Paper No.
621.396.11:538.566.3
THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY
RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1 0 0 0 KM
By R. N. BRACEWELL, Ph.D., K. G. BUDDEN, M.A., Ph.D., Associate Member, J. A. RATCLIFFE,
O.B.E., M.A., F.R.S., Member, T. W. STRAKER, Ph.D., and K. WEEKES, M.A., Ph.D.
{The paper was first received 3rd November, 1950, and in revised form 1 I/A January, 1951.)
SUMMARY
In the last few years a large part of the radio research at the
Cavendish Laboratory has been concerned with the propagation of
waves of low and very low frequency. The paper constitutes a summary
of the results of the various experiments, which are described in detail
in separate papers, some of which are as yet unpublished.3-io
The results of various independent methods of measuring the
apparent height of reflection of the waves show that waves of 16-30 kc/s
are reflected as if from a sharply bounded horizontal surface situated
at a height of (72 ± 3) km when the sun is overhead. The apparent
height of reflection varies regularly with the angle of the sun and its
variation may be summarized by an equation. The waves of frequency
30-150 kc/s appear to be reflected from a height of about 75 km at
oblique incidence, but there is some evidence that they may be reflected
from as much as 10 km higher at vertical incidence.
The polarization of the waves at all frequencies is found to be
approximately circular at steep incidence, but at oblique incidence
(65 ) waves of a frequency of 16 kc/s are linearly polarized. No
measurements of polarization at oblique incidence have been made on
the higher frequencies.
The absorption of the waves changes very rapidly with frequency—
on a summer day the conversion coefficient varies from about 0-15 at
16 kc/s to 0-002 at 70 kc/s. Important differences in behaviour near
sunrise are observed on all frequencies at steep incidence and oblique
incidence. The effects of a sudden ionospheric disturbance on the
reflected waves are discussed and interpreted as implying a decrease in
the apparent height of reflection; the amplitude of the reflected wave
is scarcely altered on 16 kc/s, but is much decreased on higher fre-
quencies.
Finally, the present state of the theory of reflection of very long
radio waves is discussed very briefly.
(1) INTRODUCTION
Since 1934 the programme of Radio Research at the Cavendish
Laboratory has included an increasing amount of work on the
propagation of low- and very-low*-frequency radio waves
through the ionosphere. The results of the pre-war work were
published in two papers 1 . 2 and a series of papers describing in
detail the post-war results-either have been or will be pub-
lished.3-io
The purpose of this paper is to present the results of the
detailed papers in a co-ordinated manner and to relate them to
the results of other workers in an attempt to survey existing
knowledge of the propagation of low- and very-low-frequency
waves through the ionosphere. No full description of experi-
mental methods, or of the methods by which the results are
derived from the experimental observations, will be given; these
will be found in the detailed papers referred to in the text. For
convenience, however, a short outline of the various experimental
methods which have been used will be given in Section 1.3.
The paper is limited to discussion of transmission over distances
* Frequencies between 300 and 30 kc/s are called "low" and those less than 30 kc/s distance of 380 km, and some measurements on GBR were
are called "very low."
This is an "integrating" paper. Members are invited to submit papers in this
category, giving the full perspective of the developments leading to the present
practice in a particular part of one of the branches of electrical science.
Written contributions on papers published without being read at meetings are
invited for consideration with a view to publication.
The authors are at ths Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge.
VOL. 98, PART III.
RADIO SECTION
less than 1 000 km and frequencies less than 200 kc/s, since the
experiments have been confined to these limits.
The results so far obtained have not indicated that propa-
gation over distances up to 1 000 km depends on the direction
relative to the earth's magnetic field, and so this summarizing
paper will not be overloaded with details concerning the precise
locations of the senders used. Those who require that infor-
mation will, of course, find it in the papers detailed in Section 12.
Although many of the experimental facts summarized in this
paper immediately suggest theories to explain them, no dis-
cussion of any new theories for the propagation of waves of low
and very low frequency will be given. Section 9 will, however,
contain an outline of the existing theories, and it may be possible
later to modify some of these to explain the present results.
(1.1) History
The earliest commercial radio stations worked on the lowest
radio frequencies and all the early experiments were made by
using the waves -emitted from them.11 Only recently has use
been made, in America, of special transmissions from experi-
mental senders.
In 1926 Hollingworth^ made the first detailed investigations
of propagation over distances less than 1 000 km. He measured
waves of frequency of 20 • 9 kc/s at distances from the sender of
between 300 and 1 000 km and demonstrated the existence of
an interference pattern at the ground formed by the super-
position of a ground wave and a downcoming wave. He
deduced that the downcoming wave was reflected from a height
of about 75 km at midday in summer.
Several groups of workers studied diurnal and seasonal
changes of the signal received at short distances,13-15 and others
observed changes in radio bearing on a loop aerial turned to
receive minimum signal.16"19 The main results were:
(a) For transmission distances greater than a few hundred kilo-
metres, and for frequencies below 75 kc/s, the received signal
near sunset and sunrise nearly always showed a marked
minimum.
(b) For transmission over short distances (50-500 km) the radio
bearing varied rapidly near sunset and sunrise.
(c) The signals from distant senders in the daytime were larger and
more variable in winter than in summer. A rather sudden
seasonal change in propagation conditions occurred in
November, and the corresponding reverse change in the
spring. Because of its rapidity, the change in November has
been called the "November effect." The reverse change in
the spring was more gradual.
The Cambridge series of measurements on very low frequencies
was started in 1934 and, by the outbreak of war in 1939, a fairly
detailed knowledge of the propagation of waves emitted on a
frequency of 16 kc/s from the Post Office sender (GBR) at Rugby
(distant 90 km) was obtained. The Hollingworth method of
measuring the ground interference pattern was also used up to a
started by C. H. Westcott in Aberdeen (distant 540 km). A
series of measurements was also made on waves received over a
distance of 770 km from the sender FYN (frequency 19-8 kc/s)
at Bordeaux.
The experiments were interrupted by the war except that, as
[221 ] 15
222 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCLIFFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
a result of the work initiated by Westcott, a valuable series of
records was made at Aberdeen during the years 1940-44. In
1946 experiments on very low frequencies were restarted in
Cambridge on an extended scale, and later valuable co-operation
was again obtained from Aberdeen where W. C. Bain started
observations in 1948.
In 1946 another series of observations was started in Cambridge
on waves with frequencies in the region of 100 kc/s emitted by
the senders of the Decca Navigator system. When it became
clear that their behaviour was different from that of waves with
a frequency of 16 kc/s, a series of experiments was started on
waves of intermediate frequency emitted by commercial senders.
The precise programme of observations varied from time to time
according to the transmitting schedules of the available senders.
Observations on frequencies of 30 and 43 kc/s have been most
frequent.
In America experiments have recently been made with experi-
mental pulsed senders working on frequencies in the neighbour-
hood of 50 kc/s, 32 100 kc/s, 20 and 150 kc/s.21 This arrangement
has provided the possibility of using the type of pulse-recording
technique which is now familiar for the investigation of higher
frequencies.
Equipment in an aeroplane has been used3 to measure the
Hollingworth interference pattern on 16 kc/s to greater distances,
and more rapidly. Measurements of this kind have also been
made on frequencies of 70, 85, 113 and 127 kc/s emitted by the
senders of the Decca system.10-27
There are no commercial radio senders with frequencies less
than 15 kc/s, so that if a study of propagation at lower frequencies
is intended some other source of waves must be used. One
possibility is to use a lightning discharge and observe the resulting
radio atmospheric received at a distance. Bureau22 has recorded
the effects of atmospherics on frequencies as low as 10 kc/s.
His results have, in general, agreed with those found on fre-
quencies greater than 15 kc/s emitted by man-made senders.
More recently Gardner and Bowe23-26 have made observations
on frequencies lower than 15 kc/s, and have made deductions
about the propagation of waves of frequency down to 3 • 5 kc/s,
where no commercial senders are available.
Several workers have interpreted the received waveform of
atmospherics in terms of a succession of reflections from the
ionosphere, and have deduced the height of reflection and the
reflection coefficient. A summary of the results obtained has
been given by Schonland and his collaborators.24 These
deductions are applicable to a low, but somewhat indeterminate,
frequency.
(1.2) Nomenclature
It is necessary to explain the nomenclature used.
Although the downcoming wave is probably returned to the
earth by a process of gradual deviation in the ionosphere, it will,
for the purposes of description, be discussed as though it had
been reflected sharply from a mirror-like surface.
Various methods for the determination of the height of this
fictitious reflecting surface will be discussed. In some, such as
the pulse method, and an adaptation of Appleton and Barnett's
frequency-change method, the measurements provide what is
usually called the "equivalent height." In others, such as the
Hollingworth method, Appleton25 has shown that the derived
height is related to the equivalent height, but there are some
obscurities in the relation.
Changes in the height of the virtual reflector will also be dis-
cussed. Sometimes these will be derived as the difference
between two heights determined by the above-mentioned methods,
so that they will approximate to changes of equivalent, or group,
height. Many of them, however, will be derived from observed
changes of phase of the downcoming wave at a fixed point by
assuming an angle of incidence of the waves on the fictitious
reflecting surface.
The changes of height deduced by these two methods are not
necessarily the same. Nevertheless, for the purpose of this
paper, no distinction will, as a rule, be made between heights,
or changes of height, determined by these different methods,
and all the heights of the fictitious mirror will be referred to as
"apparent" heights to emphasize this fact. In Section 2 the
results which have been obtained from measurements of the
"apparent" height will be outlined.
The wave returned from the ionosphere is, in general, ellip-
tically polarized. It will often be considered as resolved into
two components with the electric vectors respectively parallel
and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and these will be
called the normal and the abnormal components of the wave.
A sender with a vertical aerial emits only the normal component,
but after reflection at the ionosphere both components may be
present. The ratio between the amplitude of the normal com-
ponent after reflection by the fictitious reflecting mirror and that
of the normal component incident upon the mirror will be called
the "reflection coefficient" and will, when necessary, be denoted
by uiv:|. The ratio of the amplitudes of the abnormal com-
ponent reflected and of the normal component incident will be
called the "conversion coefficient" and will be denoted by ^R±.
If the wave is incident on the fictitious reflector at nearly
grazing incidence, and if the electric field of the normal com-
ponent in the reflected wave can be represented by a vector
nearly parallel to that in the incident wave, and in the same
sense, then it is said that there is no phase change at reflection.
Fig. 1 shows that, with this nomenclature, a wave incident nearly
Fig. 1.—To illustrate a normally polarized ray reflected from a
fictitious reflecting surface with no change of phase.
normally, and with no phase change at reflection, will, in fact,
have its electric vector in the opposite sense to that of the
reflected wave, since the geometry of the situation will have
reversed the vectors relative to each other.
In what follows frequent reference will be made to measure-
ments made over different distances of transmission and, for
convenience, Fig. 2 shows the relation between the distance of
60km
200 400 600 800 1000
Distance,km
Fig. 2.—The relation between angle of incidence and distance between
sender and receiver, calculated for apparent reflection heights of
60, 80, and 100 km above a curved earth.
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1 0 0 0 KM
transmission and the angle of incidence on layers at different
heights, calculated for the curved earth.
(1.3) Outline of Experimental Methods
(1.3.1) The Hollingworth Method.12
In the Hollingworth method the amplitude of the vertical
electric field at the ground, or in an aeroplane flying at a constant
height, is measured at different distances from the sender. After
correction has been made for a decrease of amplitude inversely
proportional to the distance from the sender, it is often found
that the results vary with distance in a characteristic way, as
though there were interference between a ground wave and a
downcoming wave. An example is shown in Fig. 3. It is
possible to construct a series of models which would produce
223
follows. A tone of frequency about 1 kc/s, derived by frequency
division from the radiated wave received at a point very near
the sender, is transmitted along a telephone line to the receiver,
where its phase is compared with that of the radio-frequency
e.m.f. under consideration.
When it is required to measure the abnormal component of the
downcoming wave, it is selected by the use of a loop aerial
perpendicular to the plane of propagation. When the normal
component is required it is selected by the use of a loop aerial,
in the plane of propagation, coupled to a vertical aerial in such
a way as to suppress the ground wave, but receive the down-
coming wave. The accurate adjustment of these aerial systems
to select the desired components is not simple. It is described
in detail in References (1) and (9), Section 12.

• • • ••
•
V . • • *•
• • ••
• •• • • •• •
• •
6 • • •
bo
V' •
•• ••
• •• ••
•
300 400 500 600 700 800
Distance from sender,km
Fig. 3.—The Hollingworth interference pattern observed during the midday hours on 85 kc/s on 3rd November, 1949.
The full curve represents the calculated ground-wave signal.
results of this kind. In some the "apparent" reflection height (1.3.3) The Use of Atmospherics.
would increase with angle of incidence, and in some it would Although atmospherics provide powerful radiation at low
decrease; there might be one where it remained approximately frequencies, as the position of their source is usually unknown,
constant as the angle was varied. If such a model is possible their value for experimental purposes is limited. Some deduc-
it has been used, since it provides a more concise description of tions can be made from observations of the integrated e.m.f.
the results. Sometimes it is found that the "apparent" reflection received from all atmospherics on a narrow-band receiver, and
height in the model can be made more constant if it is assumed these deductions can be made more precise when observations
that the reflection of the normal component is accompanied by with direction-finders show that the majority of important
a change of phase. Whatever model is finally adopted, it is only sources are located in some well-defined storm-centre. Bureau22
to be considered as a concise description of the results, and is and Gardner23 have made deductions from observations of this
not intended to imply a knowledge of the actual heights to kind.
which the waves penetrate for different angles of incidence. Deductions can also be made from the observed effects of a
The amplitude of the downcoming wave, and hence the single atmospheric as received either on an aperiodic amplifier
reflection coefficient of the fictitious reflector, can be simply or on a series of narrow-band amplifiers tuned to different fre-
deduced from curves of the type shown in Fig. 3. quencies. When received on an aperiodic amplifier the wave-
Observations can be made on the abnormal component of the form of the atmospheric often has the appearance of a succession
downcoming wave by using a loop receiving aerial at different of similar pulses reflected from the ionosphere, and from the
distances from the sender, and observing the magnitude of the time differences between them it is sometimes possible to deduce
signal received when the loop is turned to pick up a minimum both the distance of the source and the "apparent" height of
signal. In this way deductions can be made about the phase the fictitious reflecting surface.24 When a single atmospheric is
and amplitude of the abnormal component by a method received simultaneously on several narrow-band receivers,
described by Budden, Ratcliffe and Wilkes.2 deductions can be made about propagation characteristics on
those frequencies provided the proper assumptions can be made
(1.3.2) The Phase-Reference Method.1.*.9 about the spectral distribution of energy in the atmospheric at
In the phase-reference method the normal or abnormal the source.23-26 In both methods of investigation it is advan-
component of the downcoming wave is isolated by a special tageous to locate the source of the observed atmospheric by the
aerial arrangement, and its phase and amplitude are then com- use of cathode-ray direction-finders.
pared with the phase and amplitude of a standard e.m.f. If the
sender is fairly near the receiver (e.g. 90 km) a vertical aerial (2) THE "APPARENT"* HEIGHT OF REFLECTION
receives predominantly ground wave, so that the standard e.m.f. In this Section are outlined the results which have been
can be received simply by using a vertical aerial. If the distance obtained by the different methods of measuring the "apparent"
is greater the standard phase is provided in a different way, as • The significance to be attached to the word "apparent" is explained in Section 1.2.
224 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCLIFFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
height of reflection. Although the measurements have been
made at different times of the day and year, the methods used
are not suitable for accurate measurements of changes of that
height, and it will be shown in Section 5.1 that, on a frequency
of 16 kc/s, detailed knowledge of these changes is available from
experiments using the phase-reference method. That knowledge,
as summarized in equation (1) of Section 5.1, will be used here
to express the measurements of "apparent" height in terms of
the "apparent" height /*x==0 which would be measured if the
sun's rays were incident vertically (X = 0). For waves of
frequency near 100 kc/s, the variation of height with X is not so
simple, and the results have not been reduced in this way.
(2.1) Hollingworth's Method of the Interference Pattern
Hollingworth's12 measurements on a frequency of 20-9 kc/s
at distances between 300 and 1 000 km gave an approximate
value of 75 km for the "apparent" reflection height averaged
over a series of days in summer. Budden, Ratcliffe and Wilkes2
deduced an "apparent" height of 67 km for a frequency of 16 kc/s
at midday in summer, but found that they needed to assume that
there was a phase reversal of the wave at reflection. Their cal-
culations did not take account of the curvature of the earth,
and a reconsideration of their results, taking the curvature into
account, shows that the best agreement with measurement is
obtained if an "apparent" reflection height of 74 km at midday
in mid-summer is assumed, with no change of phase at reflection.
Recently3 the interference pattern formed with waves of
frequency 16 kc/s has been plotted on a summer day, a winter
day, and a summer night,* by using apparatus flown in an
aeroplane up to distances of 800 km from the sender. The
results can be represented by a simple model, with a horizontal
fictitious reflecting surface, up to a distance of about 400 km,
but the same model will not continue to describe the results
beyond that distance. It appears that some rather fundamental
change occurs in the reflection phenomena when the angle of
incidence passes through that value (65°) appropriate to a
distance of 400 km. Other characteristics of the reflected wave
also change as this distance is passed.
When a full theory of the propagation of waves through the
ionosphere is available, it will presumably be best to describe
the experimental results in terms of the details of the measured
interference pattern at the ground, but until that stage is reached
it seems most helpful to summarize them in terms of a model.
The "apparent" reflection height which accounts for the results
up to a distance of 400 km is 74 km for midday in summer,
79 km for midday in winter, and 92 km for night in summer.
From equation (1) we deduce a mean value for ^ ^ Q of approxi-
mately 72 km.
On frequencies near 100 kc/s Weekes and Stuart,10 and
Caradoc Williams,27 have plotted the interference pattern by
using an apparatus flown in an aeroplane. Weekes and Stuart
deduced an "apparent" height of 70-72 km for midday in June
on frequencies of 70-83 kc/s, 85 kc/s, 113-3 kc/s and 127 kc/s,
and Williams an "apparent" height of 72 km for midday in
April on frequencies of 85 and 113 kc/s. At night, with fre-
quencies of 85 and 113 kc/s, Williams measured an "apparent"
height of 90 km. These results are deduced from interference
patterns plotted over a distance of 400-900 km.
(2.2) The Frequency-Change Method of Appleton and Barnett
Since it is not convenient, with the commercial senders which
have been used on the very low frequencies, to make a continuous
change of frequency, as in the usual method of Appleton and
Barnett for measuring equivalent height, another artifice is
employed.8 It is found that the diurnal variation of the phase
• The results for the night time have not previously been published.
of the reflected wave measured by the phase-reference method
repeats itself closely from day to day,* so that it is possible to
make measurements on one frequency on one day and another
frequency on the next day, and by comparison obtain at any
one time of day the difference of phase accompanying a known
change of frequency. Measurements have been made by this
method over a distance of 54 km on two frequencies of 29 • 5 kc/s
and 31-15 kc/s, and the measured "apparent" height of reflection
was found to be 77 km by day and 96 km by night. From
equation (1) hx^Q = (72 ± 3) km.«
C. H. Smith28 used the ordinary frequency-change method of
Appleton and Barnett to investigate the night-time transmission
of waves of frequency 200 kc/s over a distance of 300 km, and
deduced an "apparent" reflection height of 95 km.
(2.3) The Pulse Method of Breit and Tuve
In America, Brown and Watts,32 Helliwell,20 and the workers
at Pennsylvania State College21 have reported the results of
measurements made with pulses incident nearly vertically on the
ionosphere. Brown and Watts used a frequency of 50 kc/s,
Helliwell used 100 kc/s, and the workers at State College used
150 kc/s. At these frequencies the reflected wave is weak by
day and most of the published results refer only to night-time.
Brown and Watts found reflection heights of about 80 km.
Helliwell found that the returned pulse is sometimes multiple,
as though reflected from two neighbouring layers, and the
measured equivalent height may fluctuate between two or more
values. The average height of reflection at night measured for
waves of frequency 100 kc/s was 95 km, and it decreased by
about 10 km in two hours around sunrise. The workers at
Pennsylvania State College found that the "apparent" height of
reflection for waves of 150 kc/s was about 95 km by night and
dropped to about 85 km after sunrise in winter, and they also
found multiple echoes.
(2.4) Summary of Measurements of "Apparent" Heights of
Reflection
The results on frequencies below 40 kc/s are summarized in
Table 1, and since the diurnal and annual variation of "apparent"
reflection height is well known in this frequency range, at least
for waves incident nearly vertically, the measurements are
reduced so as to show the magnitude A x=0 of the "apparent"
height which would be expected when the sun's zenith angle is
zero.
After surveying the data of Table 1 with due attention to the
probable accuracy obtainable by the different methods, the
authors consider that the best value for the "apparent height"
AXl=0 is 73 ± 2 km, without any phase change at reflection. The
heights at latitude 50° for midday in midsummer, midday in
midwinter, and night throughout the year, would be approxi-
mately 1, 5 and 19 km greater (see Section 5.1).
The results on frequencies from 85-200 kc/s are included in
Table 2 along with those for 30 kc/s for comparison.
It will be seen in Section 5.1 (and Fig. 11) that the "apparent"
height of reflection on frequencies near 100 kc/s does not vary
with the sun's zenith angle in any simple manner, so here no
attempt is made to quote the results in terms of the height when
X — 0. Moreover, in the daytime the downcoming wave is too
weak for satisfactory measurement near vertical incidence, but
it is stronger at oblique incidence, so that daytime measurements
by the Hollingworth method are only quoted for the greater
distances of propagation. The daytime heights determined by
the American workers using pulses at nearly vertical incidence
are greater than those obtained in England using the Holling-
worth method at greater distances.
* See, for example, Fig. 9.
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1 0 0 0 KM 225
Table 1
"APPARENT" HEIGHTS OF REFLECTION FOR WAVES OF FREQUENCY 16-30 KC/S
The heights are expressed in terms of the value hx=Q appropriate to X = 0, derived from the measured heights by the use of
equation (1)

Frequency Distance Worker and reference Method Notes

*x-o
kc/s km km
16 73 90-380 Budden et al.2 Interference pattern Recalculated for curved earth
16 73 Up to 400 Weekes3 Interference pattern by day Not valid beyond 400 km
16 72 Up to 400 Weekes* Interference pattern by night Not valid beyond 400 km. The change of height
from night to day observed by the phase-reference
method is used in the calculation of //x=o
20-9 74 300- Hollingworth'2 Interference pattern Only one maximum and one minimum observed
1000
30-32 72 54 Bracewell, Harwood Frequency change successive
and Straker8 days; 29-5 and 31-15 kc/s

* This result has not been published previously.

Table 2
"APPARENT" HEIGHTS OF REFLECTION FOR WAVES OF FREQUENCY 30-200 KC/S

"Apparent" height, km
Frequency Distance Worker and reference Method Remarks
Day Night

kc/s km
30-32 74 96 54 Bracewell, Straker Frequency change The day height applies to summer
and Harwood8 midday and was calculated from
the observations by the use of
equation (1), Section 5.1
50
70-83
80 (approx.) 80 (approx.)
70
\ ° Brown and Watts32 Pulses
Weekes and Stuart io Interference pattern Average day value as determined
85 J 400-900 in May
113-33 71
127-5
85 72 90 400-700 WiIIiams27 Interference pattern Day value as determined in April
113-33
85 90 400-900 Williams27 Interference pattern Determined in July
113-33
100 85 (approx.) 95 0 Helliwell20 Pulses
150 85 95 0 Waynick2i Pulses
200 95 300 Smith.28 Frequency change

Examination of Table 2 shows that when measurements are
made at short distances (up to 400 km) the "apparent" height of
reflection at night is 90-95 km for frequencies between 30 and
200 kc/s. An average value of 95 km will be assumed in what
follows; it must be remembered, however, that the American
workers have found multiple echoes corresponding to differences
of height of about 5 km, so that the reflection height at night is
probably somewhat indeterminate.
(3) THE POLARIZATION OF THE REFLECTED WAVE
The following methods are available for investigating the
polarization of the downcoming wave.
(a) The use of aerial systems designed to receive separately
the normal and the abnormal components of the wave, and the
comparison throughout the day of the phases and amplitudes of
these components. Measurements have been made by this
method throughout the day on a frequency of 16 kc/s, 1 and near
sunrise and sunset on frequencies of 43 and 65 kc/s, 8 and of
113kc/s.9
(b) Observations of the "goodness of bearing" on a loop
aerial at different distances, compared with the Hollingworth
interference pattern. 2
(c) The comparison of the total signal received on a vertical
aerial and on loop aerials suitably orientated. 17 . 29
id) Direct observations on a cathode-ray polarimeter of the
state of polarization of reflected pulses. 21
(e) Comparison of amplitudes received on crossed horizontal
dipoles (in a search for linearly polarized components).2*)
(3.1) Polarization Near Vertical Incidence
Before considering the results of measurement of polarization,
it is useful to consider what accuracy is of value in a measure-
ment of this kind. The important magnitudes, both for theories
of the ionosphere and for practical problems of communications,
are: (a) the ratio of the normal to the abnormal component,
and (b) if this ratio is near unity, a rough knowledge of the phase
difference between the two components. If the ratio mentioned
in (a) is either very large or very small the wave is essentially
linearly polarized, whatever the phase angle. If the ratio is
near unity no particular importance attaches to its precise value;
what matters then is whether the phase difference mentioned
in (b) is less than 30° (essentially linearly polarized at 45° to the
plane of propagation in a direction depending on the sign of the
phase difference) or greater than 60° (essentially circularly
polarized, with a sense of rotation depending on the sign of the
phase-difference). Precise measurements are therefore not
needed but it is of interest to know whether the wave is essentially
linearly polarized in, or at 45° to, or perpendicular to, the plane
226 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCLIFFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
of propagation; or is essentially circularly polarized, and if so
with which sense of rotation.
The polarization of the downcoming wave might depend on
the direction of transmission relative to the earth's magnetic
field. For nearly vertical incidence it is probably sufficient to
state that all the measurements to be quoted were made in the
northern hemisphere. The experiments at more oblique inci-
dence were made roughly in a north-south direction.
When the ionospheric wave is transmitted over distances of
100-300 km, nearly all methods of observation agree in showing
that the downcoming wave on all frequencies from 16-150 kc/s
is approximately circularly polarized with an anticlockwise
for 16 kc/s is about 0-1, whereas it is less than 0 001 for 100 kc/s,
and even for 2 Mc/s it is only about 0 005. The difference
between the low and the very low frequencies is not so marked
in winter and is hardly noticeable at night at any time of the
year. Values of the conversion coefficient, measured at nearly
vertical incidence for noon in summer and in winter, and for
night at all times of the year, are shown as a function of frequency
in Fig. 4.
1-00
f-—

rotation when viewed along the direction of propagation (left- 0

• —
handed rotation).
The only observations known to us which do not agree with 0-10 A—
V s.
ours are those of Helliwell2o and Namba.29 Helliwell found
that pulses reflected at vertical incidence on 100 kc/s were s
linearly polarized and that, when an echo was often split, the \

two components of the echo were polarized at right angles to X

each other. Namba made observations on a frequency of \

'S 0-01 \

19-8 kc/s, transmitted over a distance of 145 km, and found

u 1 V\
linear polarization by day and elliptical polarization at night.
It is difficult to see how these two sets of results can be related \
to the authors' observations.
Results obtained by the workers at Pennsylvania State College, -
who used pulses of frequency 150 kc/s vertically incident upon 0-001
10 50 100
-H
200
the ionosphere and analysed them with a pulse polarimeter, Frequency, i.c/s
agree with the authors' results.
The authors' observations during a "sudden ionosphere Fig. 4.—The variation of conversion coefficient \\R± with frequency for
different seasons.
disturbance" (Section 7) have shown that the polarization OOO Winter night.
remains essentially the same throughout. xxx Winter noon.
• • • Summer noon.
(3.2) Polarization at Oblique Incidence17* *• 2> 3>7 ,J, | . ^ Represents an upper limit when measurements are confused by noise.

The methods of observation labelled (a) and (b) in Section 3 (4.2) Annual Variation of Amplitude at Vertical Incidence
have both shown that, for propagation on 16 kc/s to distances The curves of Fig. 5 show the annual change of the conversion
greater than about 400 km, the downcoming wave is approxi- coefficient for waves of 16 kc/s reflected at nearly vertical inci-
mately linearly polarized with the plane of polarization rotated dence (90 km) at midday and during the night.5 It will be
through 45° from the vertical plane of propagation in clock- noticed that the night-time conversion coefficient is greater in
wise sense when viewed along the direction of propagation.
The polarization of waves of this frequency thus appears to be
different according as the distance of propagation is much less,
or much greater, than 400 km. •
Hollingworth,17 working over a distance of 400 km and using
method (c) found that the polarization changed during the
sunlight period, but the authors find it difficult to accept his
results because they also implied that the height of reflection
changed only by about 2 km during that time.

(4) THE AMPLITUDE OF THE REFLECTED WAVE

(4.1) Variation with Frequency at Vertical Incidence1- 2>3> 5>8-9
The amplitude of the wave reflected from the ionosphere at
nearly vertical incidence is discussed here. The measurements
have been made mainly by the phase-reference method of
Section 1.3.2, but some of the results have been obtained from
the Hollingworth interference pattern observed near the sender.
In most of the experiments the conversion coefficient ttR± has
been measured, but since experiments have always shown that
the downcoming wave is approximately circularly polarized, it
may be assumed that the conversion coefficient \\Rj_ is
approximately equal to the reflection coefficient nRu.
The most noticeable phenomenon in the range of frequencies
here considered is the relatively great intensity of the reflected Jan Wb Mar Apr May Jun Jul A\ig Sep Oct Nov Dec
wave observed at midday on frequencies in the neighbourhood Fig. 5.—The seasonal variation of \\R± observed on a frequency of
16 kc/s for midnight (upper curve) and midday (lower curve).
of 16 kc/s. Thus at noon on a midsummer's day, when the • • • Represents observations made in 1948.
downcoming waves are at their weakest, the conversion coefficient OOO Represents observations made in 1949.
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1000 KM 227
summer than in winter, whereas the reverse is true for the 14 days centred on 18th June, 1948, and is typical of all the
midday conversion coefficient. results obtained in summer.
A series of measurements made on 70 kc/s has yielded the In winter the reflection coefficient is seen to be approximately
results of Fig. 6 which shows the weekly mean conversion constant throughout the day and night.
The characteristic features in summer are: (a) the sudden
0-4
decrease in amplitude before ground sunrise, (b) the constancy
of the reflection coefficient throughout the daylight hours,
4 (c) the sudden increase in amplitude near sunset, and (d) the
symmetry of the curve about midday. It is probable that the
small variations occurring throughout the day in winter, and the
secondary oscillation near sunrise in summer, can be attributed
S 0*2 to twice-reflected waves.
o The behaviour of waves of frequency 70 kc/s is not so regular
g but, from a number of results, the lower curves of Figs. 7 and 8
• l-l
have been drawn to represent the general type of behaviour in
fe 0-1 winter and in summer.9 It is clear that in winter the behaviour
Too sma.ll
to measure is not very different from that on 16 kc/s. In summer there
•r..
are similarities, but also important differences. A sudden
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec decrease of amplitude to about one-sixth of the night-time
magnitude occurs about one hour before ground-sunrise, and a
Fig. 6.—The seasonal variation of \\R± as observed on a frequency second sudden decrease occurs about one-and-a-half hours
of 70 kc/s for midnight (upper points) and midday (lower points).
Each point represents the average of one week's results.
after sunrise and reduces the amplitude to its very small day-
The observations extended from January, 1948, to December, 1949. time value. In the afternoon the amplitude increases again
coefficients at midnight and midday.9 It is noticeable that the from its very small value about two hours before sunset, but
thereafter it increases smoothly without any sudden jumps to
change from winter to summer has a much more pronounced
its night value. This gradual increase in the afternoon and the
influence on the midday amplitude on 70 kc/s than on 16 kc/s. decrease by two sudden steps in the morning distinguish the
(4.3) Diurnal Variations of Amplitude at Vertical Incidence curve from that for 16 kc/s which shows single sudden changes
near sunrise and sunset.
The way in which the amplitude varies throughout the day for
different times of the year is discussed next. A more limited series of measurements on waves of frequencies
For winter time the upper curve of Fig. 7 shows the diurnal 30, 43 and 113 kc/s shows results which are similar to those on
70 kc/s, rather than to those on 16 kc/s.8>9
= 0-5 (4.4) The Amplitude at More Oblique Incidence
,
.S 0-4 The variation of reflection coefficients when the incidence
becomes more oblique is now discussed. The information on
"I 0-3 this point is derivable from (a) measurements of the Holling-
o
s.
S 0-2 worth interference pattern, and (b) detailed measurements of
^701ic/s
O \ the reflection coefficients at fixed observing sites. The Holling-
g 0-1 worth type of experiment covers several distances, but is only
i i
fi 0 made on a few isolated occasions, whereas the other type of
0600 SR 1200 SS 1800
Local trme.h experiment covers an extended period of time, but is only made
Fig. 7.—The daily variation of \\R L in winter as observed on 16 kc/s at a few isolated distances. The two sets of experiments are
(upper curve) and 70 kc/s (lower curve). complementary and provide consistent results.
Measurements3 of the Hollingworth interference pattern show
variation of ^R^ for waves of frequency 16 kc/s. This is an that on a summer day the reflection coefficient on a frequency of
average curve for 14 days centred on 6th December, 1948.5 16 kc/s is about 0 1 5 when measured at distances less than
Similar curves are found for the months of November, January 300 km, but is about twice as great (actually 0-33) when measured
and February. In March and October, however, conditions at distances of 500-800 km. There appears to be a rather
change, and for the intervening summer months the diurnal sudden change near 400 km. On a summer day the reflection
variation of amplitude takes the form illustrated by the upper coefficient on frequencies of 85 kc/s and 127 kc/s is less than
line in Fig. 8. This curve represents the average results for 0 001 at vertical incidence, but is about 0 01 at 400 km, and
increases steadily with distance to about 0 04 at 700 km and
0-6 0 055 at900km.io
0-5
These measurements all indicate an increase in the reflection
\i6Ws coefficient as the incidence becomes more nearly grazing. This
4
°" -A /
/
conclusion is supported by measurements of the reflection
coefficient made at fixed receiving points at different distances.
0-3
2
°' Wc/Y
/
^/ r The results of measurements7 made at a distance of 540 km
on a frequency of 16 kc/s show that, at all times of the year,
the amplitude of the downcoming wave decreases suddenly
0-1
i i
about one hour before ground sunrise, remains fairly constant
0 through the day, and increases suddenly near sunset. The
SR 0600 1200 1800 SS
Local time.li behaviour is therefore not very different from that observed in
Fig. 8.—The daily variation of \\RX in midsummer as observed on summer near vertical incidence, as shown by the upper line in
16 kc/s (upper curve) and 70 kc/s (lower curve). Fig. 8.
228 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCL1FFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
(5) DIURNAL AND SEASONAL CHANGES OF REFLECTION
HEIGHT
Although the method of phase measurement is not well suited
for the measurement of the absolute magnitude of the "apparent"
height of reflection, it provides a useful and accurate measure of
changes of this height. It is well adapted for the measurement
of changes of height less than one wavelength, such as would be
difficult to measure by a pulse method. If, however, the wave
is reflected simultaneously from two heights, the results of the
phase method are more complicated to interpret. The resulting
phase of the downcoming wave will then depend both on the
observed phase, the results may be represented by an equation
of the form
hx =hx=0 + A(t) logs (sec X) . . . . (1)
where hx and Ax=o represent the "apparent" heights when the
sun's zenith angle is X and 0 respectively, and A(t) is a constant
for any one day, but varies throughout the year as shows in
Fig. 10. This equation holds up to X = 85°.
It has been shown2 that an equation of this form would
represent the height at which a given electron density would
occur in the lower tail of a Chapman region, and in that case the

i •»»
+400

'••#.

+200 -
bo %

03
o -
s?

J:
• % •

0 -

-200 1 1 1 1

00 0300 0600 0900 1200. 1500 1800 2100 2400

C.M.T.

Fig. 9.—Phase of abnormal component of downcoming wave on 16 kc/s observed on 38 days between 28th June and
7th August, 1948, at a distance of 90 km from the sender.
The time scale applies~to a day near the middle of the period, and the times for other days were adjusted so that sunrise and sunset always fell at
the same place on the curve.

two heights and also on the relative amplitudes of the two waves, quantity A(i) would represent the scale height of the atmosphere.
and the existence of the double reflecting region will have to be It is interesting to compare the values of Ait) shown in Fig. 10
inferred indirectly. with the value (8 km) which represents the scale height at ground
In the following Sections the information which has been level, but in making this comparison we do not imply that the
obtained about changes in the "apparent" heights of reflection
on the different frequencies is summarized. Most of this infor-
mation has been derived from measurements of the changes of
phase, from which changes in the length of the wave-path are
directly deduced. When there is a considerable distance between
the sender and receiver it is necessary to make an approximate
assumption about the "apparent" height of reflection before
changes in this height can be deduced from the observed changes
of the phase-path. The changes of height deduced are not
sensitive to the exact value assumed for the mean "apparent"
height, and for this purpose the value of 80 km has been assumed, 3-nI i i i i i i i i i i i i i
which according to Section 2 is the approximate mean of the Jim Aug Oct Dec Feb Apr Jun
day and night values. Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul
Fig. 10.—The seasonal variation of the parameter A(i) in the equation
hx — hx--^o + A(t) log (sec X) governing the daily variation of
(5.1) Changes of "Apparent" Height at Vertical Incidence "apparent" height as observed on 16 kc/s.
• • • represents results obtained in 1948.
The most complete set of results is available for a wave of O O O represents results obtained in 1949.
frequency 16 kc/s received at nearly vertical incidence at a
point 90 km from the sender.5 There is a striking regularity reflection does necessarily take place in the tail of a Chapman
about the results, particularly in the daytime, as will be apparent region.
from Fig. 9 which shows points plotted to represent observations The accuracy with which the results fit equation (1) has been
made every 12min on 38 different days. If days which were tested by plotting hx against log (sec X), and on most days good
obviously abnormal are excluded, the phase is always found to straight lines were obtained to a first approximation. A closer
behave very regularly. If we deduce the height from the inspection of the results showed that the height variations were
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1 000 KM
not quite symmetrical about midday, and the straight lines
obtained for afternoon readings did not correspond exactly to
those obtained with morning readings.
An extended series of experiments, made on two days each
month on a wave of frequency' 30 kc/s received over a distance
of 54 km, has given similar results.8 Although plots of hx
against log (sec X) lie fairly near straight lines, the agreement is
not as close as for 16 kc/s. The overall mean value for A{t) in
equation (1) is 5-5 db 0-1 km. A semi-annual variation of A(t)
is also evident, but the consistency is not good enough to warrant
comparison with the results on 16 kc/s.
Measurements on waves of frequency 43 kc/s received over a
distance of 122 km gave results which were still less consistent.8
When the measurements were exhibited by plotting hx against
log (secX) straight lines could often be drawn through them,
though not so simply as for 16 kc/s. The slopes of these lines
were more variable and there appeared to be a real difference
between the slopes in the mornings and in the afternoons. The
mean overall slope was 4-8 ± 0-1 km, the mean morning slope
was 5-2 ± 0 1 5 km, and the mean afternoon slope was
4-5 ±0-15km.
On frequencies of 70 and 113 kc/s it was found that the
behaviour was much less regular.9 Plots of hx against tog (sec X)
often did not give straight lines, particularly in the afternoon,
and on many occasions the total decrease of reflection height in
the morning was greater than the total increase in the afternoon,
even if the observations were continued well into the night.
There is thus a marked difference between the results for
waves of frequency 16 kc/s, which behave from day to day in a
markedly regular way, and those for frequencies of 70 and
113 kc/s, which are considerably more variable. The behaviour
on frequencies of 30 and 43 kc/s is intermediate in nature. For
the frequencies 70 and" 113 kc/s it is not possible to describe the
results by an expression such as equation (1), or even by a graph;
accordingly points have been plotted for different times on all
the days of observation, to show the relation between hx and
log (sec X) and then curves have been drawn to show how the
density of these points is distributed over the diagram. Fig. 11
Fig. 11.—The relation between apparent height and logfOc) as
observed on 70 kc/s.
The full line represents the mean results and the figures on the dotted lines represent
the percentage of points included by the corresponding lines. As these results extend
to x " 90°, instead of 54(sec X) the more accurate expression /(x), which has been
tabulated by Chapman, has been used.
shows these density curves. It will be clear that there is much
variability, but that there is a tendency for the results to lie
around a line represented by equation (1) with the value 2-83 km
inserted for A(t).
It is interesting to compare the total measured changes of
"apparent" height between night and midday for the different
frequencies. On 16 kc/s the total change is 16-8 km on a
midsummer day, and 13-5 km on a winter day. On frequencies
near 100 kc/s the total change measured during a normal morning
229
is 7-8 km on a winter day, and in summer the daytime absorption
is so large that accurate measurements cannot be made.
(5.2) Possibility of more than One Reflected Wave
It has previously been pointed out that the method of phase
measurement cannot give direct evidence of the simultaneous
existence of more than one downcoming wave, but that their
existence can sometimes be deduced indirectly. Thus the
presence of waves reflected twice from the same region
("multiple-hop rays") is often recognizable from the records of
phase made on a frequency of 16 kc/s, particularly when the
reflection coefficient is large, and it has been found that these
waves behave in the expected manner.6 On some occasions
there are signs that reflection occurs from more than one level.5
The observations on frequencies 70 and 113 kc/s might also
be interpreted in terms of reflection from more than one height.
It was pointed out in Section 5.1 that, although the decrease of
reflecting height in the morning seemed to occur in a normal
manner as though controlled by the zenith angle of the sun, the
increase of height in the afternoon was often much less. An
effect of this kind could be produced if, at some time during
the afternoon, there was a change-over from reflection at a
lower level to reflection at a higher level, accompanied (as
would be expected) by a decrease of the amplitude reflected
from the one, and an increase of the amplitude reflected from the
other. If the difference of height represented a change of phase
of (n ± / ) 2 T T (where n = integer, and / = fraction), then the
method of recording would only indicate a phase change of
± 2/TT and the change of height deduced would be too small.
In this connection it is interesting to note that, as shown in
Table 2, the American workers using the pulse method on
100 kc/s rind a change of height of about 10 km in passing from
night to day, whereas Weekes and Stuart,9 using the phase
method, found a change of only 7-8 km.
(5.3) Changes of Height at Oblique Incidence
Some measurements have been made at distant points by the
phase-reference method outlined in Section 1.3.2, from which
diurnal changes of "apparent" height can be deduced. The
diurnal changes of "apparent" reflection height observed with
waves of frequency 16 kc/s received at distances of 220 km are
approximately the same as those observed near vertical incidence.6
There is also some evidence to show that, for measurements
made at a distance of 540 km, the total change of reflection
height in passing from night to day is not very different from that
observed at vertical incidence.7
The curve relating height to time-of-day is however different,
and at 540 km the height starts to decrease rather suddenly
about one hour before ground sunrise, remains fairly constant
through the day, and increases rapidly again near sunset. This
difference in behaviour at the two distances is shown in Fig. 12
where the continuous lines represent the "apparent" heights of
the downcoming waves of frequency 16 kc/s received at distances
of 540 km and 90 km on the same day from the same sender.
The two curves have been adjusted so that the time marked
SR represents, for each curve separately, the ground sunrise at
the mid-point of the two paths. We return to a consideration
of these phenomena in Section 6.
Other experiments have shown that the diurnal changes of
"apparent" reflection height measured on a frequency near
100 kc/s, at a distance of 300 km, are the same as those measured
near vertical incidence.10 When, however, the distance of
observation is increased to 900 km, the diurnal changes of phase
of waves of frequency near 100 kc/s do not correspond to the
same changes of height as are observed at shorter distances
and there is in fact some evidence to show that the height as
230 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCLIFFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
sun's zenith distance at the mid-point of the path is about 98°
(i.e. while the sun is still below the horizon).7*
Records of the resultant signal-amplitude received at a
distance of 900 km from senders of the Decca system working
on frequencies of 70, 85, and 113 kc/s, have yielded similar
information.10 Near sunrise the records show characteristic
oscillations produced by a change of phase of the downcoming
wave, from which it can be deduced that the phase of this wave
starts to vary when the sun's zenith angle at the mid-point of
the path is about 98-5°.
From these results it is concluded that waves of frequencies
16-113 kc/s, incident nearly vertically on the ionosphere, undergo
a sudden decrease in amplitude about one hour before ground
sunrise, but that no sudden change of phase occurs until near
ground sunrise. The same waves, propagated over distances of
500-900 km, undergo similar changes of amplitude, but their
phase also starts to change suddenly about one hour before
18 ground sunrise at the mid-point of the propagation path.
5 6 7 If it is assumed that the pre-sunrise effects occur when the
Localtime.il sun's rays impinge on the atmosphere at a height of 95 km, then
Fig. 12.—The sunrise changes of apparent height observed on fre- it can be shown that the solar rays would be tangential to a
quencies of 16 kc/s (full lines) and 70 kc/s (dotted lines) at nearly sphere situated about 30 km above the surface of the earth at
vertical incidence and at oblique incidence. the time when the effects are first noticed.
observed at 900 km changes by almost 20 km in passing from
night to day. (7) THE EFFECTS OF SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC
The dotted curves on Fig. 12 refer to observations made on a DISTURBANCES (S.I.D.)
frequency of 70 kc/s over distances of 100 km and 900 km, and (7.1) Sudden Phase Anomalies (S.P.A.) and Solar Flares
illustrate that, for the greater distance (a) the change of "apparent By a "sudden ionospheric disturbance" (s.i.d.) is meant that
height is greater, and (b) the change of phase starts earlier. type of ionospheric disturbance which occurs only over the
It is interesting to compare the results shown in Fig. 12 for sunlit portions of the earth, and which is closely related to the
70 kc/s received over a distance of 900 km with those shown occurrence of solar flares observed in monochromatic light by
in Table 2 for frequencies of 85 and 113 kc/s measured over means of a spectrohelioscope. These disturbances have a rapid
distances of about 700 km by the Hollingworth method. Both onset and a slower recovery, and last for times which vary from
Fig. 12 and Table 2 indicate a change of height of about 18 km a few minutes up to about one hour. One ionospheric pheno-
from day to night for this oblique incidence, in contrast to the menon associated with these disturbances takes the form of a
change of 7-8 km (Weekes and Stuart) or 10 km (Helliwell) for sudden fade-out of signals propagated by way of the ionosphere
steeper incidence. at frequencies in the region of a few megacycles per second, and
is sometimes called a "Dellinger effect."
(6) PHENOMENA OCCURRING NEAR SUNRISE It is found that s.i.d.'s do not produce any marked change in
Several of the phenomena mentioned occur quite suddenly the amplitude of the downcoming wave on 16 kc/s at nearly
near sunrise and the time of occurrence of some of them has vertical incidence, but that they are accompanied by a decrease
been found to be very regular. in the "apparent" height of reflection.2.4 This decrease is
When waves of frequency 16 kc/s are observed between recorded as a sudden anomalous change of phase, so that this
March and October at nearly vertical incidence (90 km) it is aspect of the disturbance has been referred to as a "sudden phase
found, as shown in Fig. 8, that the amplitude starts to decrease anomaly" (s.p.a.).
suddenly about one hour before ground sunrise with an accuracy Because the amplitude of the downcoming wave on a frequency
5
of a few minutes. Waves incident nearly vertically on fre- 16 kc/s remains appreciable throughout the course of an s.p.a.
quencies 30 and 43 kc/s,8 and on 70 and 113 kc/s,9 also show in it is possible to investigate the course of the disturbance by
summer a sudden decrease of amplitude about one hour before observing the phase. This type of observation is therefore con-
ground sunrise. The decrease is shown for 70 kc/s in Fig. 8. venient for studying the details of an s.i.d. in relation to the solar
When waves are incident nearly vertically there is no rapid flare which is associated with it. From a detailed examination
change of phase until about ground sunrise on 70 kc/s9 and of a large number of s.p.a.'s it has been concluded that they
until about 10 min after ground sunrise on 16 kc/s.8 On some provide the most 4
reliable ionospheric index of the occurrence of
occasions, however, there may be a smaller and gradual change of solar flares. The changes of reflection height, recorded at
phase shortly before these tunes. vertical incidence, have been compared with the changes hi the
When waves of frequency 16 kc/s are observed at a distance line-width of the spectral line enhanced during the flare, and it
of 540 km from the sender, it is found (as mentioned in has been shown that there is some relationship.
Sections 4.9 and 5.3) that both the phase and the amplitude
suddenly start changing together before ground sunrise7 (see (7.2) The Effect of an S.I.D. on Waves Incident Vertically
Fig. 12 for phase). These two changes, superimposed, result in (7.2.1) The Change of "Apparent" Height.5,8,9
the appearance of a very clearly marked decrease in the resultant As mentioned above, it is possible on 16 kc/s to measure the
signal determined by the addition of ground and downcoming change of "apparent" reflection height throughout an s.i.d.
wave, and the start of this decrease can be timed quite accurately. * It is interesting to note that Hollingworth17 remarked on a sudden change which
A long series of records of the resultant signal-amplitude made occurred in a wave of frequency 20 • 9 kc/s, transmitted over a distance 400 km when
over the years 1940-44 shows that the start occurs when the the sun was still 7° below the horizon. According to his interpretation the effect
was produced by a change of polarization.
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1 000 KM 231
because the amplitude of the downcoming wave does not
decrease very much. Measurements of the same kind have been
made with waves of frequency 30 kc/s. With waves of frequency
70 and 113 kc/s the s.i.d. produces a marked decrease of amplitude
so that it is only possible to follow the phase, and hence determine
the decrease of "apparent" height, either when the disturbance
occurs near sunrise or sunset (when the general absorption is
small) or if the disturbance is not very great. Observations at
these times have shown that the changes of "apparent" reflection
height are substantially the same on all the frequencies 16-
113 kc/s. An example is shown in the upper portion of Fig. 13.

*••
+* •

y
+ 0-4 0j6
A A/A
+
i
s* (a) Fig. 14.—The relation between the change of amplitude observed on
ho 16 kc/s and the size of the phase anomaly during a sudden
3 6 "•?•' ionospheric disturbance. AA represents the maximum change in
amplitude during the s.i.d. A represents the mean amplitude-
before and after the s.i.d.
1530 1600 1630 1700 of amplitude (AA[A where A is the mean amplitude before and
G.M.T. after the s.i.d.) is plotted against log(A/z) and the points are
found to lie roughly in the region of a straight line.
1-0 With waves of higher frequency the decrease of amplitude
which accompanies the change of phase is only occasionally
small enough for measurements to be made throughout the s.i.d.
g 0-1 • • • • • • • • • • • •
On some of these occasions it was found that, for a number of
• •
• s.p.a.'s which corresponded to a change of reflection height of
about 6 km, the amplitude of waves of frequency 70 kc/s changed,
A 0-01
•
on the average, by a factor of about 0-015.9 The curve of
Fig. 14, plotted for waves of 16 kc/s, shows that on that fre-
quency a change of reflection height of 6 km would alter the
• (h)
amplitude by a factor of about 0-6. It is clear that for a given
6 o-ooi •
• change of height the decrease in amplitude is much greater at
the higher frequencies than at the lower. This effect is illustrated
1530 1600 1630 1700 by the lower portion of Fig. 13.
G.M.T.
Fig. 13.—A comparison between the changes of phase and amplitude (7.3) Effects of an S.I.D. on Long-Distance Transmission-Paths
observed during a sudden ionospheric disturbance on 16 kc/s
(+), 70 kc/s (•), and 113 kc/s (x), on the 7th October, 1948. In discussing the effects of an s.i.d. on waves transmitted to a
distance it is necessary to distinguish between the effect on the
It is important to know whether the change of phase observed total signal and the effect on the downcoming wave. In most
during an s.i.d. can be taken to represent a real change of the experiments a change in amplitude of the total signal is recorded
equivalent height of reflection. This point could be tested by and, in general, some auxiliary information is required before it
making a frequency-change experiment during the disturbance, can be decided whether this change is to be ascribed to a change
but since it is known that the change of "apparent" height is of phase, or of amplitude, of the downcoming wave, or of both
the same on all frequencies, the frequency-change experiment changes occurring together.
can be dispensed with, and it can be deduced that the observed A striking effect of an s.i.d. on waves of frequency near 30 kc/s
changes represent real changes of equivalent reflection height. is the sudden enhancement of atmospherics first noticed by
By observation of the normal and abnormal components of Bureau.22 He found that the lowest frequency on which
the polarized wave it has also been possible on 16 kc/s to show enhancements are observed is near 18 kc/s, and is fairly sharply
that the polarization remains constant (roughly circular) defined, and that at frequencies higher than 30 kc/s the amount
throughout the s.i.d.5 of the enhancement falls off progressively up to a limit which
is variable, but which lies between 43 and 150 kc/s. Beyond
(7.2.2) The Change of Amplitude. this limit, strong attenuation is found at the time of an s.i.d.
It has been shown 5 that, for a frequency of 16 kc/s, there is The evidence obtainable by recording the signal from com-
a rough relation between the change of amplitude (AA) and the mercial senders supports that obtained from atmospherics, and
decrease of equivalent height (Ah) observed during an s.i.d. is more precise, because the distances of the senders are known
The relationship is shown in Fig. 14, in which the relative change and details of the records can often be interpreted in the light
232 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCL1FFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
of other knowledge to give information about the downcoming during an s.i.d. It has been shown with waves of frequency
wave alone. A series of records made on a frequency of 19 • 8 kc/s 16 kc/s transmitted over 540 km, and of frequency 85 kc/s
over a transmission path2 of 770 km showed that the resultant transmitted over 900 km, that the change of phase corresponds
signal increased during an s.i.d., but it was not possible to make to a change of "apparent" height of the same order as that
further deductions. Waves of frequency 16 kc/s, transmitted recorded when the same waves were incident vertically during
over a distance of 540 km, sometimes show an increase, some- the same s.i.d.7' 10>53
times a decrease, and sometimes an oscillation, of the total The results mentioned in this section are collected for reference
received signal.7 Detailed comparisons, made on one or two in Table 3.
Table 3
THE EFFECTS OF A SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE

Effect on total signal Effect on amplitude of downcoming wave

Effect on total amplitude from
Frequency integrated "level" of senders at medium
distant atmospherics distances, Oblique incidence
500-1 000 km Steep incidence (500-1 000 km)

kc/s
3-5 and 5 Decrease
12 No effect
16 Slight increase Variable Slight decrease Little change
20 Increase Variable
30 Increase Variable
70 •)
{
113 - Variable Variable Great decrease Great increase
191 J
4000 Great decrease Great decrease Great decrease Great decrease

occasions, of the effects of an s.i.d., observed simultaneously on
waves of 16 kc/s propagated over distances of 90 and 540 km,
have shown that the effects at the greater distance can be
explained in terms of a change of phase of the downcoming wave
without any great change in its amplitude. There is not enough
evidence at present to indicate whether the increases of total
signal observed with atmospherics on frequencies above 18 kc/s,
and with the commercial sender on 19-8 kc/s (distance 770 km),
are also due primarily to a change of phase of the downcoming
wave, or whether on these frequencies there is an increase in its
amplitude.
When waves of frequency between 70 and 113 kc/slo>30 and
191 kc/s53 are received over distances of about 900 km, it has
been shown that the resultant signal may increase, decrease, or
oscillate during an s.i.d. This variability of behaviour is in
accord with the observations made on atmospherics. When
signals from commercial senders are used it is possible, however,
to analyse the records in more detail and to show that the
amplitude of the downcoming wave increases considerably
during the s.i.d. This is in contrast to what happens when
waves of the same frequency are reflected at nearly vertical
incidence, for then, as was pointed out in Section 7.22, the
amplitude of the downcoming wave decreases markedly.
Observations23 on the very lowest frequencies (3 • 5 and 5 kc/s)
have shown that during an s.i.d. the resultant signal decreases,
although, as mentioned above, the resultant is known to increase
on frequencies above 18 kc/s. Moreover, the lowest intensity
reached during this decrease appears to be less than would be
expected from the ground wave alone; it cannot therefore be
immediately assumed that the observation represents a decrease
in the downcoming wave, and probably at these very low fre-
quencies (wavelengths 80 km and 60 km) it is not correct to
speak of separate ground and ionospheric waves.
It is interesting to notice, in comparison, that on much higher
frequencies (of the order of 4-10 Mc/s) the effect of an s.i.d.
is to decrease the amplitude of the downcoming wave very
considerably, both at vertical and oblique incidence. This
effect constitutes the familiar sudden fade-out.
We turn now to consider the observed changes in the phase of
the downcoming wave transmitted to a moderate distance
(8) THE EFFECTS OF IONOSPHERIC STORMS
On some occasions the normal behaviour of the ionospheric
wave is seriously disturbed in a manner quite different from that
associated with s.i.d.'s. For example, the disturbance may occur
in the night time, or may last for one or more days, or may
represent violent fluctuations of phase, or amplitude, or both.
Sometimes these abnormalities may be directly associated with
magnetic storms, or with abnormalities in the conditions of
reflection of high-frequency waves as evidenced in the P'lf curves
obtained at ionospheric observatories. So far it has not been
possible to demonstrate a one-to-one correspondence between
the occurrence of these abnormalities and other evidences of
ionospheric disturbance, though there is clearly some close
connection between the two. Mention will be made in outline
of some of the types of abnormalities which have been observed,
and some of the other ionospheric abnormalities with which
they were related, but there is no intention of implying that this
relationship always occurs.
(8.1) Observations on 16 kc/s5
On three or four occasions throughout a long period of
observation with waves of 16 kc/s, reflected nearly vertically,
some marked abnormalities have been observed associated with
the occurrence of a great magnetic storm with a "sudden
commencement" (s.c.).* A striking feature of the observations
on these occasions was that they showed no abnormality when
the s.c. occurred, but that about 20 hours afterwards violent
fluctuations of phase and amplitude occurred at night. There
was then a return to normal behaviour, but about three days
after the s.c. there occurred a fundamental change in the nature
of the diurnal variations which persisted for several days, and
the return to normal was not complete until about another
10 days had elapsed. During the most intense part of the
abnormal period the phase of the ionospheric wave was approxi-
mately constant and showed no diurnal variation although the
amplitude varied in the normal manner. During the recovery
period there was some change of phase from day to night, but
it was not as great as usual, and in particular the plots of h
* We use the nomenclature explained in CHAPMAN and BARTELS: "Geomagnetism"
(1940), Vol. 1, Chapter IX, p. 272.
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1 000 KM 233
against log (secX) (see Section 5.1) were not straight lines, nor into lightly and heavily attenuated modes is still possible. For
were they similar in the mornings and the afternoons. very long waves the number of lightly attenuated modes is
Waves of frequency 16kc/s, transmitted over a distance of small, so that the mode picture is particularly convenient for
540 km, have shown a similar type of behaviour during one or considering propagation to moderate or great distances.
two great magnetic storms.7 One or two days after the s.c. the The problem of expressing a radio signal in terms of modes
diurnal variation of the resultant signal amplitude became consists of two parts: (a) the determination of the characteristics
markedly abnormal, in such a way that there was little change of each mode, i.e. the attenuation constant, the phase velocity,
from day to night, and this abnormality persisted for a long time, and the variation of signal strength with height above the earth's
on one occasion for more than 20 days. This observation is surface, and (b) the determination of the amplitude with which
similar to that of Espenshied, Anderson, and Bailey31 who each mode is excited by the sender. In Watson's method,
observed, with 50kc/s transmitted across the Atlantic, that a sometimes called the "residue method," both problems are
great magnetic storm was often followed by a prolonged period solved by expressing the complete signal as the sum of the
during which the day and night signals were more nearly equal residues at the poles in a contour integral. An alternative
than was normal. method of determining the characteristics of one mode was
A less violent type of abnormality which has sometimes been given by Eckersley36 using his "phase integral method." This
observed5 is mainly characterized by a non-rectilinear relation method may be interpreted as follows.
between hy and log(sec X), and by the fact that the afternoon Each mode may be considered as composed of two component
variation was not the opposite of the morning variation. There progressive plane waves whose wave normals make equal and
is some evidence that disturbances of this kind are related to opposite angles with the horizontal.* An upgoing and a down-
"small" magnetic storms. going wave may be considered with one converted into the other
by reflection at the earth or at the ionosphere. After a com-
(8.2) Observations on Frequencies near 100kc/s9>10 ponent wave has undergone two reflections, its wavefronts are
parallel to their original direction, and the phases and amplitudes
The behaviour of ionospheric waves of frequency near 100 kc/s of the original and of the twice-reflected wave must agree if a
is normally so much more variable, and the amplitude in the day self-propagating mode is to be set up. This condition is expressed
is so small, that it is more difficult to rind effects associated with by integrating the phase of the component waves over a path
magnetic storms. There have, however, been many occasions covering one complete traverse, upwards and downwards, between
during the night when the records of phase on frequencies of the earth and the ionosphere, adding to this the changes of phase
70 and 113 kc/s have been violently disturbed; these occasions
appear to be associated with violent magnetic disturbances and produced when the wave is reflected at the upper and lower
on one occasion aurorae were visible in England. boundaries, and equating the result to 2TTS, where s is an integer.
The phase change introduced at reflection at the two surfaces is
These disturbances started at different times on the two given by the Fresnel reflection coefficients. Eckersley37 has
frequencies, 70 and 113 kc/s, on which the observations were
made, although the centre points of the two trajectories were shown how the method may be extended to the case where the
separated by only 100 km. The average difference of time ionosphere is not sharply bounded.
between the two starts was about 20 min. The propagation of very low-frequency waves to great dis-
tances is in many respects similar to the anomalous propagation
of waves of higher frequency to moderate distances which occurs
(9) OUTLINE OF EXISTING THEORIES when there is a negative gradient of refractive index of the
The theories of the propagation of very-low-frequency radio earth's atmosphere close above the earth's surface. This leads
waves may be divided roughly into two groups: (a) those con- to the formation of "ducts" in which radio energy is guided.
cerned with propagation to great distances; (b) those concerned This guided energy can be expressed as the sum of a number
with the reflection of a single plane wave at vertical or nearly of modes, exactly as indicated above for very long waves. The
vertical incidence on the ionosphere. theory has been treated fully by Booker and Walkinshaw.34
The nature of the modes and the application of the phase integral
(9.1.1) Propagation to Great Distances and the Method of "Wave- for determining their characteristics is explained clearly in their
guide Modes." paper.
Watson48 worked out the theory of the diffraction of radio
waves round a partially conducting earth. He showed that (9.1.2) Numerical Results for Propagation to Great Distances.
some of the energy is guided round the curved surface of the The attenuation coefficients for the various modes depend
earth, but this is quite inadequate to explain the large signals upon the constants assumed for the ionosphere. It may happen
received at great distances. In a second paper49 he gave the that one mode is less attenuated than the others, so that it pre-
theory of propagation of waves in the space between two con- dominates at a point sufficiently far from the sender. The
ducting spherical surfaces, on the assumption that the outer one expression for the received signal would then be particularly
had perfect conductivity, and the inner one—the earth's surface simple. On the other hand, if many modes have nearly the same
—had finite conductivity. Watson's method has been extended attenuation coefficient, they must all be included in calculating
by later workers35-44 to the case where the outer spherical the received signal.
surface is also imperfectly conducting. If the ionosphere is assumed to be a homogeneous, sharply
The space between the earth's surface and the ionosphere can bounded region, the attenuation coefficient for any one mode
be regarded as a waveguide in which a number of "modes" can be calculated in terms of its electrical conductivity and its
can be propagated. In a guide with perfectly conducting height above the ground. From the observed attenuation of
bounding surfaces, only a limited number of modes can be waves of very low frequency it is therefore possible to estimate
propagated without appreciable attenuation. This number is the conductivity of the reflecting layer. At the level of about
approximately equal to twice the width of the guide, measured 70 km, taken by Bremmer35 as appropriate for the daytime
in wavelengths. Modes of higher order than these are heavily reflection of these waves, the electron collision frequency cannot
attenuated, and are sometimes called "evanescent modes." * The two progressive plane waves which make up a single "mode" arc not, of
When the guide surfaces are imperfectly conducting, this division course, to be confused with the reflected rays of different order which are considered
in the ray picture.
234 BRACEWELL, BUDDEN, RATCLIFFE, STRAKER AND WEEKES: THE IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION OF
be less than about 106 sec- 1 , from which Bremmer has deduced
that the electron density is about 2 500 per cm3.
Rydbeck44 has made a thorough study of the extension of the
Watson method to an imperfectly conducting ionosphere. His
numerical calculations, however, refer mainly to waves polarized
with the electric vector horizontal, and it is not clear how far
they can be applied also to vertically polarized waves. He dis-
cussed the cases where the ionosphere is (a) a homogeneous,
sharply bounded medium, (b) a region of finite thickness in which
the ionization density varies parabolically with height, and (c) a
region in which the ionization density varies as the square of
the height above the bottom edge. He showed that for low-
frequency waves the behaviour in all these three cases is similar.
Hence, for propagation to great distances it is .sufficient to con-
sider the ionosphere as homogeneous and sharply bounded. He
concluded that, in the daytime, the constants are very similar to
those suggested by Bremmer, and he also showed that a large
number of the modes all have nearly the same attenuation.
(9.2) Calculations in Terms of Reflected Rays
Theories which discuss the reflection of a plane wave from the
ionosphere may be divided into two groups: (a) those which
treat the ionosphere as a sharply bounded homogeneous medium;
(6) those which take account of the finite rate of variation of ion
density and collision frequency with height.
(9.2.1) Ionosphere Treated as a Sharply Bounded Homogeneous
Medium.
Yokoyama and Namba52 pointed out that, for a homogeneous
medium, the quasi-Brewster angle depends on the electron
density and on the ratio of the electron collision frequency v,
to the angular frequency p, of the wave. If v > p the medium
behaves like a metallic reflector and the "Brewster angle" is
nearly 90° (grazing incidence). If v < p the medium is like a
dielectric, and the Brewster angle depends on the properties
assumed for the ionosphere and is probably about 30°. For
transmission over long distances, the curvature of the earth
ensures that no ray can have an angle of incidence at the iono-
sphere greater than 80°.
Yokoyama and Namba suggested that during the day the
ionosphere behaves like a metallic reflector, and at night it is
like a dielectric. During the sunset or sunrise period the
Brewster angle changes from 30° to 90°, and at some moment
passes through a value equal to the angle of incidence. In this
way they attempted to explain the minimum which occurs in the
signals received from distant stations near sunrise and sunset.
Bremmer35 discussed the reflection of individual rays from a
sharply bounded ionosphere of the type he had also assumed in
his calculation by the method of modes (v = 106sec~1;
JV=2-5OOcm-3—see Section 9.12) and deduces curves
(Bremmer,35 Figs. 64, 65) showing the intensity of the various
reflected rays as a function of distance for frequencies of 30 and
300 kc/s.
To account for the polarization of the wave reflected from the
ionosphere it is necessary to consider the effect of the earth's
magnetic field. The theory of the reflection of plane waves at
the surface of a homogeneous medium with a magnetic field
present has been given by Voigt,47 who was concerned with the
theory of the magneto-optical Kerr effect. Bremmer35 has dis-
cussed the case where the medium contains free electrons and
has given formulae for finding the reflection coefficients, but he
has shown that the analysis in the general case is very complex.
It is probable that the assumption of a sharp boundary is
unjustified and that the changes of ionization density with height
occur in a distance which is an appreciable fraction of a wave-
length. A satisfactory theory must therefore take account of
the finite rate of variation of ionization density with height.
(9.2.2) Ionosphere Treated as an Inhomogeneous Medium.
At frequencies which are great enough, the ionosphere can be
treated at any one level as a homogeneous medium to which
the Appleton-Hartree magneto-ionic formula can be applied.
The characteristics of the medium must then be assumed to vary
slowly with height, and under these conditions an incident ray is
split into two components, the ordinary and extraordinary rays,
which are propagated independently. Booker33 has discussed
this "ray" treatment and has emphasized that with low and very
low frequencies reflection probably occurs near the level where
the complex refractive index changes by a large amount in one
wavelength. This level might be determined by the gradient of
ionization density, but is more probably determined by the
gradient of the collision frequency. He has discussed an example
where reflection of this type occurs for frequencies below about
30 kc/s, but not for higher frequencies. On this model the fre-
quencies just greater than 30 kc/s would be absorbed, and those
considerably greater would be reflected from the level where the
refractive index approached zero, as with high-frequency waves.
Booker did not attempt to solve the problem completely, or to
indicate the polarization of the resulting reflected wave. At the
lowest frequencies the two magneto-ionic components are not
propagated independently, and the methods of geometrical
optics are no longer applicable.
It is possible to find the nature of the reflected wave by
deducing the differential equations for propagation in a stratified
medium, and solving them for a given variation of electron
density and collision frequency. Several authors (Gans,40
Forsterling,39 Hartree,42 Epstein,38 Rawer43) have investigated
this problem with various assumptions about the height-variation
of electron density and collision frequency in the case where
there is no magnetic field. A very full discussion of this problem
has been given by Rydbeck.45
The differential equations for a medium with a superimposed
magnetic field were first given by Hartree,41 and Wilkes50 has
given solutions for frequencies near 16 kc/s and vertical incidence.
In particular he discussed a case in which the ionization density
N is proportional to the square of the height above the bottom
of the layer, the collision frequency is constant, and the earth's
magnetic field is vertical. He found that this model will explain
the diurnal changes of height of reflection of the waves of 16 kc/s
incident nearly vertically, but could not account for all the
observed changes of amplitude. He concluded that amplitude
changes are produced by absorption at a level below that where
reflection occurs. In a later paper51 he extended the theory to
oblique incidence. Stanley46 found that some of Wilkes's con-
clusions must be modified in order to explain the variation of
Mi?j_ with frequency at midday in summer. He showed that a
particular model, in which the electron density N varies expo-
nentially with height, can account for most of the observed
behaviour. In this model there is a region below the level of
reflection, the "tail" of the exponential, which plays an important
part in determining the variation of amplitude of the reflected
wave with frequency and with time of day.
(10) CONCLUSIONS
An endeavour has been made to summarize the experimental
facts concerning the propagation of waves of low and very low
frequency over distances up to about 1 000 km, and particularly
to stress those which will require to be explained by any satis-
factory theory. Various tentative hypotheses about the structure
of the ionosphere immediately suggest themselves, but any dis-
cussion of theoretical explanations has been intentionally
avoided. In order, however, to prepare the way for such
explanations in the future an outline of the existing theories has
been included in Section 9.
 LOW- AND VERY-LOW-FREQUENCY RADIO WAVES OVER DISTANCES LESS THAN 1000 KM
In the authors' opinion the most important facts about radio
propagation in the range of frequencies here considered are the
following:
(a) The way in which the ionospheric reflection coefficient
varies with frequency for steeply incident waves (Fig. 4).
(b) The changes in (i) "apparent" height of reflection,
(ii) polarization, and (iii) reflection coefficient as the distance of
transmission is increased (Sections 3.2, 4.4, 5.3).
(c) The timing of effects occurring near sunrise, and the way
in which the time alters with the obliquity of reflection from the
ionosphere (Section 6).
(d) The different effects of sudden ionospheric disturbances on
waves of different frequencies propagated over different distances
(Section 7, Table 3, and Fig. 13).
(e) The remarkably regular behaviour of waves of 16kc/s
reflected at nearly vertical incidence, contrasted with the irregular
behaviour on frequencies near lOOkc/s (Section 5.1 and Figs. 9
and 11).
(/) The extended duration of the after-effects of an intense
ionospheric storm on that part of the ionosphere concerned with
the reflection of these frequencies (Section 8).
(11) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Since this paper summarizes the results of several other
papers1"10 it is obvious that it could not have been written without
the help of all those organizations and individuals whose great
assistance has been acknowledged in the detailed papers. They
are too numerous to mention here in detail, but the authors
would like to take the opportunity of thanking them all for their
help. They would particularly like to express their gratitude to
Dr. M. V. Wilkes, their collaborator in two pre-war papers, to
whom was due the valuable suggestion of the telephone-line
technique used after the war in the phase-reference method
(Section 1.3.2).
The work surveyed formed a substantial part of a programme
of radio research supported at the Cavendish Laboratory by a
generous grant from the Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research for which the authors wish to take this opportunity of
expressing their thanks.
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