Energy flow, Ecosystems, and the Environment

Environment: the conditions in which an organism lives, it includes biotic and abiotic factors.

Habitat: the particular place with a distinct set of conditions where a community of organisms lives. for example, tropical rainforest,
under a log, etc.

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Population: a group of individuals of the same species living and breeding together in the same place at the same time

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Community: all the organisms of different species living and interacting together in the same habitat.

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Ecosystem: a stable unit consisting of a community of organisms in the same place, which interact with each other and with the
environment (biotic and abiotic factors), in which they live.

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Niche: The role of an organism within a habitat, it includes what it eats, what eats it, the way it reproduces, the temperature range

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it tolerates, its habitat, behavioural responses, and any other factors that describe its pattern of living.

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Ecologists describes an organism’s habitat as its address and its ecological niche as its occupation. so several organisms may inhabit
the same habitat but occupy different niches within it. For example, food niches in woodland – top predator = fox; primary
consumer = rabbit; tree-dwelling herbivore = squirrel, etc.
State the niche of a large tree t4
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Biomes – the major ecosystems characterized by large, distinctive complex of plant communities created and maintained
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by climate.
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 How ecosystems evolve
Ecological succession
It is the process by which communities of organisms colonise an area and over time they are replaced by more varied organisms.
Characteristics of all successions
• The initial environment is hostile and extreme. First colonisers are called pioneer species
• Pioneer organisms are highly adapted to withstand hostile conditions

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• The abiotic factors in this environment mainly determine what species are present since few species can tolerate such conditions

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so in the initial stages the biodiversity is low.
• The initial colonisers modify the environment to make it less extreme

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• existing plants provide increasing dead organic matter and nitrates so soil develops, they provide shade and shelter, reduce wind

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speed to reduce transpiration etc. so improve the environment so more plants now able to establish and grow so early colonisers
are outcompeted by later colonisers (e.g. grasses shade out mosses, trees shade out grasses) so community changes so more

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plants can grow so biodiversity increases.
• As number of different species present increases so there will be more microhabitats for organisms to exploit/greater variety of

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food plants for associated organisms/greater variety of feeding niches so biodiversity of associated animal community will change
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In the latter stages biotic factors largely determine which organisms can survive, e.g. predation, grazing, competition etc.
The stable end point community is characteristic and is called the climax community usually dominated by trees. It is in
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equilibrium with the environment so undergoes little if any further change.
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Seral stages – stages in a succession with plants and animal communities of increasing complexity.
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Xerosere – succession under dry, exposed conditions where water supply is an abiotic factor limiting growth of plants, at least
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initially.
Primary succession: When the succession sequence starts in new habitats with no soil and no previous community. it is the first
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stage of the ecological succession of plant life from abiotic land with no soil to fully support plant ecosystems (e.g., a forest).
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It can occur from a bare rock formed due to volcanic eruption, glaciers or sand dune.
Primary succession from a bare rock
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 A good example of primary succession takes place is after a volcanic eruption. Unlike secondary succession, which refers to succession
after anthropogenic activity or an environmental disaster (such as a forest fire) primary succession occurs on the geologic timescale,
over thousands of years
▪ It starts with an empty inorganic surface. The first organisms are opportunists or pioneer species.
▪ The first organisms to colonise the bare rock are lichens but they are only able to grow when water is available.
▪ These organisms penetrate the rock surface causing it to break and metabolic wastes dissolves the rock surface leading to the

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formation of a little soil and dead organisms become humus.
▪ The lichens are replaced by mosses. These, in turn, give way to more complex plants like ferns and species of flowering plant (grass)

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to colonise the area.
▪ Grasses and ferns establish root systems and more soil develops and the depth of soil increases.

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▪ Over time the grass area is replaced by small woody plants as they have long root that can stabilize in deep soil, which give way to

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bigger trees and finally, after a few hundred years, large trees take over.
▪ The large trees represent the climax community because succession stops at this point.

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Succession in aquatic system

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Succession is an important ecological process associated with slow flowing streams and rivers. Some of the plants have leaves that

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float on the surface. Their roots trap particles of silt carried in the water and this forms mud. As the water becomes shallower, these
floating plants are replaced by upward growing plants.
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Sand dune succession in coastal areas
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Sand dunes occur in many coastal areas and are a good example of succession. Succession is a gradual process and the time scale
involved prevents us from sitting in one place and observing successional changes. If we walk, however, from the sea shore in to the
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sand dunes we will pass through different areas which represent different stages in succession.
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• We will start nearest the sea on a sandy shore, above high tide level. Some plants, such as sea couch grass and lyme grass, are
able to colonise and survive in the bare sand. Their roots form a dense network that binds sand particles together and, as a
result, sand starts to pile up and form the fore dunes.

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 • Marram-grass dominated dunes are called yellow dunes or mobile dunes – yellow because there is very little humus in the sand;
mobile because they are continually changing shape as the wind scours the face and blows the sand. This is a very harsh
environment and few plants can survive in these conditions.
• There is very little organic matter, so the sand does not retain water very well. It will dry out rapidly after rain. Important soil
nutrients such as nitrogen are in short supply, but sea spray results in high concentrations of sodium and calcium ions. Very few
plants can grow here but one that does is marram grass.

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• We call species such as sea couch grass, lyme grass and marram grass pioneer species because they are the first plants to
colonise the area.

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• Now we will go inland to the area of grey dunes or fixed dunes. They are called grey dunes because humus in the sand colours

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them grey; they are referred to as fixed dunes because the sand is no longer being blown about, so they are much more stable.
• The roots of marram grass bind the particles of sand and the leaves act as a windbreak. The wind velocity is lower so less sand is

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blowing about. Dead material falls from the marram grass and is broken down by soil bacteria. The amount of humus is higher, so

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the developing soil retains moisture better and the concentration of important soil nutrients such as nitrates rises. Other plants
can now grow and they gradually replace marram grass.

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• We are beginning to arrive at a situation where: The environment is less harsh. There are more species and a greater species
diversity. In this environment it is biotic factors, such as competition, that determine whether particular species survive.

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• The process of succession continues. The species found on these grey dunes change their environment in such a way that they
are replaced by other species. Dune scrub starts to develop. Hawthorn and elder grow and shade out the shorter vegetation.
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• Ultimately woodland develops. We have reached a stage where no further change takes place. This is the climax community.
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Secondary succession: Sometimes established communities are suddenly disrupted and totally destroyed. This occurs, for
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example, when fire destroys a large area of vegetation; occasionally it occurs as a result of human activities. In these situations,
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soil is already formed and present – it is just the existing biota that has been abruptly removed. It starts on bare soil where
there had previously been a community. It starts with soil but no vegetation. For example, when rivers shift the courses, after
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fires and flood. The number of species is high from the start. The time to get to a climax community is short. Early colonizer is
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the grass as they have underground stem that can avoid (staying dormant) harsh conditions.
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Climax community – it is the final stage of succession and it is a stable and self-sustaining community that consists of a few
dominant species of plants and animal along with some co-dominant species therefore; the composition of the type and
number of organisms remains same provided the conditions do not change. The nature of the climax community depends very
much on the environmental
conditions, such as climate, the soil and which species are available. Biodiversity and range of species at this stage is high and
relatively constant. It is of two types;
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 Climatic climax community – it is a stable community determined by prevailing climatic condition.
Plagioclimax community – It is a deflected climax community and it is a final stable sub climax community which is partly the
results of human intervention.
You can deflect a succession by preventing the next stage. Grazing does this, managing this process affects biodiversity. A deflected
succession might result in new species becoming dominant.
Grazing, mowing or burning may be used to deflect succession.

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Competition in succession - Conditions at each stage are different. Different species have different adaptations, organisms with best

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suited adaptations for the prevailing conditions will survive, reproduce and colonise the area.

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The effect of abiotic factors on populations
Abiotic factors: The non-living elements (physical and chemical factors) of the habitat of an organism that determine abundance

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and distribution of organisms.

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Abundance - it is the number of a particular organism
Distribution - it is where the organism is found

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Abiotic factors of a terrestrial habitat are of three types, relating to:
• Climate – factors such as solar radiation, temperature, rainfall and wind speed

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• Soil factors (Edaphic Factors) - such as the parent rock, soil texture, soil water, soil minerals, organic matter and soil air.
• Topography – factors such as slope and aspect of the land, and altitude.
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1. Light Intensity - (Measurement Technique – Light Meter)
Light is measured at different parts of a habitat at different times of the day, and different seasons. In aquatic system, we use a
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Secchi disc to measure water transparency or turbidity in bodies of water. The disc is mounted on a line, and lowered slowly
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down in the water. The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is taken as a measure of the transparency of the water.
Significance of light to organisms
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Plants Animals
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Photosynthesis, phototropism, photoperiodism (inducing Hunting, finding a mate, sleep cycle, behaviour (nocturnal and
flowering and germination of seeds) of many plants, and in the diurnal), migration and hibernation, Light enables animals to
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timing of reproduction see and be seen

Light is important in photolysis of water and exciting electrons from chlorophyll during photophosphorylation.
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The length of daily illumination and the intensity of the light are determined by latitude, season, aspect (slope), time of day, and the
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extent of cloud cover.

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There are two ecosystems where Light becomes a limiting Factor:

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 Rain Forest – it has tall trees that form canopy so, light reaching the floor is limited. a woodland is stratified into layers from the
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canopy above, to the shrub layer below, the field layer (herbaceous plants) and ground layer (mosses). Each layer has particular
plant life adapted to the light regime, and its own fauna (animals). Plants in the ground layer have dark green leaves to absorb
more light.
 Aquatic Ecosystem- light can penetrate up to 200m depth if it is clear. plant life is largely confined to a region close to the surface

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 Adaptations of plants in a Rain Forest:
 Trees are very tall in order to get more sunlight.
 Trees have broad leaves so that maximum sunlight can be obtained.
 Trees have less branching at the bottom.
 Plants present on the floor of a rainforest have more chlorophyll to absorb light; as a result leaves are dark green in colour.
Note: microbial decomposition is fast in rain forest, this is because optimum temperature, high water and food availability.

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2. Temperature - (Measurement technique - Thermometer or Thermocouple)

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Effect of temperature on organisms
Enzyme activity Rate of diffusion Membrane permeability transpiration

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• The effect of temperature on organisms is direct, temperature influences the rate of all biochemical reactions.
• Every organism has a range of temperature within which it can grow and successfully reproduce.

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• It is the extremes of temperature that determine where an organism can live, not the average.
• Very few organisms grow if the temperature of their environment falls outside the range 0–40 °C.

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• Microbial decomposition is faster at tropical region and very slow at arctic region

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• At low temperatures, ice crystals may form in cells, disrupting the cytoplasm. High temperatures denature enzymes, although
certain bacteria found in hot springs have evolved tolerance of temperatures around 80 °C.
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• Plants have xerophytic adaptations to withstand high temperature.
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• In animals, temperature affects both physiological as well as behavioural adaptations. During winter, mammals produce a lot of
heat to compensate the heat loss.
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Light intensity Temperature Rate of photosynthesis Rate of respiration

Low Low Low Low
Low High Low High
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High Low Low Low

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High High High High

3. Wind Speed - (Measurement Technique – Anemometer)

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Wind Speed has significant effect on land ecosystems.

Significance of wind speed to plants:
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• Wind is important for pollination and dispersal of seed • Wind Speed also affects transpiration
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• It increases cooling and water loss • It also has a devastating effect

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Adaptations of plants to withstand high wind speed:

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Long root system short and branched trees

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4. Water Current - (Measurement Technique – Measure the time taken for a floating object to reach a specific point:

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 Adaptations of plants and animals to water current
Plants Animals

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• Streamlined body

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• Have substantially flattened bodies.
• Strong legs are spread to the sides and each ends with

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• Have long, thin, flexible stems that offer little the single tarsal claw.

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resistance to the current, and • Strong swimmers
• Strong root systems to hold the plants firmly in place. • Be able to attach to a surface and resist the force of

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• Dissected leaves the water
5. Availability of Water

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in a terrestrial environment, this depends on:
 Precipitation (Rainfall, Hail, Snow etc.) - The greater the precipitation, the more water will be available to the soil.
 The rate of evaporation
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 The rate of loss by drainage through the soil
 Number of trees – the greater the number of plants, the more water will be retained.
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 type of soil
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Rain fall is measured using rain gauge, collecting water over a period of time
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Significance of water to organism

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reagent in many biochemical reaction it dissolves many polar molecules and ions transport medium in xylem, phloem, blood
cell turgidity in plants acts as a hydro skeleton in some animals fruits and seed dispersal
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Thermal buffer High surface tension High latent heat of vapourisation

Adaptations of plants to overcome dry conditions

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• Land ecosystems (deserts) are most affected by the availability of water.

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• Plants in the desert have very short lifecycle within a small span of time (small rain) they germinate, grow, flower, produce seeds
and die during harsh conditions.
• But the seeds stay dormant until they reach favourable conditions (next rain). If the lifecycle is too long for a plant, they will not be
able to complete their life cycle. So they become extinct.
Plants with xerophytic adaptations can survive, when the availability of water is less.
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 Animals have the following adaptations:
-They have long loop of Henle (Therefore, they can absorb a lot of water)
-Animals store a large amount of fat, when water is scarce, the fat is broken down to produce metabolic water.

6. Oxygen availability - (Measurement Technique – Oxygen Probe)

a sample of water from a water body taken then an oxygen probe or chemical test is used to determine oxygen
concentration.

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• Aquatic ecosystems are mostly affected by oxygen availability.
• When the temperature is too high, the solubility of oxygen in water is lower; therefore, there will be less oxygen in the aquatic

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ecosystem.
• If the water is fast flowing, there will be enough oxygen dissolved in it to support life.

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• Mangrove forests have soil with no oxygen; hence their roots cannot survive. In order to overcome this problem, the plants have

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aerial roots to absorb oxygen.
Adaptations to changing oxygen concentration in aquatic animals –

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In still, undisturbed water, the oxygen concentration may be very low, with anaerobic conditions in the mud at the bottom
- Large surface area to volume ratio e.g. Amoeba and daphnia (water fleas), flattened bodies- Increasing surface area to volume ratio

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e.g. flat worm

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- During winter, haemoglobin is made to compensate for the reduction in the O2 content
- Gaseous exchange takes place over their entire body surface. A steep concentration gradient is maintained as the O 2 quickly diffuses
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into the capillaries below the epidermis.
- Respiratory pigments- This enhances the O2- carrying capacity of the blood. This enables O2 to be picked up readily in situations where
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it is more abundant and released where it is needed.

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- Waving tails- When O2 concentration is low; tubifex wave its tails rhythmically in the water. The lower the concentration of O 2 in the
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water, the greater the rate of tail waving.

- Respiratory structures-
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a. Breathing tubes or siphons

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▪ Aquatic insects that live in still water rely on the atmosphere for their O 2 supply.
These insects are able to rise to the water surface, in order to obtain air.
▪ Some larvae have breathing tubes which are telescopic and can be extended to
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the water surface (tube breaks the water surface & reaches into the air).
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Edaphic Factors – it relates to the structure of the soil and can affect the various populations associated with it. Soil includes: -Soil
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texture, minerals, soil air, soil water, organic matter and soil pH.
Edaphic factor How to measure
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Soil texture relative proportions of different-sized particles affect plants and animals, among other things,
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aeration and drainage affect more. Hand assessment of soil determines soil texture

Availability of Soil sample removed then weighing, drying at 105oC and reweighing until two consecutive masses
water become equal or using a moisture probe the water content can be measured.
soil minerals Soil sample removed and then Gardener's test kits can test the levels of important nutrients such as nitrate,
phosphate and potassium

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 Soil pH If the pH of the soil changes, this may affect the survival of bacteria in the soil, rate of decomposition,
availability of minerals to plants and recycling of material. Soil sample removed and then pH is measured
using a Soil pH kit
Soil organic The dry soil sample can be weighed, burnt in a crucible and reweighed. Any organic matter is burnt off, which
accounts for any difference in mass.
matter
Temperature Insert a temperature (in situ test) probe into the soil and take the reading
Soil air Soil sample removed without disturbing and rate of drainage is calculated.

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Depending on these factors, Soil can be divided into three categories: * Sandy Soil, Loamy Soil, and Clay Soil
Sandy Loam Clay

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Texture Large Particles Mixture of sandy and clay Small Particles

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Air High Moderate Low
Water Less Moderate High

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pH - Moderate Lowest

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The effect of biotic factors on populations
Biotic factors: The living elements of a habitat that determine abundance and distribution of organisms. These include: Predation;

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finding a mate; territory; parasitism and disease and competition.
Predation Disease Competition Territory Finding a mate
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Predation – predation an ecological interaction in which a predator (a member of one species) catches, kills, and consumes prey
usually a member of another species.
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• Look at the part of the graph in Figure above between points A and B. It shows the prey population increasing. Therefore, there
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will be more food available for the predator population. The predators will breed successfully and their numbers will increase.
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• With more predators, however, more prey will be killed so we see, between points B and C, a fall in prey numbers. There is now
less food for the predators the rate of reproduction is slower than the rate of death therefore, their population starts to fall.
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• Numbers of prey rise again as rate of reproduction is faster than their rate of death and the pattern will be repeated.
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Parasitism and disease –

• Parasitism is one form of symbiosis, in which the parasite lives on or in another organism, the host, for all or much of its life cycle.
• The parasite depends on the host for food and shelter and the host receives no benefit at all.
• With little biodiversity, if one organism is affected by disease it will have a major impact on the small number of other
organisms in the ecosystem.
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 • Diseased animals will be weakened and often do not reproduce successfully. Sick predators cannot hunt well, and
diseased prey animals are more likely to be caught.
• Parasites and other infectious diseases spread more rapidly when there is a high population density, as individuals are in
close proximity to each other
• With little biodiversity there will be few other available food resources. Also, disease is more likely to spread between
individuals where there are few buffer species.

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• In a more diverse community, changes due to disease are likely to have less of an effect as there is much more variety of

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food choice and more buffering organisms to prevent spread of disease.

Territory - It is an area held and defended by an animal or group of animals against other organisms which may be of the

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same or different species. This is useful because the animals will make sure that they have enough resources to bring the

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young ones up.

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Competition - Plants compete for space, light and mineral nutrients. Animals compete for food, shelter and a mate. To lose out in
competition for resources means the individual grows and reproduces more slowly or, in extreme cases, dies. When the fastest

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growing competitor eliminates a slower growing competitor, it takes over the area completely. This is known as the principle of
competitive exclusion.

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Interspecific competition - It is struggle for limited resources (such as food, space, water, light, etc.) between members of
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different species, and in general one species will out-compete another one, for example, for space, food, etc.
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Intraspecific competition - It is a struggle for limited resources between members of the same species. This is more significant than
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interspecific competition, since member of the same species have the same niche and so compete for exactly the same resources.
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Intraspecific competition tends to have a stabilising influence on population size. If the population gets too big, intraspecific
competition increases, so the population falls again. If the population gets too small, intraspecific competition decreases, so the
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population increases again, for example, for territory, mates, food.

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Intraspecific competition Interspecific competition

Between members of the same species Between members of different species
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Affect the abundance of a particular species Affect the abundance and distribution of species
Less chance for extinction Can cause extinction
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Finding a mate – there must be males and females so mates can be found. Availability of mates has a big effect on the
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abundance of animal in an area.

a decreased proportion of males to females results in less eggs fertilized and difficulty in finding a mate that a
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decrease in numbers will decrease the genetic diversity, decreasing numbers further
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 Factors affecting the population size
This can be divided into two
Both abiotic and biotic factors can be density-independent or density-dependent – for example, if there are relatively few plants in
an area, light intensity is density-independent – the amount of light that falls is affected by cloud cover, day or night, seasons, etc.,
but not living organisms. In a woodland the amount of light that reaches plants on the ground is very much dependent on other
living organisms as well as all the abiotic factors.

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Density – dependent factors – are based on the numbers of organisms present so will tend to affect the abundance of an organism.

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Biotic factors are density dependent and some abiotic factors depending on the type of ecosystem.

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Density-independent factors - density-independent factors that influence population regulation regardless of population density.
Density-independent factors tend to limit the distribution of species –, for example, abiotic factors, such as rainfall or temperature,

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will affect the overall conditions and therefore which species can survive in a particular area
Abiotic factors are density independent factors. Example: rainfall and light intensity
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The distribution and abundance of any organism varies because of the abiotic factors e.g. amount of light or temperature, and
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the biotic factors e.g. predators, parasites, competition for food. When these factors are favourable organisms survive, grow
and reproduce successfully. When these conditions are unfavourable, organisms don’t survive, grow or reproduce as
successfully.
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Investigating abundance and distribution of organisms

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Ecological study
Sampling methods to determine the distribution and abundance of organisms in a habitat
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In any habitat it is clearly impossible to count all the organisms so we need to take a representative sample i.e. a sample within which the numbers
of the different organisms or species is representative of the whole area in the same proportions.
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Quadrat - Quadrat sampling is most effective for stationary species, such as the populations of different tree species
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in a forest.
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▪ a sampling frame used for estimating population size; frames can be real or virtual.
▪ Quadrats can be used to estimate the population of different species in a large tract of grassland
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▪ Gridded quadrat is suitable for counting small stationary organisms because counting is easier, more precise and reliable
▪ it is easier to use a quadrat to estimate percentage cover. This is because it has a fixed area so sampling becomes valid thus comparison is
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possible. Furthermore, it is easy so can be repeated hence more reliable.

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Types of quadrats
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Frame quadrats – easy to use, portable, and useful for measuring abundance in terms of individual counts or percentage
cover.
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Point quadrats – again portable and easy to use, pinpoint individual organisms, can be used to calculate percentage
cover.
Permanent quadrats – in place all the time. Can be much bigger than frame and point quadrats. Allows data collection
from same places over time, which makes for very reliable data – but disadvantage is that the points are fixed so less
randomness after initial positioning.

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 Two methods of sampling

Random Sampling Systematic (Transect)

• Quadrats placed at randomly generated points • Quadrats placed at regular intervals
• Used where habitat is uniform • Used to show zonation
• Removes observer bias • Used where there is continuous variation
• Used in a large area • Used to sample linear habitats (e.g. a roadside)

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• Used if time is limited
• Does not show distribution • Does show distribution

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Species density is a measure of how many individuals there are per unit area – for example, per square metre.
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The number of individuals that you have counted is divided by the total area of all your quadrats. It is not always
possible to count individual plants and animals because of the way that they grow. For example, many animals and
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plants grow over surfaces forming a covering and it is almost impossible to count individuals. How do you decide how
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many grass plants there are in a quadrat that you have placed on a lawn? In this case, you can estimate the percentage
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cover of the species within your quadrat.

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Procedure

Plan how you are going to collect reliable and valid data that will test your hypothesis. You need to make the following decisions.
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• The most appropriate sampling method to use (e.g. random or systematic sampling). The position and length of any transect to use. You need
to make sure your transect extends far enough to sample all the possible zones.
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• The size and number of quadrats to use, and their positioning.

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• The species of plants and animals you are to record, you can focus on those which would enable you to test the hypothesis under investigation
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(you may need to find out more about the species concerned using secondary sources).

• The method to use for measuring abundance.

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• The abiotic factor(s) you are going to record, although you may be investigating the correlation between, for example, soil moisture and the
distribution of plant species, there may be other factors that could affect the distribution of organisms; it is not possible to control these
variables but you can measure them and take them into account when analysing your results.

• The appropriate method for measuring the abiotic factor(s).

• How the data will be analysed.

• How to avoid or minimise any risks when completing the fieldwork.

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 Random sampling - Comparing two sites - Frequently ecologists may notice a distinct pattern that does not show a gradual change and may be
related to one or more factors at the two sites. For example, the vegetation in one area of a field may be very different to the rest of the field, or
the species found upstream and downstream of an outflow pipe discharging into a river may seem to differ. A transect may not be the best method
for this type of investigation; instead random sampling of each area may be more appropriate.

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• A map of the habitat (e.g. meadowland) is marked out with gridlines along two edges of the area to be analysed.

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• Co-ordinates for placing quadrats are obtained as sequences of random numbers, using computer software, or a calculator, or published tables.
• Within each quadrat, the individual species are identified, and then the density, frequency, cover or abundance of each species is estimated.

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Place the quadrat randomly at least 10 points.
• Density, frequency, cover, or abundance estimates are then quantified by measuring the total area of the habitat (the area occupied by the
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population) in square metres. The mean density, frequency, cover or abundance can be calculated, using the equation:
• This produces a valid representative sample.
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Transects - One of the easiest patterns to spot is zonation in the vegetation and animal distribution – as you go from one place to another the
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vegetation and animal distribution changes. A zonation can often be explained by a gradual change (a gradient) in one or more physical or abiotic
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factors. A transect is a line along which systematic records can be made.

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Some communities show a trend of variation in a particular direction. Examples include a seashore, pond margin, salt marsh or even land with a
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simple change from dry to wet soil.

This is used to determine
• The abundance of particular species • And the pattern of distribution of particular species
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Two types of transects

Line Transect:
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Figure 1 One way of laying out a tape measure for a transect study. Quadrats are laid down at regular intervals along the tape and the abundance
of species within each quadrat is recorded

• Used to visually illustrate how species change along a line due to a gradual change in the habitat
• Used where time is limited

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Belt Transect: This is similar to the line transect method but gives information on abundance as well as presence, or absence of species. It may be
considered as a widening of the line transect to form a continuous belt, or series of quadrats.

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Describe a simple method to study a named ecosystem to see how the distribution of organisms is affected by a named abiotic factor.

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Describe a technique that you have used to study the distribution of a named organism within its habitat.

Hypothesis - As the distance from river bank increases, number of snails decreases
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Transect method is appropriate because conditions in the habitat change gradually across the river. Many transect lines were selected at the
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beginning based on similar abiotic conditions and the abiotic factors such as temperature, light intensity and humidity were measured and
monitored using relevant instrument along a 100m length. Three transects were taken and 0.5m x 0.5m quadrats were placed at 10m intervals
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along the transect line and the number of snails in each quadrat was counted. The same procedure was repeated with parallel transects and the
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mean number of snails per quadrat was counted at horizontal level. During the investigation boots and gloves were worn as safety precaution.

method of recording quantitative data - in table and presented by a scatter graph

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Hypothesis – number of elder seedlings is more in a horse grazed area compared to cattle grazed area
Random sampling is appropriate because the elder seedlings would be assumed to be evenly distributed in each area. Choose a grassland and
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divide it into two equal areas (50m x50m) based on similar abiotic conditions. The abiotic factors such as temperature, light intensity and humidity
were measured and monitored throughout using relevant instrument. Introduce five horses on one side and five cows on the other side of the
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grassland. After two weeks from the introduction of grazers, the measurements were taken. Two tapes were placed perpendicular to each other to
have two coordinates in each field, 0.5m x 0.5m quadrats were placed 10 times randomly in horse grazed area using random numbers generated
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from random number table and the number of elder seedlings in each quadrat was counted and then mean number of elder seedlings per quadrat
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was calculated. The same procedure was repeated with cattle grazed area and the mean number of elder seedlings was calculated. During the
investigation boots and gloves were worn as safety precaution.
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method of recording quantitative data - in table and presented by a bar graph

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Describe how to carry out a study of the distribution of bloodworm with varying oxygen concentration from a factory
outlet downstream river.

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