know things because we have experienced it through our bodily
senses. 
 Rationalism - there is innate knowledge; they differ in that they choose different
objects of innate knowledge. Rationalism explains self from the standpoint of what is
“ideal” and the “truth”, not rooted in what is felt by the senses nor our body

What are the different philosophical views of the Self? There is abundance in literature
that highlights the similarities and contrasting standpoints of the self. 

 Socrates and Plato have explained the Self from a theoretical and logical

orientation; 
 Aristotle was an empiricist, deriving views of the self from physical and scientific
underpinnings. 
 St. Augustine adopted the views of Plato and infused it to his religious
philosophy. 
 John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant were empiricist philosophers;
  Rene Descartes was a dominant rational philosopher during the Middle Ages.
 Gilbert Ryle, Patricia Churchland, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty are among
contemporary philosophers where majority are empiricists. and  incorporated biological and
neuroscience in their philosophies.

Here are what the Philosophers  say about the self:

Classical Antiquity

Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

Knowledge is the
personification of good while
Socratic Ignorance is that of evil.
Socrates Idealism
Philosophy · Self-knowledge is the ultimate
virtue. As the ultimate virtue, it
will lead to ultimate happiness.

·  Moral virtue is rooted in the

intellect and leads to
happiness.
Dualism and · Wisdom and knowledge
Plato Idealism
Idealism Dualism and Idealism leads to
virtue which will lead to
happiness.
 

Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian Ideal is found inside the

 phenomena and the universals
inside the particulars.
·      Ideals are ESSENCE.
·      Phenomena is MATTER.
Philosophy
·      Matter has no form.
Essence has no mass.
·      Matter and Essence need
each other.

Middle  Ages
Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

. All knowledge leads

to God.
· Only the pure in
heart can see God.
St. Augustine Platonism Neoplatonism
·  Love of God, faith in
Him and
Understanding of his
Gospel will ultimately
lead to Happiness.

Rennaisance

Philosophers Orientation Philosophy Description

-“I think, therefore, I am”.

-The mind and soul can
exist without the body.
Descartes Rationalist Mind-body Dualism -Establishing the distinction
of soul from the body can
make people believe in the
afterlife and the soul’s
immortality.

Locke Empiricist Theory of Personal ·It is in consciousness alone

Identity that identity exists, not on
 the body and soul.
·There is a distinction
between man and person.
·The soul may change, but
consciousness remains
intact.

All knowledge passes

through the senses.
Hume ·Separate ideas can be
Empiricist Skeptical Philosophy
  joined in the mind.
·There is no self, only a
bundle of perceptions.

 -Reason is the final

authority of morality.
·There is the inner self and
outer self;
· The inner self includes
Rationalist / Metaphysics of the rational reasoning and
Kant
Empiricist Self psychological state.
· The outer self includes the
body and physical mind,
where representation
occurs.
 

Modern Times

Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description

Ryle Empiricist The Concept of Mind “I act, therefore, I am.”

·The mind is not the seat
of self.
·It is not a separate,
parallel thing to our
physical body.
 -The mind is a category
mistake, brought about by
habitual use.  The only
way it can affect the other
is through the external
world. 

A fully matured
neuroscience will eliminate
the need for beliefs since
Churchland Empiricist Neurophilosophy “they are not real.”
· The physical brain gives
us a sense of self.

 
Source : Macayan, Jonathan V., Pinugu, Jasmine Nadja J., Castillo, John Christopher D. (2018).
Understanding the Self: An Outcome-Based Modular Courseware.  C & E Publishing, Inc. 

                  https://www.greeka.com/greece-history/famous-people/socrates/