Ecology - the study of the interactions of living things with each other and their physical environment

Ecological Organization:

1. Population: all the members of a species inhabiting a given location

2. Community: all the interacting populations in a given area

3. Ecosystem: the living community and the physical environment functioning together as an independent and
relatively stable system

4. Biosphere: that portion of the earth where life exists

a. The biosphere is composed of numerous complex ecosystems.

b. An ecosystem involves interactions between abiotic (physical) and biotic (living) factors. The members of the community
in the ecosystem and environment must interact to maintain a balance.

An ecosystem is self-sustaining if the following requirements are met:

1. A constant source of energy and a living system capable of incorporating this energy into organic molecules.
2. 2. A cycling of materials between organisms and their environment.

In all environments, organisms with similar needs may compete with each other for resources, including food, space, water,
air, and shelter.

Abiotic factors - those physical and chemical factors which affect the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce

Some Abiotic Factors:

1. intensity of light
2. range of temperatures
3. amount of moisture
4. type of substratum (soil or rock type)
5. availability of inorganic substances such as minerals
6. supply of gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
7. pH

Each of the prior listed abiotic factors varies in the environment and, as such, may act as a limiting factor, determining the
types of organisms that exist in that environment.

Some examples:

1. A low annual temperature common to the northern latitudes determines in part the species of plants which can exist in
that area.

2. The amount of oxygen dissolved in a body of water will help determine what species of fish live there.

3. The dry environment of desert regions limits the organisms that can live there.

Carrying Capacity - the maximum number of ABAorganisms the resources of an area can support

- The carrying capacity of the environment is limited by the available abiotic and biotic resources, as well as the
ability of ecosystems to recycle the residue of dead organisms through the activities of bacteria and fungi.

Steady State - this occurs when the population remains relatively constant over a number of years. This will occur when
the number of births equals the number of deaths.

Biotic factors - all the living things that directly or indirectly affect the environment

** Thus, the organisms, their presence, parts, interaction, and wastes are all biotic factors.
Nutritional Relationships:

A. Autotrophs: can synthesize their own food from inorganic compounds and a usable energy source
B. Heterotrophs: can NOT synthesize their own food and are dependent on other organisms for their food

Types of Heterotrophs:

Saprophytes: include those heterotrophic plants, fungi, and bacteria which live on dead matter - AKA decomposers
Herbivores: plant-eating animals
Carnivores: meat-eating animals
Omnivores: consume both plants and meat

Types of Carnivores:

• Predators: animals which kill and consume their prey

• Scavengers: those animals that feed on other animals that they have not killed

Symbiotic Relationships:

• Symbiosis: living together with another organism in close association

Types of (symbiosis):

 MUTALISM  PARASITISM  COMMENSALISM

1.Commensalism: one organism is benefited and the other is unharmed

ex. barnacles on whales, orchids on tropical trees

2. Mutualism: both organisms benefit from the association

ex. nitrogen-fixing bacteria on legume nodules, certain protozoa within termites (also ruminants)
3. Parasitism: the parasite benefits at the expense of the host
ex. athlete's foot fungus on humans, tapeworm and heartworm in dogs

Food Chains and Webs:

• If an ecosystem is to be self-sustaining it must contain a flow of

energy.

• Those life activities that are characteristic of living organisms require

an expenditure of energy.

• The pathways of energy through the living components of an

ecosystem are represented by food chains and food webs.

• Producers convert the radiant energy of the sun into the chemical
energy of food.

A. Food chain: involves the transfer of energy from green plants through a series of organisms with repeated stages of
eating and being eaten

B. Food web: In a natural community, the flow of energy and materials is much more complicated than illustrated by any
one food chain.

Food Web Interactions:

1. Producers: (plants) -- the energy of the community is derived from the organic compounds in plants

- (grass in the web above)

2. Primary Consumer: (always a herbivore)

 - feeds on plants (mice, grasshoppers, and rabbits in the web above)

3. Secondary Consumer: (always a carnivore) - feeds upon other consumers (frogs, sparrows, snakes, and foxes
above) (The hawk is a secondary or 3rd level consumer depending on the availability of food.)

Omnivores may be primary or secondary consumers.

4. Decomposers: break down organic wastes and dead organisms to simpler substances (ex. bacteria of decay)

** Through decomposition, chemical substances are returned to the environment where they can be used by other living
organisms.

• There is a decrease in the overall energy in each level as you move up the food web.

• This means that there is much more energy in the producer level in a food web than at the consumer levels.

Also, this means that there is more energy at the primary consumer level than at the secondary consumer level.

Energy Flow:

• Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction, typically from the Sun, through photosynthetic organisms,
including green plants and algae, through herbivores, to carnivores, and finally decomposers.
• There is a decrease in the overall energy in each level as you move up the food web.
• This means that there is much more energy in the producer level in a food web than at the consumer levels.
• Also, this means that there is more energy at the primary consumer level than at the secondary consumer level.

Energy Transfer:

• Each consumer level of the food pyramid utilizes approximately 10% of its ingested nutrients to build new tissue.
• This new tissue represents food for the next feeding level.
• The remaining energy is lost in the form of heat and unavailable chemical energy. Eventually, the energy in an
ecosystem is lost and is radiated from the earth.
• Thus, an ecosystem can not survive without the constant input of energy from the sun.

Biomass - amount of organic matter

• The decrease of energy at each successive feeding level (trophic level) means that less biomass can be supported
at each level.

• Thus, the total mass of carnivores in a particular ecosystem is less than the total mass of the producers. (A pyramid
of biomass illustrates this.)

o level D = producers
A
o level C = primary consumers
o level B= secondary consumers B
o level A = tertiary consumers
C
D

• Above is a typical representation of a NY State terrestrial energy pyramid.

Succession - replacement of populations in habitat as it moves toward a stable state

(determined by changes in plants)

• Ecosystems tend to change with time until a stable system is formed.

 • The type of ecosystem that is formed depends on the climatic limitations of a given geographical area.
• The environment may be altered in substantial ways through the activities of organisms, including humans, or when
the climate changes.
• Although these alterations are sometimes abrupt (ex. Natural disasters), in most cases species replace others,
resulting in long-term gradual changes in ecosystems.
Pioneer Organisms:

• The first organisms to inhabit a given location (ex. lichens on bare rock)

• Pioneer organisms modify their environment, thus establishing conditions under which more advanced organisms
can live.

• (ex. seasonal dieback and erosion, for example, would create pockets of "soil" in the crevices and hollows of the
bare rock inhabited by the lichen)

• Each community modifies its environment, often making it more difficult for itself and, apparently, more favorable
for the following community which infiltrates the first community over a period of years.

Primary Succession: the development of plant communities on newly formed habitats that previously lacked plants (ex. a
lava flow)

• Animals which were once endangered but are presently successfully reproducing and increasing their numbers are
the bison, gray wolves and egrets.

• Endangered animals which are currently responding to conservation efforts and beginning to make a comeback are
the whooping crane, bald eagle, and peregrine falcon.

• ** The future of many species remains in doubt.

• Human activities that degrade ecosystems result in a loss of diversity in the living and nonliving environment. These
activities are threatening current global stability.

An example of a PRIMARY SUCCESSION ex. (Adirondack Bog Succession)

1. water plants at pond edge

2. sedges and sediments begin to fill pond
3. sphagnum moss and bog shrubs fill pond (Labrador tea & cranberries)
4. black spruce and larch
5. birches, maple, or fir

Secondary Succession: return of an area to its natural vegetation following a disruption or removal of the original climax
community

An example of a SECONDARY SUCCESSION

1. plowed field
2. annual grasses
3. shrubs and briers
4. cherries, alders, and birches
5. climax community –
- Northern N.Y. (hemlock, beech, maple)
- Southern N.Y. (oak, hickory)

Climax Community

• a self-perpetuating community in which populations remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their
environment

• ** The climax community of a region is always its dominant plant species.

 • Altered ecosystems may reach a point of stability that can last for hundreds or thousands of years.

• A climax community persists until a catastrophic change of a major biotic or abiotic nature alters or destroys it.

• (ex. forest fires, abandoned farmlands, floods, areas where the topsoil has been removed)

• After the original climax community has been destroyed, the damaged ecosystem is likely to recover in stages that
eventually result in a stable system similar to the original one.

• Ponds and small lakes, for example, fill in due to seasonal dieback of aquatic vegetation and erosion of their banks,
and eventually enter into a terrestrial succession terminating in a terrestrial climax community.

• FLORA - plant species - dominate in the sense that they are the most abundant food sources

• Plant succession is a major limiting factor for animal succession.

• Animal Succession- as the plant community changes so will the animals

Climax communities - are identified by the dominant plant species -- the one that exerts the most influence over the
other species present.

• Competition: occurs when two different species or organisms living in the same environment (habitat) utilize the
same limited resources, such as food, water, space, light, oxygen, and minerals.

• ** The more similar the requirements of the organisms involved, the more intense the competition.

Competitive Exclusion Principle

• If two different species compete for the same food source or reproductive sites, one species may be eliminated.
This establishes one species per niche in a community.
• Niche (Job): the organism's role in the community, particularly its role in relation to food with other species.
• Habitat - a place where a plant or animal can get the food, water, shelter and space it needs to live.
• Woodpeckers make holes in this cactus to live.
• When the woodpeckers are finished with this housing, the elf owl and the screech owl move in.
• The elf owl eats insects and the screech owl occupies the same habitat, but have different niches.

MATERIAL CYCLES

• In a self-sustaining ecosystem, materials must be cycled among the organisms and the abiotic environment.
• Thus the same materials can be reused.
• Materials constantly need to be recycled from the living and non-living environment so that materials can be reused
by different living organisms.

Carbon-Oxygen Cycle - involves the processes of respiration

and photosynthesis.

 In respiration, oxygen and glucose are combined

releasing energy and producing water and carbon
dioxide.

• In photosynthesis water and carbon dioxide along

with the energy from the sun are combined to
produce glucose (containing energy) and oxygen.

• Each process compliments the other and the

ecosystem maintains its balanced communities.

Nitrogen Cycle

• Nitrates (used by plants)

 • Build plant proteins
• Eaten by animals
• made into animal proteins
• Plants and animals die
• bacteria decay
• Ammonia (NH3)
• Nitrifying Bacteria
• Nitrates (used by plants)

Water Cycle

• Involves the processes of photosynthesis, transpiration,

evaporation and condensation, respiration, and excretion
• Evolutionary processes have resulted in a diversity of
organisms and a diversity of roles in ecosystems.
• Biodiversity - the differences in living things in an ecosystem
• Increased biodiversity increases the stability of an ecosystem.
• Increased biodiversity increases the chance that at least some
living things will survive in the face of large changes in the
environment.

Monoculture -- planting one species over a huge area

• Monoculture leaves an area more vulnerable to predation or

disease.

1. Biodiversity ensures the availability of a rich variety of genetic material that may lead to future agricultural or medical
discoveries with significant value to humans. (If this is lost we lose the sources of these materials for discovery)

2. Biodiversity adds aesthetic qualities to the environment.

Biomes of the Earth:

• BIOME - a large geographical community that has a particular type of Climax community (a dominant type of plant
(flora) and animal (fauna) life).

Aquatic Biomes

• Aquatic biomes represent the marine ecosystem on Earth

Characteristics:

• Temperatures do not vary as much as land biomes (water absorbs and releases heat)
• Organisms must maintain water balance

There are two types of Aquatic Biomes:

Marine Biomes-Oceans

• Salt water
• Composes 70% of the earths surface
• Contains many different organisms
• Provides most of the earths food nutrients
• Most oxygen is produced here
Fresh water Biomes - ponds, lakes, rivers and streams

What is a Habitat?

• A habitat is a place where a particular animal or plant species lives.

• An artificial habitat is a man made place.
Desert Savannah

• Super-dry air • Warm, hot climates

• Little rain – less than 10 inches a year
• High daytime temperatures
• Lots of wind
• Typical animals include insects, reptiles, birds,
and various mammals
Rain Forest
Forest
• The Rain Forest is made of 3 layers
• The first layer is the canopy
• The second layer is the understory
• The third is the forest floor
• The Rain Forest contains about 45% of all animal
species
Tundra
Marine
• Extremely short growing seasons (6 to 10 weeks)
• Long, cold, dark winters (6 to 10 months)
• Low Precipitation
• Snow provides insulation
• Wildlife includes birds, reindeer, foxes, bears,
seals, and walruses
• Major vegetation is grass
• Dry and rainy seasons
• Seasonal fires help maintain balance
• The Savannah is home to various reptiles,
rodents, birds, and large mammals such as
elephants, and zebras
• Covers 1/3 of the Earth’s area
• Dominated by trees and woody vegetation
• Precipitation is distributed evenly throughout the
year
• Animal life includes many things such as bears,
deer,and rodents
• Water covers nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface
• There are numerous species of plans and animals
who live here.
• These range in size from microscopic organisms
to the size of a 100 ft whale.

Prairie Zoo
• A place where people keep and display animals
• Temperatures vary summer to winter • A man made habitat
• Moderate rain fall • Zoos are important for 3 major reasons
• Seasonal drought and occasional fires • Recreation and education
• Typical animal life includes jack rabbits, deer, • Wild life conservation
foxes, coyotes, birds, and many other species • Scientific studies

Disruption of Existing Ecosystems

• Urbanization - growth of cities has destroyed land and wetlands ruining natural habitats

• Importation of Organisms - Organisms without any known predators in our area have accidentally been brought to
this side of the world.

• Examples: Japanese beetles, Gypsy Moths, Dutch elm disease.

• Since there are now natural enemies for these organisms, they have reproduced at a rapid rate and have caused a
lot of damage to plants and crops.

• Poor farming practices - overuse of fields, over grazing by animals and erosion of land.

• When crops are harvested, the plants which contain essential nutrients that should be returned to the soil are also
taken away.

• Therefore the ground is less fertile and will eventually not be able to support crops.

• Misuse of Pesticides - The use of pesticides has disrupted food chains.

• Examples: DDT has killed beneficial insects. DDT does not break down and eventually becomes concentrated at
dangerous levels within the soil.

Natural Ecosystem Processes

 • Natural ecosystems are involved in a wide variety of natural processes influencing humans and other organisms.
• The activities of humans in the environment are changing many of these natural processes in a harmful fashion.

Maintenance of atmospheric quality

• Human activities (namely Urbanization & Industrial Growth) have increased the amount of Pollutants in the
atmosphere, negatively affecting the environment (acid rain)

Generation of soils

• Agricultural practices have exposed soil to the weather resulting in great loss of topsoil.

Control of the water cycle

• The cutting of forests and other human activities have allowed increased uncontrolled runoff leading to increased
erosion and flooding.

Removal of Wastes

• Untreated sewage wastes and runoff from farms and feedlots have led to increased water pollution.

Energy Flow

• Some industries and nuclear plants have added thermal pollution to the environment. The release of some gases
from the burning of fossil fuels may be slowly increasing the Earth's temperature.
-- (Greenhouse Effect)

Major Greenhouse Gases

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

• Methane (CH4)
• Other man-made gases

Nutrient Recycling

• The use of packaging material which does not break down, burning of refuse, and the placing of materials in landfills
prevents the return of some useful materials to the environment.

Human Population Growth

1. The total population of humans has risen at a rapid rate, partly because of the removal of natural checks on
the population, such as disease.

2. The earth has finite resources, increasing human population and consumption places severe stress on natural
processes that renew some resources and deplete those resources which can not be renewed.

A lesson on overpopulation
- Kaibab National Forest - Arizona – deer

• 1906 - Stable population of 4,000 deer

• - Bounty was placed on their predators
• (1906-23) deer population swells and overgrazing begins -- over 6,000 predators killed
• (1924-25) of the 100,000 deer present -- over 75% die - chiefly of starvation & malnutrition
• 1939 - Fewer than 10,000 deer remained

The moral of the story… Destruction of natural enemies is not always good for a species -- it can lead to its extinction
or near extinction. (Will this also happen to Homo sapiens?)

Some specific human influences on Ecosystem Factors

A. Increasing numbers:
 • results from an increased human life span
• health advances largely led to this

B. Food: shortages and inadequate nutrition lead to starvation and malnutrition

- population growth is outpacing food production in many world regions

- starvation: body lacks sufficient calories for maintenance
- malnutrition: diet lacks specific substances needed by the body

C. Soil: much loss of fertile topsoil due to erosion and poor management

• the use of biocides has contaminated the soil (no prior assessment was taken of their environmental impact)
• some causes of topsoil loss include; cutting forests, farming dry grasslands, damming rivers, draining wetlands,
etc.
• much valuable farmland has been lost due to increasing urbanization & suburbanization

4. Water: cutting forests has led to increased, uncontrolled runoff

water pollution leaves water unfit for use and the living things remaining in it unfit for consumption (typical
water pollutants include phosphates, heavy metals, and PCB's)

Biomagnification

• increase in the concentration of a substance (poison) in living tissue as you move up the food chain

(ex. tuna and swordfish, water birds and birds of prey from DDT -- thin shelled eggs)

This has particularly hurt the peregrine falcon & bald eagle.

5. Wildlife: much destruction and damage has been done to many species (hunting, fishing, etc.)
ex. passenger pigeon, dodo, great auk, bison, Carolina parakeet

6. Fossil Fuels: are becoming rapidly depleted/add to air pollution problems

The search and demand for additional energy resources also impact ecosystems in a negative way.

Industrialization has brought an increased demand for and use of energy.

7. Nuclear fuels - environmental dangers exist in reference to obtaining, using, and storing the wastes from these fuels

8. Air is becoming increasingly polluted

Acid Rain -- sulfur dioxide (also nitrogen oxides) from coal burning sources + rain = ACID RAIN

Problems from Acid Rain:

• Destruction of limestone and marble monuments due to increased chemical weathering

• Acidification of aquatic ecosystems destroying the life in them

• Damage forests and other plants in a variety of ways

9. Living space/available land: is greatly decreasing as a result of increasing population

creates increasing stress on individual humans
we are also taking up living space and resources needed by other organisms

10. Forests: are becoming increasingly depleted as a result of timber needs & the need for more agricultural land
the direct harvesting of timber has destroyed many forests
this destruction also impacts land use and atmospheric quality

11. Insects: our chief competitors for food

we have destroyed many beneficial insects and many enemies of harmful insects with insecticides
12. Land use (includes increasing urbanization and the cultivation of marginal lands)
 this decreases the space and resources available to other species

Some Other Factors which influence environmental quality

1. Population growth and distribution

2. Capacity of technology to solve problems
3. Economic, political, ethical, and cultural views

Some examples:

a.) Wealthy people in the developed world tend to have fewer children.
b.) Some countries like China have laws concerning the number of children a couple may have without penalty.
c.) In some poor cultures in third world countries, having many children is seen as a means of having economic
security in old age.

**What are some ways we are attempting to deal with environmental degradation?

Species Preservation

• Some efforts to sustain endangered species have included habitat protection (wildlife refuges and national parks)
and wildlife management (game laws and fisheries).

• Animals which were once endangered but are presently successfully reproducing and increasing their numbers
are the bison, gray wolves and egrets.

• Endangered animals which are currently responding to conservation efforts and beginning to make a comeback
are the whooping crane, bald eagle, and peregrine falcon.

• ** The future of many species remains in doubt.

• Human activities that degrade ecosystems result in a loss of diversity in the living and nonliving environment.
These activities are threatening current global stability.

Ways to Reduce Air Pollution

1. Use fuels which contain less pollutant, such as low sulfur coal and oil.
2. Utilize industrial or energy producing processes which minimize the creation of pollutants.
3. Remove pollutants by using such devices as afterburners or catalytic converters before they enter the air.
4. Design new products which meet basic needs without generating pollution.

** There are laws which regulate and guide the use of natural habitats.

SEQR (New York's State Environmental Quality Review Act): A New York State law designed to provide the
opportunity for citizen review and comment of the environmental impact of any proposed development that has
been determined to have significant impact on the environment.

Some Methods of Controlling Harmful Insects

• Chemical controls (insecticides)

(many drawbacks)

2. Biological controls:

• Introduction of natural enemies

(ex. praying mantis)
• Use artificial sex hormones to lure insects to their death (pheromones)
(ex. gyplure -- male gypsy moths)
 • Sterilization and release of male insects
(ex. irradiation of screwworm fly w/cobalt-60)
• Inspection of all materials before entering the country to prevent pest introduction.
• Destroy breeding places of insects
(may have negative environmental consequences on other species)
Rotate crops so that harmful insect species can not build in numbers and concentrate on destroying one crop.

• Plan the time in planting certain crops.

(ex. plant cotton early so that its flowers mature before the boll weevil lays eggs in the cotton)

How can individual and societal choices contribute to improving the environment?

1. Through a greater awareness and application of ecological principles, each individual can help to assure that
there will be suitable environments for succeeding generations on our planet.

2. Individuals in society must decide on proposals which involve the introduction of new technologies.

These decisions must assess environmental risks, costs, benefits, and trade-offs.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- The cycle wherein the elements and compounds that make up nutrients move continually through air, water, soil,
rocks and living organisms within ecosystems.
- Life-earth-chemical cycles or nutrient cycles.

WATER CYCLE

Water is an amazing substance that is necessary for life on the earth and there is a fixed supply of it in our planet. The
hydrologic or water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes this supply of water.

The water cycle is a continuous movement of water from the atmosphere to the earth and from the earth back to the
atmosphere.

Four major processes:

1. Evaporation – changes liquid water into water vapor in the atmosphere.

2. Condensation – the process by which water vapor in air cools and condenses into droplets of water forming
clouds.
3. Precipitation – movement of water from the atmosphere to the earth.
4. Transpiration – the loss of water from plants due to evaporation.

Human beings alter the water cycle by withdrawing large quantities of freshwater faster than it can be replaced and by
clearing the vegetation. We also cover land with buildings and pavement, which reduces the recharge of aquifers by holding
water above ground and increase runoff, which in turns increases flooding and soil erosion.

CARBON CYCLE

Role of Carbon
1. Carbon is a major building block in organisms as it is a component of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, ATP, and nucleic
acids.
2. Carbon forms carbon dioxide (CO2), a component of the atmosphere which acts as a major storage “bank” for the
recycles carbon in the biosphere.
3. Carbon dioxide enters the plant body as a raw material for photosynthesis.
4. Carbon is stored in the earth’s crust, in the limestone shells of marine organisms, and as fossil fuels or deposits of
coal, oil, and natural gas.
Role of Oxygen
 1. Oxygen is one of life’s building blocks. About every fourth atom in the body of an organism is an oxygen atom.
2. Oxygen serves as an acceptor of hydrogen atoms in the respiration process.
3. Together with hydrogen atoms, oxygen forms water molecules during respiration.
4. Oxygen enables heterotrophic cells to transform energy through oxidation of food materials.

Processes involved:
- Photosynthesis – use of CO2 along with water and the sun’s energy to produce glucose and release O 2.
- Respiration – both plants and animals use O2 to breakdown glucose. The by products are carbon dioxide and water.
- Decomposition – process by which organisms like bacteria break down the tissues and excretions of other organisms
to simple substances. This process of decay releases carbon dioxide from the compounds retained in the bodies of
organisms when they die.

Human beings are altering the carbon cycle mostly by adding large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere when
we burn carbon-containing fossil fuels and clear carbon-absorbing vegetation forests (especially tropical forests) faster
than it can grow back.

NITROGEN CYCLE
- Involves green plants and several kinds of bacteria, and may or may not involve animals.
- The major reservoir for nitrogen is the atmosphere. Chemically unreactive nitrogen makes up 78% of the volume
of the atmosphere. Nitrogen is crucial component of proteins, many vitamins, and nucleic acids such as DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid). However, N2 cannot be absorbed and used directly as a nutrient by plants and animals.
- Two natural processes convert or fix N2 into compounds that can be used as nutrients – electrical discharges or
lightning taking place in the atmosphere and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Processes involved:
1. Ammonification. The process of releasing ammonia (NH3) from decaying protein by means of bacterial action.
2. Nitrification. The action of a group of bacteria on ammonia, producing nitrates (NO 3).
3. Denitrification. This process is carried out by denitrifying or anaerobic bacteria which breaks down ammonia,
nitrates, and nitrites (NO2), liberating free nitrogen.
4. Nitrogen Fixation. This refers to the process by which bacteria in the soil or in the roots or leguminous plants
converts free N2 into compounds that the plants can use.

Human beings have more than doubled the annual release of nitrogen from the land into the rest of the environment. Most
of this is from the greatly increased use of inorganic fertilizer to grow crops.

A problem brought about by human input is eutrophication – a process by which lakes or any freshwater ecosystems slowly
become shallow by the accumulation of dead plant materials . In such a process, as contaminants are dumped into the body
of water, there is an increased quantity of nitrate or phosphate ions causing a rapid multiplication of algae population. The
condition in which the algae either cover the water of color it with their presence is called algal bloom.
Algal bloom increases the number of decomposers which use up the oxygen needed by other animals as well as other
decomposers. As an effect, the water animals and the decomposers die, accumulating at the bottom of the body of water.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
The major reservoir for phosphorus is phosphate salts containing phosphate ions (PO 4-3) in terrestrial rock formation and
ocean bottom sediments. The phosphorus cycle is slow as compared to other cycles and does not include the atmosphere.
As water runs over exposed phosphorus-containing rocks, it slowly erodes away inorganic compounds that contain
phosphate ions. The dissolved phosphate can be absorbed by the roots of plants and by other producers. Phosphorus is
transferred by food webs from producers to consumers, eventually including detritus feeders and decomposers.
Phosphorus can be lost from the cycle for long periods when it washes from the land into streams and rivers and is carried
to the ocean. There it can be deposited as marine sediments and remain trapped for millions of years. Someday, geological
processes may uplift and expose these seafloor deposits from which phosphate can be eroded to start the cycle again.

Human activities are affecting the phosphorus cycle which includes removing large amounts of phosphate from the earth
to make fertilizer and reducing phosphorus in tropical soils by clearing forests.
Soil that is eroded from fertilized crop fields, lawns, and golf courses carries large quantities of phosphates into streams,
lakes and oceans where it stimulates the growth of producers. Phosphorus-rich run-off from the land can produce huge
populations of algae, which can upset chemical cycling and other processes in lakes.

SULFUR CYCLE
Sulfur enters the atmosphere - as hydrogen sulfide, a colorless gas, highly poisonous gas with a rotten-egg smell and as
sulfur dioxide, a colorless and suffocating gas. Both gases are released by volcano. Particles of sulphate enters the
atmosphere from sea spray, dust storms and forest fires. Plant roots absorb sulphate ions and incorporate Sulphur as an
essential component of proteins. Specialized bacteria converts sulphate ions to sulphide ions. Sulfide ions can react with
metal ions to form insoluble metallic sulfides which are deposited as rocks or metal ores and the cycle continues.

Human activities have affected the sulfur cycle primarily by releasing large amounts of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
Ways of adding sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere: Burning of sulphur-containing coal and oil to produce electric power.
Refining sulfur-containing petroleum to make gasoline. Conversion of sulfur-containing metallic mineral ores into free metals
such as copper, lead and zinc.

CARBON CYCLE

Carbon cycle: Carbon dioxide gas exists in the atmosphere and is dissolved in
water. Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide gas to organic carbon, while
respiration cycles the organic carbon back into carbon dioxide gas. Long-term
storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms is buried
deep underground and becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and human
emissions bring this stored carbon back into the carbon cycle.

NITROGEN CYCLE
- is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms. This transformation can be carried
out thought both biological and physical processes.
- describes how nitrogen moves between plants, animals, bacteria, the atmosphere ( the air), and soil in the ground.
Nitrogen is an important element to all life on Earth.

This picture shows the flow of the nitrogen cycle. The most important part of the cycle
is bacteria. Bacteria help the nitrogen change between states so it can be used. When
nitrogen is absorbed by the soil, different bacteria help it to change states so it can be
absorbed by plants. Animals then get their nitrogen from the plants.

Why is nitrogen important to life?

- Plants and animals could not live without nitrogen. It is an important part of
many cells and processes such as amino acids, proteins, and even our DNA.
It is also needed to make chlorophyll in plants, which plants use in
photosynthesis to make their food and energy.
- Most plants get the nitrogen they need from soil. Many farmers use fertilizers to add nitrogen to the soil to help
plants grow larger and faster. Both nitrogen fertilizers and forest fires add huge amounts of nitrogen into the soil
and nearby lakes and rivers. Water full of nitrogen causes plants and algae to grow very fast and then die all at
once when there are too many for the environment to support.
How have humans altered the nitrogen cycle?
- Unfortunately, human activity has altered the cycle. We do this by adding nitrogen into the soil with fertilizers as
well as other activities that put more nitrous oxide gas into the atmosphere. This adds in more nitrogen than is
needed by normal cycle and upsets the cycle's balance.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
 Phosphorus- a multivalent nonmetallic element of the nitrogen family that occurs commonly in inorganic phosphate
rocks and as organic phosphates in all living cells; is highly reactive and occurs in several allotropic forms.
 Weathering- is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the
Earth's atmosphere and waters.

How does Phosphorus Cycle works?

Phosphate move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are
very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral being apatite. Overall small losses occur
in terrestrial environments by leaching and erosion, through the action of rain.

Diagram of Phosphate Cycle

What is Phosphorus Cycle?

The Phosphorus Cycle is the biogeochemical that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus,
because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure
found on Earth.

Functions of Phosphorus
Phosphorus serves as an essential mineral nutrient for all plants and animals. Phosphorus forms the ions of the phosphate
and hydrogen phosphates. These phosphates are important parts of DNA molecules and are also part of energy storing
molecules.
Phosphorus plays an important role in the human body. its main function is in the formation of bones and teeth. It plays
an important role in how the body uses carbohydrates and fats. It is also needed for the body to make protein for the
growth, maintenance, and repair of cells and tissues.

Importance of Phosphorus Cycle

 Plants and animals requires phosphorus as an essential nutrient, but it is a limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms.
 Most of the phosphorus that is mined is used to make fertilizers.
 Phosphate is biologically important as it is a component of nucleotides and nucleic acids like DNA and RNA.
 It is also a part of energy storage molecules like ATP, ADP, GDP, etc.
 Phosphorus is found in bones in the form of calcium phosphate.
SUMMARY:

SULFUR CYCLE
 Occurs in combination with several metals such as, PbS and HgS
 A brittle yellow, tasteless and odorless non-metallic element.
 10th most abundant element in the universe
 Present in proteins, amino acids, vitamins, and enzymes, necessary for plants and animals.

Importance of Sulfur
Sulfur is found in every living cell (amino acids).
Before the advent of antibiotics in the 1940s, it was commonly used to treat infectious diseases.
Component of penicillin-class antibiotics.
Sulfur dioxide kills molds and bacteria.

Elements involved in the cycle

 S is for SULFUR  SO42 is for Sulfur Dioxide  H2S is for Hydrogen Sulfide

Sulfur Cycle

Food Chains and Food Webs

What is a Food Chain?
-A food chain is the path by which energy passes from one living thing to another.
What’s in a Food Chain?
 Producers  Consumers  Decomposers
Producers
 Producers make their own food
 Green plants use energy from the sun to make food
 Producers are on the bottom of the food chain
Consumers
 Consumers hunt, gather, and store food because they cannot make their own.
Three Types of Consumers
 Herbivores  Carnivores  Omnivores
Herbivores
Animals who eat plants such as:
 grasshoppers  squirrels  pand
 rabbits  deer
Carnivores
Animals who only eat other animals such as:
 tigers  lions  hawks
  wolves  cougars
Omnivores
Animals who eat both plants and animals such as:
 humans
 bears
Decomposers
 Microorganisms that are able to break down large molecules into smaller parts
 Decomposers return the nutrients that are in a living thing to the soil
Let’s Look at a Food Chain
 A food chain is a simplified way to look at the energy that passes from producers to consumers.

Types of Food Chains

 Aquatic- Water-related food chains with sea plants and animals
 Terrestrial- Land-related food chains with land plants and animals
Predator & Prey
 Predator- An animal that captures and eats other animals
 Prey- The animal that is captured and eaten
What is a Food Web?
 A more realistic way of looking at the relationship of plants and animals in an environment
 Several food chains linked together
 A predator from one food chain may be linked to the prey of another food chain
Food Webs
 How many food chains can you make from this food web?
Air Pollution
CLIMATE PROCESSES AND AIR POLLUTION
• Air pollution is defined as any contaminant added to the air that is harmful to the health of living organisms.
• Due to the nature of air and wind, this pollution can be carried great distances.
- Industrial contaminants can be found in places that have virtually no population.
- Contaminants especially concentrate at the poles.

Long-Range Transport

AIR POLLUTION CLASSIFICATION

 Primary Pollutants
- Released directly into the air
 Secondary Pollutants
- Formed as a result of a chemical reaction in the air.
- Smog – Reaction of sunlight with nitrogen oxide.
- Acid Rain – Reaction of sulfur dioxide with water to form sulfuric acid.
- Ozone – Reaction of nitrogen oxides with volatile organic compounds.

Air Pollution and Topography

• The effects of air pollution are also influenced by the shape of the land.
• Temperature inversions occur when a layer of dense, cool air is trapped below a layer of lighter, warmer air.
 Most likely to occur in valleys and canyons.
 May also occur in any area where the wind is typically calm.

Temperature Inversion

• Temperature inversions trap any air pollution produced, allowing it to accumulate to much higher than normal
levels.
 • Two major air pollution events occurred in the 20th century because of this phenomenon.

Air Pollution History

• The Donora Fluoride Fog of 1948
 In late October, the town of Donora experienced a temperature inversion.
 The town is located along the Monongahela River south of Pittsburgh, within a small valley.
 The main employer of the town was a US Steel Zinc smelting plant.

Donora Fluoride Fog

• Emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and fluoride from the zinc smelting plant began to accumulate.
• The smog became so thick that driving was impossible.
• The plant itself did not cease operations until 4 days later.
• The smog finally broke up as a rainstorm entered the area after 5 days.
• A total of 20 residents died; About a third to a half of the town’s entire population of 14,000 became sickened.
• Donora experienced higher than normal mortality rates for 10 years afterwards.

The London Smog of 1952

• London naturally has very calm air, and regularly experiences thick sea fog.
• The weather turned unusually cold, causing the residents to burn greater amounts of coal to heat their homes.
• This combined with a temperature inversion to create a thick smog of sulfur dioxide over the city.
• The number of fatalities is unknown, but estimated to be around 12,000.
• As a result of this disaster, London passed its own Clean Air Act.
• One of the specific changes made was to make chimneys taller to reach above a temperature inversion.

Clean Air Act

• The most significant parts of the U.S. Clean Air Act took effect in 1970.
• Initially, the law required the EPA to set and enforce limits for 6 different air pollutants.
• These are called criteria pollutants.
 Sulfur Dioxide  Nitrogen Oxides
 Carbon Monoxide  Lead
 Particulates
 Ozone
The effects of the Clean Air Act have been verified with ice cores taken from Greenland.
• The ice cores show a dramatic rise in sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere starting around 1900.
• Nitrogen oxides begin increasing around 1950.
• Levels of both pollutants stabilized after the 1970s.

Criteria Pollutants
• Sulfur dioxide
- Colorless gas often associated with “rotten eggs” smell
- Forms sulfuric acid in clouds.
- Biggest source: coal burning power plants
• Nitrogen oxides
- Reddish brown gas
- Reacts with water vapor to form nitric acid
- Reacts with sunlight to form smog.
- Biggest source: car exhaust
 • Carbon Monoxide
- Colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas
- Binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, interfering with oxygen transport
- Biggest source: car exhaust
• Particulate Matter
- Dust, ash, soot, lint, smoke, pollen, spores, and all other suspended matter.
- Cause the most visibility problems
- Biggest source: unpaved road dust and construction
• Ozone
- Molecule made of three oxygen atoms
- Pale blue gas, odor resembling chlorine bleach
- Secondary pollutant; not released directly
• Lead
- Enters the air as particles or part of dust.
- The biggest source used to be exhaust from cars using leaded gas; now it is industry and burning
fossil fuels.

 The Clean Air Act was amended in 1990 and included additional provisions and controls for:
- Acid Rain
- Urban Smog
- Toxic and Hazardous Air Pollutants
- Protection of the Ozone Layer
- Leakage of volatile organic compounds
 Other Major Pollutants
• Volatile organic compounds
- Organic (carbon-based) gases like methane that can decompose or react easily, forming carbon
dioxide or carbon monoxide in the air.
- Biggest sources:
- Spilled/leaking gasoline that evaporates
- Paint and paint cleaners

Acid Deposition
• Acid Precipitation – Rainfall or snowfall that contains an lower than normal pH.
 pH scale ranges from 0-14.
- 7 = Neutral; <7 = Acidic; >7 = Basic
 Unpolluted rain generally has pH of 5.6.
- Carbonic acid from atmospheric CO2.
 In industrialized areas, the pH level can reach as low as 4.3
- Rain of pH 2.1 was recorded in the 1970s and 1980s
• Aquatic Effects
- Fish and other aquatic organisms are extremely sensitive to pH changes.
• pH below 5 = eggs will not hatch
• pH below 4 = kills adult fish
• Forest Damage
 Acid rain can cause the pH of soil to decrease.
 This interferes with trees’ ability to absorb nutrients properly.
• Buildings and Monuments
 Limestone and marble are slowly dissolved as they are exposed to acid rain.
 Acid rain can also corrode steel, weakening structures like bridges.

Indoor Air Pollution

• Indoor air pollution can have more significant effects on human health than outdoor pollution.
 People generally spend more time indoors.
 Cigarette smoke is the most common indoor air pollutant in the U.S.
- 430,000 die annually from a disease related to smoking.
• Less-developed countries also suffer from indoor air pollution.
 Organic fuels make up majority of household energy.
  These fuels are often burned in smoky, poorly ventilated heating and cooking fires.

Atmospheric Ozone
• Ozone is a gas found in the upper atmosphere that blocks some UV radiation.
• Scientists discovered that atmospheric ozone levels were dropping rapidly every year, during September and
October.
 Occurring since at least 1960.
 A 1% decrease in ozone results in a 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth.
 The ozone was being depleted by pollutants containing chlorine.
• A concentration of pollution at the poles and other factors caused chlorine pollution to be concentrated in
Antarctica.
- When the sun returns in the spring, the energy liberates the chlorine from ice.
- Chlorine causes ozone (O3) to be broken down into oxygen (O2).
Montreal Protocol
• The main pollutant behind ozone depletion was chloroflurocarbons (CFCs).
 Used in coolants (refrigerators, air conditioners) and aerosols (hair spray, spray paint).
• The Montreal Protocol was passed in 1989.
 Countries agreed to phase out CFC use by the year 2000.
 CFC levels in the atmosphere decreased and the ozone layer is beginning to recover.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Human Health
 EPA estimates each year 50,000 people die prematurely from illnesses related to air pollution.
- Likelihood of suffering ill health is related to intensity and duration of exposure.
 Inhalation is the most common route, but absorption through the skin and consumption
via food can also occur.
Plant Pathology
• Chemical pollutants can directly damage plants, or can cause indirect damage by disrupting normal growth and
development patterns.
- Pollutant levels too low to cause visible effects may still be damaging.
Visibility Reduction
• The production of pollution haze or smog can reduce visibility by as much as 80 percent.

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

 Most effective strategy for controlling pollution is to not produce it in the first place.
• Particulate Removal - Remove particles physically by trapping them in a porous mesh which allows air to pass
through but holds back solids.
• Electrostatic Precipitators – Pass air across electrically charged plates that attract the particles of pollution.

Reducing Pollution
• Sulfur Dioxide Reduction
 Heating Fuel Switching
- Switch from soft coal with a high sulfur content (like was used in London in 1952) to low sulfur
coal.
- Change to another fuel (natural gas).
 Limestone Injection
- Can reduce sulfur emissions by 90% by mixing crushed limestone with coal before it is fed into a
boiler.
Clean Air Act (RA 8749)

This law was made to...

• balance development and environment protection through the framework of sustainable develpment.
• recognize that a clean and healthy environment is: for the good of all and should therefore be the
concern of all.
• Recognized Rights
- The right to breathe clean air.
- The right to be informed of the nature and extent of the potential hazard of any activity.

Sources of Air Pollution

- Stationary (or non-moving) sources
- Fuel burning equipment
- Woodworking
- Mobile (or moving) sources
- All modes of transportation

Other Sources
- Open Burning - Paints
- Plastics - Ink
- PVCs - Smoking

Air Pollution Sources MUST:

1. Have emissions that comply with DENR standards (DOTC standards for motor vehicles)
2. Have a Permit to Operate.
3. Have an air pollution control device.

Greenhouse Gas Effect

Air Pollution Control Techniques

A techiniques employed to reduce or eliminate emission into the atmosphere of substances that can harm the
environment or human health.
Cyclones
-it removes particulates by causing the dirty airstream to flow in a spiral path inside a cylindrical chamber.

Baghouse filters
-One of the most efficient devices for removing suspended particulates is an assembly of fabric-filter bags.

Control Of Gases
-Gaseous criteria pollutants, as well as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other gaseous air toxics, are controlled by
means of three basic techniques: absorption, adsorption, and incineration (or combustion). These techniques can be
employed singly or in combination. They are effective against the major greenhouse gases as well.

Absorption
- involves the transfer of a gaseous pollutant from the air into a contacting liquid, such as water.
- The gas molecules are sorbed attracted to and held on the surface of a solid. Gas adsorption methods are used for odor
control at various types of chemical-manufacturing and food-processing facilities, in the recovery of a number of volatile
solvents, and in the control of VOCs at industrial facilities.

Incineration
- The process called incineration or combustion chemically, rapid oxidation can be used to convert VOCs
And other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants to carbon dioxide and water.

Carbon sequestration
- The best way to reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the air is to use energy more efficiently and to reduce the
combustion of fossil fuels by using alternative energy sources.
Sample Problems
Air Pollution Problems…

EXAMPLES:

Example #1: In Toronto, Canada there are about 1.2M automobiles registered. The average nitrogen oxides emission
rate from the cars is 3.1 g/VM (vehicle mile) and the hydro-carbon emission rate is 1.6 g/VM. Each car travels about 30
miles round trip per working day. Calculate the amount (volume) of NO X and the amount of hydrocarbon (HC) put into
the city atmosphere each working day.

Solutions:

NOX produced = 1,200,000 (30mi/day)(3.1g/mi) = 111,600,000 g/day

HC produced = 1,200,000(30 mi/day)(1.6 g/mi) = 57,600,000 g/day

(to convert mass to volume, density is needed)

Assume NO2 and CH4 as the gases present.

Assume ideal gases, so at STP molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4 liters (or 0.0224 m 3)

mol. wt. of NO2 = 1 atom nitrogen (14amu) + 2 atoms oxygen (16 amu) = 46 g/mole
mol. wt. of CH4 = 1 carbon atom(12 amu) + 4 atoms of hydrogen ( 1 amu) = 16 g/mole

Vol. of NO2 produced = 111,600,000g/day x mole/46g x 0.0224m3/mole = 54, 344 m3/day

Vol. of CH4 produced = 57,600,000 g/day x mole/16g x 0.0224 m3/mole = 80,640 m3/day

Example # 2: Estimate the travel distance of 70 m spherical particle of density 1600 kg/m3 ejected at 3000meters from
Mount St. Helens to a final height of 10,000 meters into the atmosphere when mean wind speed through the atmospheric
layer is 15 m/s.

Solutions:

Using Stokes Terminal Velocity Equation:

u = g.(dp)2[p - )
18 

where:

g = acceleration due to gravity  = density of medium (air)

dp = particle diameter  = dynamic velocity of medium (air)
p = density of particle

@ 20 0C and 1 atm:
 of air = 1.2 kg/m3
 of air = 1.81 x 10-5 kg/m-s
u = (9.8)(70 x 10-6)2[1600 – 1.2]
18 (1.81 x 10-5)

u = 0.236 m/s

Fall time for the particle is: t = h/u

t = 10,000 m ÷ 0.236 m/s

 t = 4.237 x 104 sec

During this fall, the particle will travel horizontally:

distance = [4.237 x 104 m][15 m/s] = 635,550 m or 636 km

Example # 3: Assume that the annual average urban consumption of oil(HC)-based paint and coatings is about ½
gal/capita for all purpose. Each gallon of paint contains 6 lb of HC carrier for the pigment. The U.S. national annual average
consumption of solvents for dry cleaning (assuming they are HCs) is about 2 lb per capita. Estimate the total HCs discharged
into an urban region of about 2.3 M people from the evaporation of paint & dry-cleaning solvents, assuming that the
averages are released locally.

Solutions:

HC from paint & coatings materials = (2,300,000)(0.5 gal/capita)(6 lb/gal) = 6,900,000 lb/yr
HC from cleaning solvents = (2,300,000)(2 lb/yr) = 4,600,000 lb/yr
Total HC = 11,500,000 lb/yr

Water Pollution Problems…

Example # 1: If the 3-day BOD (BOD3) of a waste is 75 mg/liter and the BOD decay constant, k is 0.345 per day, what
is the ultimate BOD?

Given:

BOD3 = 75 mg/L k = 0.345 per day t = 3 days

Required: Lo = ?

Solutions:

FromBODt = Lo (1 – e-kt)
Lo = BODt .
(1 – e-kt)
Lo = 75 .
(1 – e-(0.345/day)(3 days))
Lo = 116 mg/L

Example # 2: Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of glucose (C 6H12O6).

Solutions:

Start by writing a balance reaction of glucose:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Next, compute the gram molecular weight:

mol. wt. C6H12O6 = 6(12) + 12(1) + 6(16)

= 180 g/mole

mol. wt. O2 = 2(16)

= 32 g/mole

ThOD = 108.75 mg G x 1 g . x 1 mole x

L 1000mg 180 g G
6 mole O2 x 32 g O2 x 1000mg
 1 mole G mole O2 1g

ThOD = 116 mg O2
L
Example # 3: An industry discharges its liquid waste into a river that has a minimum flow rate of 10 m 3/s. The major
pollutant is a nonreactive organic material called P. The waste stream has a flowrate of 0.1 m 3/s and the concentration of
P in the waste stream is 3000 mg/L. Upstream pollution has caused a concentration of 20 mg/L of P in the river under the
minimum flow rate conditions. The state regulatory agency has set a maximum limit of 100 mg/L of P in the river. Will the
industry be allowed to discharge their waste into the river without treatment?

Solution:

Set a material balance on P for an interval of 1 second.

Input = Output + Accumulation

Accumulation is zero, since there’s an assumption of complete mixing in the river.

Let Q = be the flow rate in m3/s

C = be the concentration in mg/L

Input = Output
(QC)waste stream + (QC)upstream = (QC)downstream

substituting values:

(0.1 m3/s)(3000 mg/L)(1000 L/m3) + (10 m3/s)(20 mg/L)(1000 L/m3) = (10.1 m3/s)(Cd mg/L)(1000 L/m3)

solving for Cd:

Cd = 49.5 mg/L

Therefore, the industry will be allowed to discharge their liquid waste into the river since C d did not exceed the limit of
100 mg/L set by the regulatory agency.

Problems on Solid Waste…

Example # 1: Determine the area (m2) required for a new landfill site with a projected life of 30 yrs. for a population of
250,000 generating 2.05 kg/capita-day. The density of the compacted waste is 470 kg/m 3. The height of the landfill cannot
exceed 15 meters.

Solution:

Assuming that what goes into the landfill compacted remains in the landfill for perpetuity.

Vol. of waste/day = (250,000)(2.05)

470
= 1,074 m3/day

Total vol. (within 30 yrs.)

= (1,074)m3/day(365 days/yr)(30 yrs)= 11,940,159 m 3
Area of the landfill = 11,760,300 m3
15 m
= 796,010 m2
Example # 2: A town of 20,000 people in Germany generates 0.95 kg/capita-day of MSW. A town of the same size in
the United States generates 1.9 kg/capita-day of MSW.
a) How much MSW is generated in each town?
b) How many trucks would be needed to collect the waste twice weekly? Each truck have a capacity of 4.5 metric tons
and operate 5 days/week. Assume that the trucks average 2 loads/day at 75% capacity.

Solution:

a) for the Germany town:

amount of MSW generated = 20,000 people x 0.95 kg/capital-day= 19,000 kg/day

for the U.S. town:

amount of MSW generated = 20,000 people x 1.9 kg/capital-day= 38,000 kg/day

b) Capacity for each truck = (2 loads/day)(4.5 tons/load)(1000kg/ton)(0.75) = 6,750 kg/day

Total amount generated by each town on a weekly basis:

Germany: (19,000 kg/day)(7 days) = 133,333
U.S. : (38,000 kg/day)(7 days) = 266,000 kg/wk

Since collection if done twice per week:

Germany: 133,000 kg or 66,500 kg every 5/2 days
2
U.S.: 266,000 kg or 133,000 kg every 5/2 days
2
No. of trucks needed:
Germany: (66,500)/(5/2)(6750) = 3.94 ≈ 4
U.S.: (133,000)/(5/2)(6750) = 7.88 ≈ 8

Example # 3: The inorganic waste received annually at a certain waste treatment & disposal facilities consist of solids for
direct burial (90,000 tons), sludges to be dewatered (10,000 tons), and liquids for pH adjustment (10,000 tons). The
incoming organics include oily waste (10,000 tons), solvents & other rich organics (42,000 tons), and organic sludges
(10,000 tons).
a) Estimate the population served by this facilities, assuming 55 kg/capita-yr of hazardous waste is generated and that
80% of this requires off-site disposal.
b) Determine the length of time until the landfill capacity of 1.4 million m 3 is filled, assuming 65,680 m3/yr of the landfill is
filled up.

Solution:

a) Quantities of incoming inorganics = 90,000 tons of solids + 10,000 tons of sludges + 10,000 tons of liquids =
110,000 tons
b) Quantities of incoming organics = 10,000 tons of oily waste + 42,000 tons of solvents + 10,000 tons of sludges =
62,000 tons

Total amount = 172,000 tons

Population served = (172,000)(1000 kg/tons)

(55)(0.80)

= 3.9 million

b) Expected life of the landfill = 1400000 m3

65680 m3/yr

= 21.3 years
Water Pollution
Water, Air, Land...
The solution to pollution is prevention.
What makes us unique and gives life to Earth.

What is water pollution?

Any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living organisms or makes water
unsuitable for desired usage.

WHO:
• 3.4 million Premature deaths each year from waterborne diseases
• 1.9 million from diarrhea
• U.S. 1.5 million
• 1993 Milwaukee 370,000 sick

Infectious Agents: bacteria and viruses often from animal wastes

Oxygen Demanding Wastes: organic waste that needs oxygen often from animal waste, paper mills and food processing.

Inorganic Chemicals: Acids and toxic chemicals often from runoff, industries and household cleaners

Organic Chemicals: oil, gasoline, plastics, detergents often from surface runoff, industries and cleaners

Plant Nutrients: water soluble nitrates, ammonia and phosphates often from sewage, agriculture and urban fertilizers

Sediment: soils and silts from land erosion can disrupt photosynthesis, destroy spawning grounds, clog rivers and streams

Heat Pollution and Radioactivity: mostly from power plants

HOW DO WE MEASURE WATER QUALITY:

Bacterial Counts: Fecal coliform counts from intestines of animals
 None per 100 ml for drinking
 >200 per 100 ml for swimming
Sources: human sewage, animals, birds, raccoons, etc.

Dissolved Oxygen: BOD Biological Oxygen Demand…the

amount of oxygen consumed by aquatic decomposers

Chemical Analysis: looking for presence of inorganic or

organic chemicals

Suspended Sediment: water clarity

Indicator Species: organisms that give an idea of the health

of the water body

Types, Effects and Sources of Water Pollution

 Point sources  Nonpoint sources  Water quality
Point sources and Nonpoint sources

Major Sources of Water Pollution

Agriculture: by far the leader

 Sediment, fertilizers, bacteria from livestock, food processing, salt from soil irrigation

Industrial: factories and powerplants

Mining: surface mining toxics, acids, sediment

Freshwater Stream Pollution

Flowing streams can recover from moderate level of degradable water pollution if their flows are not reduced.
• Natural biodegradation process
• Does not work if overloaded or stream flow reduced
• Does not work against non biodegradable pollutants

Pollution of Streams
 Oxygen sag curve
 Factors influencing recovery

What factors will influence this oxygen sag curve?

Two Worlds
Developed Countries
U.S. and other developed countries sharply reduced point sources even with population and economic growth
• Nonpoint still a problem
• Toxic chemicals still problem
 • Success Cuyahoga River, Thames River
Serious and growing problem
• Half of world’s 500 major rivers heavily polluted • 10% of sewage in China treated
• Sewage treatment minimal $$$ • Economic growth with little $$$ to clean up
• Law enforcement difficult

India’s Ganges River

• Holy River (1 million take daily holy dip) • Bodies (cremated or not) thrown in river
• 350 million (1/3rd of pop) live in watershed • Good news is the Indian government is
• Little sewage treatment beginning to work on problem
• Used for bathing, drinking etc.

Freshwater Lake Pollution

Dilution as a solution in lakes less effective
• Little vertical mixing
• Little water flow (flushing)
Makes them more vulnerable
• Toxins settle • Atmospheric deposition
• Kill bottom life • Food chain disruptions

Biomagnifications of PCBs in an aquatic food chain from the Great Lakes.

Eutrophication of Lakes
Eutrophication: nutrient enrichment of lakes mostly from runoff of plant nutrients
(nitrates and phosphates)
• During hot dry weather can lead to algae blooms
• Decrease of photosynthesis
• Dying algae then drops DO levels
• Fish kills, bad odor
 Solutions:
• Advanced sewage treatment (N, P)
• Household detergents
• Soil conservation
• Remove excess weed build up
• Pump in oxygen or freshwater

Case Study: The Great Lakes

• Pollution levels dropped, but long way to go
• 95% of U.S. freshwater
• 30% Canadian pop, 14% U.S.
• 38 million drink
• 1% flow out St. Lawrence
• Toxic fish
Groundwater
• Why is groundwater pollution a serious problem?
• What is the extent of the problem?
• What are the solutions?

Groundwater can become

contaminated
• No way to cleanse itself
• Little dilution and dispersion
• Out of sight pollution
• Prime source for irrigation and
drinking
• REMOVAL of pollutant difficult

Causes
 Low flow rates
 Low oxygen
 Few bacteria
 Cold temperatures

 Pollution moves in plumes

 Soil, rocks, etc. act like sponge
 Cleansing does not work (low O, low flow, cold)
 Nondegradables may be permanent

Prevention is the most effective and cheapest

Ground water Pollution Prevention
 Monitor aquifers  Strickly regualting hazardous waste disposal
 Find less hazardous substitutes  Store hazardous materials above ground
 Leak detection systems

Ocean Pollution
• How much pollution can the oceans tolerate?
• Coastal zones: How does pollution affect coastal zones?
• What are major sources of ocean pollution and what is being done?
• Oils spills

Oceans can disperse and break down large quantities of degradable pollution if they are not overloaded.
• Pollution worst near heavily populated coastal zones
• Wetlands, estuaries, coral reefs, mangrove swamps
• 40% of world’s pop. Live within 62 miles of coast

• Mangrove Swamp • Runoff

• Estuaries • Algae blooms from nutrients
• Large amounts of untreated raw sewage • Dead zones NO DO
(viruses) • Airborne toxins
• Leaking septic tanks • Oil spills

Case Study: Chesapeake Bay

 Largest US estuary
 Relatively shallow
 Slow “flushing” action to Atlantic
 Major problems with dissolved O2
Preventing and reducing the flow of pollution from land and from streams emptying into the ocean is key to protecting
oceans

Oil Spills
 Sources: offshore wells, tankers, pipelines and storage tanks
 Effects: death of organisms, loss of animal insulation and buoyancy, smothering
 Significant economic impacts
 Mechanical cleanup methods: skimmers and blotters
 Chemical cleanup methods: coagulants and dispersing agents

Prevention and Reduction

• How can we reduce surface water pollution: point and also nonpoint.
• How do sewage treatment plants work?
• How successful has the U.S. been at reducing water pollution? Clean Water Act

Solutions: Preventing and Reducing Surface Water Pollution

Nonpoint Sources
Reduce runoff
Buffer Zones Near Streams
Prevent soil erosion and only apply needed pesticides and fertilizers

Point Sources
Clean Water Act
Water Quality Act
Only apply pesticides and fertilizers as needed

Most developed countries use laws to set water pollution standards.

Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act 1972, ’77, ’87)
• Regulates navigable waterways, streams, wetlands, rivers, lake

Clean Water Act

• Sets standards for key pollutants • Does not deal with nonpoint sources well
• Requires permits for discharge • Goal All Waterways fishable and swimmable
• Requires sewage treatment
• Require permits for wetland destruction
Technological Approach: Septic Systems
 Require suitable soils and maintenance
• ¼ of all U.S. homes have Septic tanks
• Can be used in parking lots, business parks, etc.

Combined sewer overflow is a problem in many older towns

• EPA: 1.8 M to 3.85 M sick from swimming in water contaminated by sewer overflows
• EPA: $100 billion to fix

 Physical and biological treatment

Primary: removes 60% of solids and 30-40% oxygen demanding wastes (physically)
Secondary: uses biological processes to remove up to 90% of biodegradables
Tertiary: advanced techniques only used in 5% of U.S. $$$$
Disinfection: chlorine, ozone, UV
What is not taken out???

Technological Approach: Advanced (Tertiary) Sewage Treatment

 Uses physical and chemical processes
 Removes nitrate and phosphate
 Expensive
 Not widely used

Sludge disposal…using as fertilizer

Technological Approach: Using Wetlands to Treat Sewage

The Good
News
Largely thanks to CWA:
• Between 1972 – 2002 fishable and swimmable streams 36% to 60%
• 74% served by sewage treatment
• Wetlands loss dropped by 80%
• Topsoil losses dropped by 1 billion tons annually
The Bad News
• 45% of Lakes, 40% streams still not fishable and swimmable
• Nonpoint sources still huge problem
• Livestock and Ag. Runoff
• Fish with toxins
Drinking Water
• How is drinking water purified? High tech way.
• How can we purify drinking water in developing nations?
• What is the Safe Drinking Water Act?
• Is bottled water a good answer or an expensive rip-off?

Drinking Water Quality

 Purification of urban drinking water  Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)
 Protection from terrorism  Bottled water
 Purification of rural drinking water
 Safe Drinking Water Act

Purification of urban drinking water

Surface Water: (like Delaware River)
 Remove to reservoir to improve clarity
 Pumped to a treatment plant to meet drinking water standards
Ground Water: often does not need much treatment

Purification of rural drinking water

There can be simple ways to purify water:
 Exposing to heat and UV rays
 fine cloths to filter water
 Add small amounts of chlorine

Safe Drinking Water Act

 54 countries have drinking water laws • Privately owned wells exempt from SDWA
SDWA passed 1974 requires EPA to set drinking water SDWA requires public notification of failing to meet
standards standards and fine.
Maximum Contaminating Levels (MCLs) MCLs often stated in parts per million or parts per billion

Bottle Water
U.S. has the world’s safest tap water due to billions of $$$ of investment
Bottle water 240 to 10,000 times more expensive than tap water
25% of bottle water is tap water
1.4 million metric tons of bottle thrown away each year
Toxic fumes released during bottling
Bottles made from oil based plastics
Water does not need to meet SDWA
What is water pollution?
• degradation of water quality
• may occur when materials are released into the water, contaminating the quality of it. These materials are called
pollutants.

Sources:
Point- refers to a pollutants that belong to single source.
- Contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch.
Non-point- polluted emitted from multiple sources.

TYPES:
1. Nutrients Pollution
Some waste water, fertilizers and sewage contain high levels of nutrients. If they end up in water bodies,
they encourage algae and weed growth in the water. This will make the water undrinkable, and even clog filters.
Too much algae will also use up all the oxygen in the water, and other water organisms in the water will die out of
oxygen starvation.

2. Surface water pollution

Surface water includes natural water found on the earth’s surface, like rivers, lakes, lagoons and oceans.
Hazardous substances coming into contact with this surface water, dissolving or mixing physically with the water
can be called surface water pollution.

3. Oxygen Depleting
Water bodies have micro-organisms. These include aerobic and anaerobic organisms. When too much
biodegradable matter (things that easily decay) end up in water, it encourages more microorganism growth, and
they use up more oxygen in the water. If the oxygen is depleted, aerobic organisms die, and anaerobic organism
grow more to produce harmful toxins such as ammonia and sulfides.

4. Ground water pollution

When humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, they are washed deep into the ground by rain water.
This gets to underground water, causing pollution underground. This means when we dig wells and bore holes to
get water from underground, it needs to be checked for ground water pollution.

5. Microbiological
In many communities in the world, people drink untreated water (straight from a river or stream).
Sometimes there is natural pollution caused by micro-organisms like viruses, bacteria and protozoa. This natural
pollution can cause fishes and other water life to die. They can also cause serious illness to humans who drink
from such waters.

6. Suspended Matter
Some pollutants (substances, particles and chemicals) do not easily dissolve in water. This kind of
material is called particulate matter. Some suspended pollutants later settle under the water body. This can
harm and even kill aquatic life that live at the floor of water bodies.

Chemical Water Pollution

Many industries and farmers work with chemicals that end up in water. This is common with point-source Pollution.
These include chemicals that are used to control weeds, insects and pests. Metals and solvents from industries can
pollute water bodies. These are poisonous to many forms of aquatic life and may slow their development, make them
infertile and kill them.

Cause:
 Oil Spillage
Oil spills usually have only localized effect on wildlife but can spread for miles. The oil can cause the
death to many fish and get stuck to the feathers of seabirds causing them to lose their ability to fly.
 Industrial causes of water pollution
Industrial waste industries cause huge water pollution with their activities. These come mainly from:
Sulphur- this is non-metallic substance that is harmful for marine life.

 Oil pollution by Oil Industries

Routine shipping, run-offs and dumping of oils on the ocean surfaces happen every day. Oil spills cause
major problems, and can be extremely harmful to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters and other
aquatic life. Because oil does not dissolve, it stays on the water surface and suffocates fish. Oil also gets caught
in the feathers of sea birds, making it difficult for them to fly. Some animals die as a result.

 Sewage and waste water

Sewage is the term used for waste water that often contains feces, urine and laundry waste. The sewage
and waste water that is produced by each household is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh
water, the sewage water carries harmful bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems.
Pathogens are known as a common water pollutant.

 Ocean and marine dumping

Again, think of the rubbish we all make each day. Paper waste, food waste, plastic, rubber, metallic and
aluminum waste. In some countries, they are deposited into the sea. All these waste types take time to
decompose.

 Underground storage and tube leakages

Many liquid products (petroleum products) are stored in metal and steel tubes underground. Other
sewage systems run in underground tubes. Overtime, they rust and begin to leak. If that happens, they
contaminate the soils, and the liquids in them end up in many nearby water bodies.
Sample Problems
Water Pollution Problems…

Example # 1:
If the 3-day BOD (BOD3) of a waste is 75 mg/liter and the BOD decay constant, k is 0.345 per day, what is the ultimate
BOD?
Given:
BOD3 = 75 mg/L
k = 0.345 per day
t = 3 days
Required: Lo = ?

Solutions:
BODt = Lo (1 – e-kt) BOD Rate Equation
where: BODt = Biochemical Oxygen Demand after t days.
Lo = ultimate BOD, the maximum oxygen consumption possible when the waste has been completely degraded
Lo = BODt
(1 – e-kt)
Lo = 75 .
(1 – e-(0.345/day)(3 days))
Lo = 116 mg/L

Example # 2:
An industry discharges its liquid waste into a river that has a minimum flow rate of 10 m3/s. The major pollutant is a
nonreactive organic material called P. The waste stream has a flowrate of 0.1 m 3/s and the concentration of P in the
waste stream is 3000 mg/L. Upstream pollution has caused a concentration of 20 mg/L of P in the river under the
minimum flow rate conditions.
Calculate for the resulting downstream concentration of the river after mixing.
Refer to a similar problem on page 414 ( e-book)
• Solution:
Set a material balance on P for an interval of 1 second.
Input = Output + Accumulation
Accumulation is zero, since there’s an assumption of complete mixing in the river.
Let Q = be the flow rate in m3/s
C = be the concentration in mg/L
Input = Output
(QC)waste stream + (QC)upstream = (QC)downstream
• substituting values;
(0.1 m3/s)(3000 mg/L)+ (10 m3/s)(20 mg/L) =
(10.1 m3/s)(Cd mg/L)
solving for Cd:
Cd = 49.5 mg/L
LAND POLLUTION
What is Land Pollution
 the degradation or destruction of earth’s surface and soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities.
 the deposition of solid or liquid waste materials on land or underground in a manner that can contaminate
the soil and groundwater, threaten public health, and cause unsightly conditions and nuisances.

The waste materials that cause land pollution are broadly classified as:
 Municipal solid waste (MSW, also called municipal refuse) - MSW includes nonhazardous garbage, rubbish, and
trash from homes, institutions (e.g., schools), commercial establishments, and industrial facilities.
 Construction and demolition (C&D) waste or debris - includes wood and metal objects,
wallboard, concrete rubble, asphalt, and other inert materials produced when structures are built, renovated, or
demolished.
 Hazardous wastes include harmful and dangerous substances generated primarily as liquids but also as solids,
sludges, or gases by various chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper mills, smelters,
machine shops, dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, and many other industries or commercial facilities.

Sources/Causes of Land Pollution

 Deforestation and soil erosion  Construction Activities
 Agricultural Activities  Sewage treatment
 Mining Activities  Nuclear Waste
 Overcrowded landfills  Ashes
 Industrialization  Oil Refineries

Effects of Land Pollution

 Chemical Effects on Life
 Many modern day chemicals and materials either do not biodegrade or break down, or if they do, then
break down into smaller chemical particles. These particles poison the ground itself. Plants growing in the
ground, animals that eat the plants and even humans are all affected by these chemicals. This can lead to
the loss of some types of plant and animal life as well as create long-term health problems such as cancer
in humans.

 Damaging Effects to the Land

 When land pollution is bad enough, it damages the soil. This means that plants may fail to grow there,
robbing the eco-system of a food source for animals. Eco-systems may also be upset by pollution when the
soil fails to sustain native plants, but can still support other vegetation. Invasive weeds that choke off the
remaining sources of native vegetation can spring up in areas that have been weakened by pollution.
 Erosion
 Erosion leads to the loss of topsoil in the earth. This loss can spread, meaning that nearby areas that may
not be contaminated with pollutants begin to erode, spreading the loss of vegetation and life.
 Spreading Pollution
 Land pollution can be caused by contact with contaminated areas, like polluted water ways or acid rain
created from air pollution. Land pollution that contaminates soil can also contaminate waterways.
Contaminated water that evaporates into the atmosphere can fall back to the earth as acid rain, causing
the cycle of contamination and pollution to continue.
Soil Pollution
 Change in Climate Patterns
 Environmental Impact
 Effect on Human Health
 Cause Air Pollution
 Distraction for Tourism
 Effect on Wild Life

Pollution Control
 Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of emissions and effluents into
air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade
 the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than
pollution control. In the field of land development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention
of urban runoff.

Prevention/Solution to Land Pollution

• Make people aware about the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.
• Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities.
• Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in landfill site.
• Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage.
• Buy biodegradable products.
• Do Organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use of pesticides.
• Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

Soil Pollution:
 The introduction of substances, biological organisms, or energy into the soil,
 resulting in a change of the soil quality,
 which is likely to affect the normal use of the soil or endangering public health and the living environment.

 Soil contaminants are spilled onto the surface through many different activities.
 Most of these are the result of accidents involving the vehicles that are transporting waste material from site of
origin to a disposal site.
 Others involve accidents involving vehicles (automobiles, trucks and airplanes) not transporting wastes, but
carrying materials, including fuel, that when spilled contaminate the soil.
 Other spills are the direct action of humans pouring potentially toxic materials (solvents, paints, household
cleaning agents, oil, etc.) onto the soil surface rather than disposing these materials by more appropriate means.
 Illegal dumping is the disposal of waste in unauthorized areas.
 It is also known as “open dumping”, “fly dumping”, and “mid-night dumping”.
 Illegal dumps occur most often along isolated roadsides in remote areas of the country.
 Materials often found in illegal dumps include large household appliances, tires, excess building materials, old
furniture, oil, household chemicals, and common household refuse.
 Video clip of dumping - http://www.dnr.mo.gov/videos.htm

Pollutant on soil surface

 When any liquid pollutant is on or just below the ground surface for any period of time, one of three things could
happen to it, if it is not cleaned up first.
 1- pollutant might be washed away by precipitation, causing little or no harm to the ground on which it was
found.
 pollutants will simply accumulate somewhere else)
 2- the pollutant, if volatile, could evaporate, again causing little harm to the soil (however, not a solution to the
bigger pollution problem, as it might become a source of air pollution).
 3- pollutant could infiltrate through the unsaturated soil, in much the same way as ground water.
 Agricultural practices, including the use of agricultural chemicals, are another primary source of pollution on or
near the ground surface.
 Most agricultural chemicals are water-soluble nitrates and phosphates that are applied to fields, lawns and
gardens to stimulate the growth of crops, grass and flowers.

Ag Chemicals
 When not used by the plants the nutrients can enter streams and lakes during the run-off or leaching events.
 Once in a body of water, these nutrients continue to promote the growth of plants, the resulting plant detritus is
food for micro-organisms, and as the population of such organisms grows, the supply of oxygen in the water is
depleted.
 "Biochemical Oxygen Demand", or "BOD".
 Water is capable of supporting a large population of bacteria and the bacteria will have a high demand for
oxygen.
 Soon the oxygen supply is depleted by the bacteria and other organisms in the water now lack oxygen (fish kills)
Information needed to clean up materials added to soil include:
1) Kind of material - organic or inorganic - is the material biodegradable, is the material dangerous to animals
and humans,
2) how much material was added to the soil, will it overload the organisms in the soil;
3) C:N ratio of the material, are additional nutrients needed ( N & P)
4) Kind of Soil - will the soil be able to handle the material before groundwater is contaminated,
5) Growing conditions for the soil organisms - is it too cold, too wet etc.
6) How long has the material been on the site - is there evidence of environmental problems, is it undergoing
decomposition.
7) Immediate danger to people and the environment - Urgency of the situation.

Bioremediation
A treatment process that uses microorganisms (yeast, fungi, or bacteria) to break down, or degrade, hazardous
substances into less toxic or nontoxic substances (carbon dioxide and water)

Conditions that favor Bioremediation

 Temperature favorable for organisms
 Water available (near field capacity)
 Nutrients (N, P, K) in adequate supply
 C:N ratio of material < 30:1
 Material added is similar to naturally occurring organic material
 Oxygen in sufficient quantity

In-situ-Bioremediation
 Biostimulation (stimulates biological activity)
 Bioventing (Inject air/nutrients into unsaturated zone – good for midweight petroleum, jet fuel)
 Biosparging (Inject air/nutrients into unsaturated and saturated zones)
 Bioaugmentation (inoculates soil with microbes)

Less expensive
• Creates less dust
• Less possibility of contaminant release into environment
• Good for large volumes
• Slower
• Doesn’t work well in clays or highly layered subsurfaces
Ex-situ -Bioremediation
 Slurry-phase
 Soil combined with water/additives in tank, microorganisms, nutrients,
oxygen added
 Solid-phase
 Land-farming: soil put on pad, leachate collected
 Soil biopiles: soil heaped, air added
 Composting: biodegradable waste mixed with bulking agent
 Land Applied – waste added directly to soil which is later planted to a crop.

• Easier to control
• Used to treat wider range of contaminants and soil types
• Costly
• Faster

Slurry, Solid Phase, & Land Applied

Using Plants for pollution cleanup
 Scientists are studying how plants can be used to bind up soil pollution found at national nuclear laboratories and
nuclear power plants, where radioactive and other toxic wastes may reach groundwater.
 Plants, soil, and microbes in the soil work together to determine which metals and nutrients plants take up from
the soil.
 Some plants excrete a variety of different chemicals into the soil, some of which act as signals to soil organisms.
 The challenge is to find out how plants release these chemicals and how these chemicals interact with microbes
and soil.
 Eventually scientists may be able to induce plants to release the chemicals that immobilize wastes in the soil.
 Source: UC Davis Magazine Spring 2002

Processes affecting the dissipation of organic chemicals

Affect of soil pH on adsorption of 4 heavy metals

  BUTER BURN -Just how does a city go about cleaning up after a flood of melted butter?
 "You hire somebody else to do it, that's how," joked Tom MacAulay, New Ulm's assistant city manager, two days
after a dramatic fire destroyed much of the Associated Milk Producers Inc. (AMPI) butter-packaging plant in town,
sending an estimated 1 million pounds of hot, liquid butter pouring onto nearby streets and sidewalks.
 On Friday, a day after the great butter cleanup began, city and private construction crews were still going about
the tricky task of removing the goo and the grease from streets, sidewalks and sewer lines. Despite steady
progress, the going was slow.
 "It's not everyday you get a challenge like this," MacAulay said. "It's pretty nasty."
 A day earlier, crews using bobcats and tractors scooped up much of the butter that had hardened in the
December cold, dumping chunk after frozen chunk into dump trucks, which hauled the grease to a nearby landfill
to break down and decompose.
 Boom blocks butter.

All told, an estimated $6 million worth of butter -- about half of what was stored at the plant the night of
the fire -- spilled and was removed.

 Yet for all the progress, much work remained Friday.

 Butter that spilled into the city's storm sewer system stuck to the lining of the pipes, which will need to be jet
sprayed and cleaned. And though First North Street -- where much of the butter pooled -- had been stripped
clean of the worst of it, a good quarter-inch of slime remained on the pavement, even if it couldn't be seen.
 "You cannot scrape all that butterfat off the street," said Tom Patterson, the city's street commissioner. "And it's
even more dangerous if you can't see it."
 Patterson said crews plan to cover the street with sand -- some of which was piled into a berm to stem the flow
of the butter at the height of the fire -- in coming days in hopes of absorbing the remaining grease. At some
point, he said, the city hopes to sweep the street clean, scoop up the sand and deposit it in a landfill, allowing the
street to be reopened for traffic.
 "It's something you just never would guess we'd be dealing with," Patterson said. "This is all new to everybody."

Dyad on Pollution
1) A lot of the melted butter was soaked up with sand.
2) What could be done with the polluted sand besides dumping it in a land fill. Do you think dumping the solid
butter that was scrapped off the roads in the landfill was a good idea?
 LAND POLLUTION
Definition:
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials,
or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health.
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's rocky surface. The organic portion,
which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals, is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The
inorganic portion made up of rock fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of
bedrock. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.

The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:

• Petroleum hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents

Types of Soil Pollution

• Agricultural Soil Pollution • Soil pollution by industrial • Pollution due to urban activities
i) pollution of surface soil effluents and solid wastes i) pollution of surface soil
ii) pollution of underground soil i) pollution of surface soil ii) pollution of underground soil
ii) disturbances in soil profile

Causes of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment.
This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage links, application of pesticides,
percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or
direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil.
The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy
metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensities of chemical
usage.
A soil pollutant is any factor which deteriorates the quality, texture and mineral content of the soil or which disturbs
the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. Pollution in soil has adverse effect on plant growth.

Pollution in soil is associated with

• Indiscriminate use of fertilizers
• Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
• Dumping of large quantities of solid waste
• Deforestation and soil erosion

Indiscriminate use of fertilizers

Soil nutrients are important for plant growth and development. Plants obtain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from
air and water. But other necessary nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,calcium, magnesium, sulfur and more
must be obtained from the soil. Farmers generally use fertilizers to correct soil deficiencies. Fertilizers contaminate the soil
with impurities, which come from the raw materials used for their manufacture. Mixed fertilizers often contain ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3), phosphorus as P2O5, and potassium as K2O. For instance, As, Pb and Cd present in traces in rock
phosphate mineral get transferred to super phosphate fertilizer. Since the metals are not degradable, their accumulation in
the soil above their toxic levels due to excessive use of phosphate fertilizers, becomes an indestructible poison for crops.
The over use of NPK fertilizers reduce quantity of vegetables and crops grown on soil over the years. It also reduces
the protein content of wheat, maize, grams, etc., grown on that soil. The carbohydrate quality of such crops also gets
degraded. Excess potassium content in soil decreases Vitamin C and carotene content in vegetables and fruits. The
vegetables and fruits grown on over fertilized soil are more prone to attacks by insects and disease.

Indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides

Plants on which we depend for food are under attack from insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, rodents and other
animals, and must compete with weeds for nutrients. To kill unwanted populations living in or on their crops, farmers use
pesticides. The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War II and included DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and gammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to DDT and as the chemical did not
decompose readily, it persisted in the environment. Since it was soluble in fat rather than water, it biomagnified up the
food chain and disrupted calcium metabolism in birds, causing eggshells to be thin and fragile. As a result, large birds of
prey such as the brown pelican, ospreys, falcons and eagles became endangered. DDT has been now been banned in most
western countries. Ironically many of them including USA, still produce DDT for export to other developing nations whose
needs outweigh the problems caused by it.
The most important pesticides are DDT, BHC, chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, aldrin, malathion,
dieldrin, furodan, etc. The remnants of such pesticides used on pests may get adsorbed by the soil particles, which then
contaminate root crops grown in that soil. The consumption of such crops causes the pesticides remnants to enter human
biological systems, affecting them
adversely.
An infamous herbicide used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War called Agent Orange (dioxin), was eventually banned.
Soldiers' cancer cases, skin conditions and infertility have been linked to exposure to Agent Orange. Pesticides not only
bring toxic effect on human and animals but also decrease the fertility of the soil. Some of the pesticides are quite stable
and their bio- degradation may take weeks and even months. Pesticide problems such as resistance, resurgence, and heath
effects have caused scientists to seek alternatives. Pheromones and hormones to attract or repel insects and using natural
enemies or sterilization by radiation have been suggested.

Dumping of solid wastes

In general, solid waste includes garbage, domestic refuse and discarded solid materials such as those from
commercial, industrial and agricultural operations. They contain increasing amounts of paper, cardboards, plastics, glass,
old construction material, packaging material and toxic or otherwise hazardous substances. Since a significant amount of
urban solid waste tends to be paper and food waste, the majority is recyclable or biodegradable in landfills. Similarly, most
agricultural waste is recycled and mining waste is left on site.
The portion of solid waste that is hazardous such as oils, battery metals, heavy metals from smelting industries and
organic solvents are the ones we have to pay particular attention to. These can in the long run, get deposited to the soils
of the surrounding area and pollute them by altering their chemical and biological properties. They also contaminate drinking
water aquifer sources. More than 90% of hazardous waste is produced by chemical, petroleum and metal-related industries
and small businesses such as dry cleaners and gas stations contribute as well.
Solid Waste disposal was brought to the forefront of public attention by the notorious Love
Canal case in USA in 1978. Toxic chemicals leached from oozing storage drums into the soil underneath homes, causing an
unusually large number of birth defects, cancers and respiratory, nervous and kidney diseases.

Soil Erosion occurs when the weathered soil particles are dislodged and carried away by wind or water.
Deforestation, agricultural development, temperature extremes, precipitation including acid rain, and human activities
contribute to this erosion. Humans speed up this process by construction, mining, cutting of timber, over cropping and
overgrazing. It results in floods and cause soil erosion.
Forests and grasslands are an excellent binding material that keeps the soil intact and healthy. They support many
habitats and ecosystems, which provide innumerable feeding pathways or food chains to all species. Their loss would
threaten food chains and the survival of many species. During the past few years quite a lot of vast green land has been
converted into deserts. The precious rain forest habitats of South America, tropical Asia and Africa are coming under
pressure of population growth and development (especially timber, construction and agriculture).
Many scientists believe that a wealth of medicinal substances including a cure for cancer and aids, lie in these
forests. Deforestation is slowly destroying the most productive flora and fauna areas in the world, which also form vast
tracts of a very valuable sink for CO 2.

Pollution of surface soils

Urban activities generate large quantities of city wastes including several Biodegradable materials (like vegetables,
animal wastes, papers, wooden pieces, carcasses, plant twigs, leaves, cloth wastes as well as sweepings) and many non-
biodegradable materials (such as plastic bags, plastic bottles, plastic wastes, glass bottles, glass pieces, stone / cement
pieces). On a rough estimate Indian cities are producing solid city wastes to the tune of 50,000 - 80,000 metric tons every
day.
If left uncollected and decomposed, they are a cause of several problems such as:

• Clogging of drains: Causing serious drainage problems including the burst / leakage of drainage lines leading to health
problems.
• Barrier to movement of water: Solid wastes have seriously damaged the normal movement of water thus creating problem
of inundation, damage to foundation of buildings as well as public health hazards.
• Foul smell: Generated by dumping the wastes at a place.
• Increased microbial activities: Microbial decomposition of organic wastes generate large quantities of methane besides
many chemicals to pollute the soil and water flowing on its surface
• When such solid wastes are hospital wastes they create many health problems: As they may have dangerous pathogen
within them besides dangerous medicines, injections.
Pollution of Underground Soil
Many dangerous chemicals like cadmium, chromium, lead, arsenic, selenium products are likely to be deposited in
underground soil. Similarly underground soil polluted by sanitary wastes generate many harmful chemicals. These can
damage the normal activities and ecological balance in the underground soil

• Reduced soil fertility • Release of radioactive rays causing health problems

• Reduced nitrogen fixation • Increased salinity
• Increased erodibility • Reduced vegetation
• Larger loss of soil and nutrients • Clogging of drains
• Deposition of silt in tanks and reservoirs • Inundation of areas
• Reduced crop yield • Public health problems
• Imbalance in soil fauna and flora • Pollution of drinking water sources
• Dangerous chemicals entering underground water • Foul smell and release of gases
• Ecological imbalance • Waste management problems
• Release of pollutant gases

Environmental Long Term Effects of Soil Pollution

When it comes to the environment itself, the toll of contaminated soil is even direr. Soil that has been contaminated should
no longer be used to grow food, because the chemicals can leech into the food and harm people who eat it.
If contaminated soil is used to grow food, the land will usually produce lower yields than it would if it were not
contaminated. This, in turn, can cause even more harm because a lack of plants on the soil will cause more erosion,
spreading the contaminants onto land that might not have been tainted before.
In addition, the pollutants will change the makeup of the soil and the types of microorganisms that will live in it. If
certain organisms die off in the area, the larger predator animals will also have to move away or die because they've lost
their food supply. Thus it's possible for soil pollution to change whole ecosystems

Effects of soil pollution in brief:

• pollution runs off into rivers and kills the fish, plants and other aquatic life
• crops and fodder grown on polluted soil may pass the pollutants on to the consumers
• polluted soil may no longer grow crops and fodder
• Soil structure is damaged (clay ionic structure impaired)
• corrosion of foundations and pipelines
• impairs soil stability
• may release vapors and hydrocarbon into buildings and cellars
• may create toxic dusts
• may poison children playing in the area

“Control of soil pollution”

Applying bio-fertilizers and manures can reduce chemical fertilizer and pesticide use.
Biological methods of pest control can also reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize soil pollution.

Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be reused at domestic levels rather than being
disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.

This is a reasonable solution for reducing soil pollution. Materials such as paper, some kinds of plastics and glass
can and are being recycled. This decreases the volume of refuse and helps in the conservation of natural resources. For
example, recovery of one tonne of paper can save 17 trees.

Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest and grass cover to check wastelands,
soil erosion and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the fertility of the land.

Proper methods should be adopted for management of solid waste disposal. Industrial wastes can be treated
physically, chemically and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and alkaline wastes should be first neutralized;
the insoluble material if biodegradable should be allowed to degrade under controlled conditions before being disposed.
 As a last resort, new areas for storage of hazardous waste should be investigated such as deep well injection and
more secure landfills. Burying the waste in locations situated away from residential areas is the simplest and most widely
used technique of solid waste management. Environmental and aesthetic considerations must be taken into consideration
before selecting the dumping sites. Incineration of other wastes is expensive and leaves a huge residue and adds to air
pollution.
Pyrolysis is a process of combustion in absence of oxygen or the material burnt under controlled atmosphere of oxygen. It
is an alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid thus obtained can be used as fuels. Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes
like firewood, coconut, palm waste, corn combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and saw dust, yields charcoal along
with products like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and a fuel gas.

Land pollution occurs massively during earth quakes, landslides, hurricanes and floods. All cause hard to clean
mess, which is expensive to clean, and may sometimes take years to restore the affected area.
These kinds of natural disasters are not only a problem in that they cause pollution but also because they leave
many victims homeless.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
PLAN OF THE PRESENTATION

 Introduction to waste and  Effect of solid waste  Republic Act (RA) 9003
types  Concept of Solid Waste
 Solid waste Management
 Types of solid waste  Disposal of Waste

What are Wastes?

 Waste (also known as rubbish, refuse, garbage, junk) is unwanted or useless materials.

 In biology, waste in any of the many unwanted substances expelled from living organisms. (Metabolic
waste; such as urea and sweat.

Kinds of Wastes

Solid wastes: wastes in solid forms, domestic, commercial and industrial wastes.

Examples: plastics, bottles, cans, papers, scrap iron, and other trash

Liquid wastes: wastes in liquid form. Examples: domestic washing, chemicals, oils, waste water from ponds,
manufacturing industries and other sources.

Bio-degradable: can be degraded (paper, wood, fruit and others)

Non-biodegradable: cannot be degraded (plastics, bottles, old machines, cans, Styrofoam containers and others)

Hazardous wastes: Substances unsafe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically.(Properties:

ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity)

Non-hazardous: Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically and do not have any of
those properties mentioned above.

Solid Waste

 It is defined as“ non liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from municipal garbage to industrial wastes that
contain complex and sometimes hazardous substances”

 Solid waste also include

 Garbage  Sewage treatment residue

 Rubbish  Dead animals
 Demolition products  Manure and other discarded material

Classification of wastes according to their origin and type

 Municipal Solid wastes: Solid wastes that include household garbage, rubbish, construction and packaging
materials, trade refuges etc.

 Bio-medical wastes: Solid of liquid wastes including containers, products generated during diagnosis, treatment &
research activities of medical sciences.
  Industrial wastes: Liquid and solid wastes that are generated by manufacturing & processing units of various
industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal gas, Sanitary & paper etc.

 Agricultural wastes: Wastes generated from farming activities. This substances are mostly biodegradable.

 Fishery wastes. Wastes generated due to fishery activities.

 E-wastes (Electronic wastes): generated from any modern establishment. Such as wires, circuits, mobile,
computers etc.

Sources of Wastes

 Household

 Industry

 Agriculture

 Fisheries

EFFECTS OF SOLID WASTE

A. Health hazard

 If solid waste are not collected and allowed to accumulate, they may
 This may lead to epidemic outbreaks.
 Many diseases like cholera, Diarrhea, dysentery, plague, or gastro-Intestinal diseases may spread and cause loss
of human lives.
 In addition improper handling of the solid wastes, a health hazard for the workers who come in direct contact
with the waste.

B. Environmental impact

 If the solid wastes are not treated properly decomposition and

 The organic solid waste during decomposition may generate obnozious (intolerable odour)

The Concept of Solid Waste Management

The 3 R’s :

REDUCE

 Buy things that are packages that can be recycled or are made of recycled materials.

 When you buy something small, say no thanks to a bag.

REUSE

 Many things can be reused before you throw them out.

 Use old clothes as rags for cleaning instead of paper towels
 Have a garage sale or donate clothes, books or toys that you don’t use anymore.
 Use backs of paper or backs of used envelopes for jotting notes.
 Put leftovers in resalable containers instead of using wraps and foil
RECYCLE

Each year we use :

 25 billion plastic containers

 30 billion bottles & jars
 65 billion aluminum cans
 100 billion pounds of paper

Solid Waste Management

Waste management is the

 Storage
 Collection
 Transport and Handling
 Recycling
 Disposal and monitoring of waste materials

STORAGE

 Galvanized steel dust bin

 Paper sack
 Public bins

COLLECTION

 House-to-house collection
 Collection from the public bins

WASTE HANDLING AND TRANSPORT

 Waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to a larger transport equipment.

RECYCLING

 Recycling refers to the collection and refuse of

waste materials such as empty beverage container.

 The materials from which the items are made can

be processed into new products.

DISPOSAL OF WASTE

 OCEAN DUMPING  OPEN DUMPING

 SANITARY LANDFILL  RECYCLING
 INCINERATION
Republic Act (RA) 9003

 Republic Act (RA) 9003 or the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 a landmark environmental
legislation in the Philippines.

 The law was crafted in response to the looming garbage problems in the country.

 RA 9003 declares the policy of the state in adopting a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste
management program that ensures the protection of public health and the environment and the proper
segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and
adoption of best environmental practices

 Moreover, it illustrates the potentials and benefits of recycling not only in addressing waste management
problems but also in alleviating poverty.

RULES AND REGULATIONS

 littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places.

 undertaking activities in violation of sanitation operation
 open burning of solid waste
 causing non-segregated waste
 squatting in open dumps and landfills
 open dumping, burying of biodegradable materials in flood-prone areas
 unauthorized removal of recyclable material
 mixing of source-separated recyclable material with other solid waste
 establishment or operation of open-dumps
 manufacturing, distributing, using, and importing consumer products that are non-environmentally-friendly
materials
 importing toxic wastes misrepresented as “recyclable” or“with recyclable content”
 transporting and dumping in bulk in areas other than facility centers
 site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste management facilities without an Environmental
Compliance Certificate and not conforming with the land use plan of LGUs
 construction of establishment within 200 meters from dump sites or sanitary landfills
  operation of waste disposal facility on any aquifer, groundwater reservoir or watershed area.

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

a. Department of Environment and Natural h. Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA)

Resources (DENR) Secretary Roy A. Cimatu
b. Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG) Secretary Eduardo M. Año
c. Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Secretary Fortunato Tanseco de la Peña
d. Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) Secretary Mark Villar
e. Department of Health (DOH) Secretary
Francisco Duque
f. Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)
Secretary Ramon M. Lopez
g. Department of Agriculture (DA) Secretary
William Dar
Secretary Benjamin Abalos Jr.
i. League of Provinces of the Philippines (LPP)
j. League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP)
k. League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP)
l. Liga ng Mga Barangay
m. Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA) Secretary Irene M. Isaac
n. Philippine Information Agency (PIA)
o. League of provincial governors
p. League of city mayors
q. League of municipal mayors
r. Association of barangay councils

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

According to EPA regulations, SOLID WASTE is

• Any garbage or refuse (Municipal Solid Waste)

• Sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility

• Other discarded material

• Solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations,
and from community activities

Trash or garbage is called Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, batteries...

"In 2010, Americans generated about 250 million tons of trash and recycled and composted over 85 million tons of this
material, equivalent to a 34.1 percent recycling rate. On average, we recycled and composted 1.51 pounds of our individual
waste generation of 4.43 pounds per person per day."
"By recycling almost 8 million tons of metals (which includes aluminum, steel, and mixed metals), we eliminated greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions totaling more than 26 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MMTCO2E). This is equivalent
to removing more than 5 million cars from the road for one year."

CATEGORIES OF WASTE DISPOSAL

Basically this involves spreading trash thinly over a large area to minimize its impact
Works for sewage, some waste chemicals, when land-disposal is not available

Historically, that's how most of the solid waste gets treated.

MUNICIPAL WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

1. OPEN DUMPS (rarely used in the USA anymore):

They are "open"

 Minimum effort and expense

 Unsanitary and smelly
 Vermin and pests
 Contaminate soil, water and air
 Fire hazard

2. Sanitary Landfill (AKA Municipal Solid Waste Landfill)

SANITARY LANDFILLS (accommodate 57% of total municipal solid waste):

• Each day trash is spread in thin layers

• Compacted down

• Covered with a soil layer

• Graded for drainage

Sanitary landfills have largely replaced open dumps.

JOHN MANIACI - State Journal

The amount of garbage received by the Dane County Landfill, 7102

Highway 12, each day is enough to cover the surface of the playing field
at Camp Randall Stadium to a depth of six inches, said Gerald Mandli,
director of public works for the county.
Site selection criteria for a landfill (page 16 of the DMG)

• Is it too close to airports? (bird hazard to aircrafts)

• Is it on a flood plain/wetland?
• Is it too close to a fault (200 feet or less)?
• Is it within seismic zones?
• Is it located on unstable areas, such as landslide-prone areas, areas with sinkholes etc.?

Properly designed Sanitary landfills:

• Prevent water infiltration and leaching of toxic fluids

(LEACHATE = a liquid that has passed through or emerged from solid waste and contains soluble, suspended, or miscible
materials removed from such waste)

• Prevent water pollution

• Reduce Vermin and pests
• Reduce smell, toxic gases and fire hazard

Problems with landfills...

• Landfills require space

• Produce methane gas (can be used for energy, or can cause climate change)
• Leachate must be collected and treated
• Potential for water pollution
• NOT a long-term remedy

If not landfill, then...?

3. INCINERATION (burning):

• Significantly reduces the volume of garbage

• Produces heat energy for generating electricity
• Materials such as batteries, glass etc. are NOT suitable for incineration
• Causes air pollution
• Creates toxic ash and other solid waste
Sample Problems
Solid Waste Problems…

Example # 1:
Determine the area (m2) required for a new landfill site with a projected life of 30 yrs. for a population of
250,000 generating 2.05 kg/capita-day. The density of the compacted waste is 470 kg/m 3. The height of the
landfill cannot exceed 15 meters.

Solution:

Assuming that what goes into the landfill compacted remains in the landfill for perpetuity.

Vol. of waste/day = (250,000)(2.05)

470
= 1,090.425532 m3/day

Total vol. (within 30 yrs.)

= (1,090.425532) m3/day(365 days/yr)(30 yrs)
= 11,940,159.57 m3

Area of the landfill = 11,940,159.57 m3

15 m
= 796,010.6383 m2

Example # 2:

A town of 20,000 people in Germany generates 0.95 kg/capita-day of MSW. A town of the same size in the United States
generates 1.9 kg/capita-day of MSW.

a) How much MSW is generated in each town?

b) How many trucks would be needed to collect the waste twice weekly? Each truck have a capacity of 4.5 metric
tons and operate 5 days/week. Assume that the trucks average 2 loads/day at 75% capacity.

Solution:

a) for the Germany town:

amount of MSW generated = 20,000 peoplex 0.95 kg/capital-day
= 19,000 kg/day
for the U.S. town:
amount of MSW generated = 20,000 people x 1.9 kg/capital-day
= 38,000 kg/day
b) Capacity for each truck = (2 loads/day)(4.5 tons/load)(1000kg/ton)(0.75) = 6,750 kg/day
Total amount generated by each town on a weekly basis:
Germany: (19,000 kg/day)(7 days) = 133,333
U.S. : (38,000 kg/day)(7 days) = 266,000 kg/wk

Since collection if done twice per week:

Germany: 133,000 kg or 66,500 kg every 5/2 days

2
U.S.: 266,000 kg or 133,000 kg every 5/2 days
2
 No. of trucks needed:
Germany: (66,500)/(5/2)(6750) = 3.94 ≈ 4
U.S.: (133,000)/(5/2)(6750) = 7.88 ≈ 8

Example # 3:

The inorganic waste received annually at a certain waste treatment & disposal facilities consist of solids for direct burial
(90,000 tons), sludges to be dewatered (10,000 tons), and liquids for pH adjustment (10,000 tons). The incoming
organics include oily waste (10,000 tons), solvents & other rich organics (42,000 tons), and organic sludges (10,000
tons).

a) Estimate the population served by this facilities, assuming 55 kg/capita-yr of hazardous waste is generated and
that 80% of this requires off-site disposal.

b) Determine the length of time until the landfill capacity of 1.4 million m 3 is filled, assuming 65,680 m3/yr of the
landfill is filled up.

Solution:

a) Quantities of incoming inorganics = 90,000 tons of solids + 10,000 tons of sludges + 10,000 tons of liquids =
110,000 tons
b) Quantities of incoming organics = 10,000 tons of oily waste + 42,000 tons of solvents + 10,000 tons of sludges =
62,000 tons
Total amount = 172,000 tons
Population served = (172,000)(1000 kg/tons)
(55)(0.80)
= 3.9 million
b) Expected life of the landfill = 1400000 m3
65680 m3/yr
= 21.3 years
Toxic and Hazardous Waste Management
Hazardous waste

• which is any solid or liquid waste that is considered toxic, chemically reactive, flammable or corrosive. In
terms of hazardous waste, something is considered toxic if it is harmful to human health when a person is exposed
to the substance through inhalation, ingestion or touch.

 A substance is chemically reactive when it is unstable or could react when exposed to another compound.
Hazardous waste that is considered chemically reactive is likely to explode or produce harmful fumes when exposed
to other compounds. A flammable substance is anything that is likely to catch on fire, and a corrosive substance
is something that can corrode, or break down, metals.

• Hazardous wastes are defined by their characteristics of ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.

The types of hazardous waste

 Listed waste  Universal waste

 Characteristic waste  Mixed waste
Specific procedures determine how waste is identified, classified, listed and delisted.

Industrial waste

• Risk for exposure to dangerous materials is significantly increased for those that work in industrial environments
that utilize hazardous materials in their production processes. Factory-produced goods, such as batteries, oils and
consumer electronics, regularly use hazardous materials in production, requiring proper disposal due to their legal
status by the Environmental Protection Agency as hazardous waste.

Household chemicals

• Typical home products such as disinfectants, upholstery cleaners, drain cleaners, furniture polish, turpentine and
paints can be poisonous to humans or even mix with other chemicals causing dangerous reactions such as an
explosion or fire.

Pesticides

• Pesticides are poisons that present significant toxicity dangers to humans and have been linked to skin burns, lung
disease, cancer, blindness, birth defects and even death. Organophosphates, flouroacetates and halocarbons are
common use and can cause damage to lungs, heart muscles, the brain, liver and kidneys.
Nuclear Waste

• It is the type of hazardous waste that is generated during the manufacturing of the different type of nuclear
technologies and we can also say that these wastes are produced by nuclear plants. These wastes can cause
different types of destructive problems that can immediately cause different types of cancers of skin as well as of
internal parts.

Medical Waste

• These are the waste that are produced from different types of medical process and also related to the hospitality
etc. They are biohazard in nature and can cause some incurable diseases also. Basically these wastes are generated
from the insecure disposal of the medical products such as needles and blood samplers also.

Examples of hazardous waste include:

• asbestos • Lead-acid vehicle batteries

• Oil-based paints • Pesticides
• Paints, inks and coatings with heavy metal • Cleaning products
pigments • Vehicle fluids: spent antifreeze, engine oil,
• Fluorescent light bulbs and ballasts hydraulic oil, brake cleaners
• Degreasing solvents • Electronic wastes: computer monitors
• Chlorinated solvents • Metal wastes: lead, mercury, copper, zinc

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6969

Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act
of 1990."

a.) Chemical substance means any organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity.
b.) Chemical mixture means any combination of two or more chemical substances
c.) Process means the preparation of a chemical substance or mixture after its manufacture for commercial distribution.
d.) Importation means the entry of a product or substance into the Philippines
e.) Manufacture means the mechanical or chemical transformation of substances into new products.
f.) Hazardous substances are substances which present either:

1.) short-term acute hazards

2.) long-term environmental hazards

g) Hazardous wastes are defined as substances that are without any safe commercial, industrial, agricultural or economic
usage and are shipped, transported or brought from the country of origin for dumping or disposal into or in transit through
any part of the territory of the Philippines.

h) Nuclear wastes are hazardous wastes made radioactive by exposure to the radiation incidental to the production or
utilization of nuclear fuels.

Inter-agency Technical Advisory Council.

 Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources - Chairman (

 Secretary of Health - Member
 Director of the Philippine Nuclear Research Institute - Member
  Secretary of Trade and Industry - Member
 Secretary of Science and Technology - Member
 Secretary of National Defense - Member
 Secretary of Foreign Affairs - Member
 Secretary of Labor and Employment - Member
 Secretary of Finance - Member
 Secretary of Agriculture - Member
 Representative from the non-governmental
 Organization on health and safety - Member

This Act which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 255 and House Bill No. 25194 was finally passed by both the
Senate and the House of Representatives on September 6, 1990.

Approved: OCTOBER 26, 1990

CORAZON C. AQUINO
President of the Philippines

Toxic and Hazardous Substances

What is hazardous waste?

Even when used properly, many chemicals can still harm human health and the environment. When these hazardous
substances are thrown away, they become hazardous waste. Hazardous waste is most often a by-product of a
manufacturing process - material left after products are made. Some hazardous wastes come from our homes: our garbage
can include such hazardous wastes as old batteries, bug spray cans, and paint thinner. Regardless of the source, unless we
dispose of hazardous waste properly, it can create health risks for people and damage the environment.

What kinds of hazardous waste are there?

Most hazardous waste is identified by one or more of its dangerous properties or characteristics: corrosive,
ignitable, reactive, or toxic.

• Corrosive - A corrosive material can wear away (corrode) or destroy a substance. For example, most acids are corrosives
that can eat through metal, burn skin on contact, and give off vapors that burn the eyes.

• Ignitable - An ignitable material can burst into flames easily. It poses a fire hazard; can irritate the skin, eyes, and lungs;
and may give off harmful vapors. Gasoline, paint, and furniture polish are ignitable.

• Reactive - A reactive material can explode or create poisonous gas when combined with other chemicals. For example,
chlorine bleach and ammonia are reactive and create a poisonous gas when they come into contact with each other.

•Toxic - Toxic materials or substances can poison people and other life. Toxic substances can cause illness and even death
if swallowed or absorbed through the skin. Pesticides, weed killers, and many household cleaners are toxic.
Where does hazardous waste go?

Ideally, hazardous waste is reused or recycled. If this is not possible, hazardous waste is safely contained while it is stored,
transported, and properly disposed of to prevent an accidental release into the environment. Advances in technology have
greatly improved our ability to treat or dispose of hazardous waste in a way that prevents it from harming people or the
environment. Typical methods of hazardous waste storage and disposal include surface impoundments (storing it in
lined ponds)

high temperature incineration (controlled burning), municipal and hazardous waste landfills (burying it in the ground),
and deep well injection (pumping it into underground wells). More promising methods focus on minimizing waste, reusing
and recycling chemicals, finding less hazardous alternatives, and using innovative treatment technologies.

What are the dangers of hazardous waste management?

Proper management and control can greatly reduce the dangers of hazardous waste. There are many rules for managing
hazardous waste and preventing releases into the environment. Even so, a lot can go wrong when we try to contain
hazardous waste. Even the most technologically advanced landfills we build will leak some day. Tanks used for storing
petroleum products and other chemicals can leak and catch fire; underground storage tanks weaken over time and leak
their hazardous contents.

Transportation accidents, such as train crashes and overturned trucks, can occur while transporting hazardous substances.
There are also cases of intentional and illegal dumping of hazardous waste in sewer systems, abandoned warehouses, or
ditches in remote areas to avoid the costs and rules of safe disposal.

Source of Hazardous Waste

Sources of hazardous waste include hospitals, timber treatment, petrol storage, metal finishing, paint manufacture, vehicle
servicing, tanneries, agriculture/horticulture, electricity distribution and dry cleaning.
How can hazardous waste affect us?

When hazardous wastes are released in the air, water, or on the land they can spread, contaminating even more of the
environment and posing greater threats to our health. For example, when rain falls on soil at a waste site, it can carry
hazardous waste deeper into the ground and the underlying groundwater. If a very small amount of a hazardous substance
is released, it may become diluted to the point where it will not cause injury. A hazardous substance can cause injury or
death to a person, plant, or animal if:

• A large amount is released at one time

• A small amount is released many times at the same place
• The substance does not become diluted
• The substance is very toxic (for example, arsenic).

Coming into contact with a substance is called an exposure. The effects of exposure depend on:

• How the substance is used and disposed of

• Who is exposed to it
• The concentration, or dose, of exposure
• How someone is exposed
• How long or how often someone is exposed.
• Inhalation - we can breathe vapors from hazardous liquids or even from contaminated water while taking a shower.

• Ingestion - we can eat fish, fruits and vegetables, or meat that has been contaminated through exposure to hazardous
substances. Also, small children often eat soil or household materials that may be contaminated, such as paint chips
containing lead. Probably the most common type of exposure is drinking contaminated water.

• Dermal exposure - a substance can come into direct contact with and be absorbed by our skin. Exposures can be either
acute or chronic. An acute exposure is a single exposure to a hazardous substance for a short time. Health symptoms may
appear immediately after exposure; for example, the death of a fly when covered with bug spray or a burn on your arm
when exposed to a strong acid such as from a leaking battery.

Chronic exposure occurs over a much longer period of time, usually with repeated exposures in smaller amounts. For
example, people who lived near Love Canal, a leaking hazardous waste dump, did not notice the health effects of their
chronic exposure for several years. Chronic health effects are typically illnesses or injuries that take a long time to develop,
such as cancer, liver failure, or slowed growth and development.

One reason chronic exposure to even tiny amounts of hazardous substances can lead to harm is bioaccumulation. Some
substances are absorbed and stay in our bodies rather than being excreted. They accumulate and cause harm over time.

Effects of Hazardous Substances X and Sites X

Nearly every activity leaves behind some kind of waste in the environment. Households create ordinary garbage. Cars,
trucks, and buses emit exhaust gases while in operation. Industrial and manufacturing processes create solid and hazardous
waste. Some wastes contain chemicals that are hazardous to people and the environment. Once these hazardous chemicals
are present in the environment, people can become exposed to them. Exposure occurs when people have contact with a
chemical, either directly or through another substance contaminated with a chemical.

The place where the chemical originates is called the source. Chemicals can enter the environment from many different
sources such as landfills, incinerators, tanks, drums, or factories. Human exposure to hazardous chemicals can occur at the
source or the chemical could move to a place where people can come into contact with it. Chemicals can move through air,
soil, and water. They can also be on plants or animals, and can get into the air we breathe, the food we eat and the water
we drink.

The different ways a person can come into contact with hazardous chemicals are called exposure pathways. There are three
basic exposure pathways: inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. Inhalation is breathing or inhaling into the lungs. Ingestion
is taking something in by mouth. Skin contact occurs when something comes in direct contact with the skin. Ingestion can
be a secondary exposure pathway after skin contact has occurred, if you put your hands in your mouth and transfer the
chemical from your hands to your mouth.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed informational summaries on selected chemicals to describe
how people might be exposed to these chemicals and how exposure to them might affect their health. The summaries also
explain what happens to the chemicals in the environment, who regulates them, and whom to contact for additional
information.

Some common ways a person may be exposed to hazardous chemicals include:

Water - Exposure can occur when people drink contaminated groundwater or surface water, or accidentally ingest it while
swimming or showering. Direct skin contact also is an exposure pathway that occurs during activities like swimming and
showering.

Soil, Sediment, or Dust - People can be exposed to hazardous chemicals in soil, sediment, or dust if they accidentally ingest
it, breathe it in, or have direct skin contact. Children are highly susceptible to these exposure pathways. In their daily
activities, children have a tendency to have frequent hand-to-mouth contact and introduce non-food items into their mouths.

Air - Exposure can occur when people breathe in hazardous chemical vapors or air that is contaminated by hazardous
chemicals or dust.

Food - People can be exposed to hazardous chemicals through the food they eat. Food contamination can occur if the food
has come into contact with hazardous chemicals. It can also occur further down the food chain such as through eating
contaminated fish.

Exposure, the chemical getting into or on your body, has to occur to make you sick or cause adverse health effects, or have
any effect on your health. If you are not exposed to the chemical, it cannot make you sick. Also, even if exposure has
occurred, adverse health effects may not occur.

Adverse health effects are dependent on the factors of the exposure. Factors that play a part in whether or not adverse
health effects may result from an exposure are:

• the type of chemical

• The amount or dose (the amount or level of a chemical a person was exposed to); the duration (how long did
exposure occur); and the frequency (how many times the person was exposed).

Also, people respond to chemical exposure in different ways. Some people may be exposed to a chemical and not get sick.
Other people may be more sensitive to chemicals and get sick more rapidly or have more severe reactions than others.
Certain variables play a role in a person's susceptibility to exposure and adverse health effects such as age, gender, genetics,
pregnancy or other health conditions.

For the fetus, child, and adolescent, the adverse health effects from exposure to chemicals can be much greater than for
adults. The factors that affect their susceptibility include their stage of development and level of activity in the environment.
The fetus is the most susceptible because their developing organs may be permanently damaged. Similarly, children,
especially from one to six years of age, are also in a stage of rapid development.

During this period, children may take more chemical into their bodies due to body chemistry, level of activity, and relative
small body size. As children develop, chemicals introduced into the body can alter many processes essential for proper cell
development. As a result, changes can, for example, cause organs within the body to be altered, impairing proper
development to a mature organ. Adolescents may share in the risk due to their increased physical activity and curiosity of
the world around them.

The human body has the ability to tolerate certain amounts of chemicals and the ability to excrete chemicals from the body.
Once a person is exposed to a chemical, it may enter the blood stream, and eventually reach the liver. The liver attempts
to detoxify harmful chemicals in the body by converting them to less toxic ones or ones that could be used by the body.
The body naturally attempts to eliminate substances that are harmful or are not used.

The kidneys filter substances out of the blood and excrete them in urine. Also, chemicals are removed from the body in
feces, sweat and exhalation. However, the body may not be able to remove all the chemicals. The amount, type, and length
of time you are exposed to harmful substances will determine if you are at risk for adverse health effects.

Therefore, the state and federal governments have determined health-based comparison values for contaminants that when
exceeded, exposure may result in an excessive health risk. The chart below contains levels used by agencies to determine
if doses of chemicals may be harmful to human health.

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

The generation of waste and the collection, processing, transport and disposal of waste—the process of ‘waste
management’—is important for both the health of the public and aesthetic and environmental reasons. Waste is
anything discarded by an individual, household or organization. As a result waste is a complex mixture of different
substances, only some of which are intrinsically hazardous to health. The potential health effects of both waste
itself and the consequences of managing it have been the subject of a vast body of research.
Methods of Waste Management

Waste management is now tightly regulated in most developed countries and includes the generation, collection,
processing, transport and disposal of waste. In addition the remediation of waste sites is an important issue, both
to reduce hazards whilst operational and to prepare the site for a change of use (e.g. for building).

The major methods of waste management are:

1. Recycling —the recovery of materials from products after they have been used by consumers.

2. Composting —an aerobic, biological process of degradation of biodegradable organic matter.

3. Sewage treatment —a process of treating raw sewage to produce a non-toxic liquid effluent which is discharged
to rivers or sea and a semi-solid sludge, which is used as a soil amendment on land, incinerated or disposed of in
land fill.

4. Incineration —a process of combustion designed to recover energy and reduce the volume of waste going to
disposal.

5. Landfill —the deposition of waste in a specially designated area, which in modern sites consists of a pre-
constructed ‘cell’ lined with an impermeable layer (man-made or natural) and with controls to minimize emissions.

Managing Hazardous Waste

The Waste Management Hierarchy

In deciding on the best method for managing any waste there is a hierarchy for decision making which addresses
issues such as sustainability, cleaner production, health, safety, and environmental protection. It is applied to
existing or proposed practices, examining and testing these at each level, starting at the top of the hierarchy.

For hazardous waste the hierarchy is as follows:

• Eliminate the production of hazardous waste

• Where elimination is not possible apply methods to reduce the quantity or hazard involved
• Minimize amount of waste for disposal by recycling, reuse and/or recovery. This includes the recovery of energy
which may be available from the waste.
• Treat waste to stabilize, immobilize, contain or destroy hazardous properties.
• Dispose of residues with a minimum of environmental impact.
• Appropriately contain, isolate and store hazardous waste for which no acceptable treatment or disposal option is
currently available.

Waste Minimization

• Examples of ways in which waste minimization can be achieved include:

• - substituting a hazardous material used in a process with a non-hazardous material
• - process changes
• - reducing the amount of hazardous materials used
• - recovering and reusing materials
Examples of Waste Minimizations Practices

Treatment of Hazardous Wastes

Chemical Methods
Neutralization

Waste acid with an alkali e.g. sulfuric acid with sodium carbonate:

Oxidation

Using common oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide or calcium hypochlorite e.g. cyanide waste with calcium
hypochlorite:

Reduction

Used to convert inorganic substances to a less mobile and toxic form e.g. reducing Cr(VI) to Cr(III) by the use of ferrous
sulphate:

Hydrolysis

Decomposition of hazardous organic substances e.g. decomposing certain organo-phosphorus pesticides with sodium
hydroxide.
Precipitation

Particularly useful for converting hazardous heavy metals to a less mobile, insoluble form prior to disposal to a landfill e.g.
precipitation of cadmium as its hydroxide by the use of sodium hydroxide:

Physical Methods

Encapsulation

Immobilizing hazardous materials by stabilization and incorporation within a solid matrix such as cement concrete
or proprietary organic polymers prior to and filling. e.g. encapsulating beryllium in concrete

Filtration/Centrifuging/Separation

Physically separating phases containing hazardous substances from other nonhazardous constituents e.g.
separation of oils from ship bilges waters.

Biological Methods

These involve the use of microorganisms under optimized conditions to mineralize hazardous organic substances
e.g. the use of pseudomonas under aerobic conditions break down phenols.

Thermal Methods
High Temperature Incineration

In North America and Europe the treatment method most commonly used to destroy hazardous organic wastes,
including organochlorines such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), is high temperature incineration. Figure 5
schematically illustrates the processes involved. There is a high temperature incinerator for the destruction chemical
wastes in New Plymouth but its use is dedicated solely to those generated on site.
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Why do we need to manage hazardous wastes?

Steps in Identifying Hazardous Waste

 Is it a “waste”?
 Is it listed? (Table 2.1 2013-22)
 Does it exhibit one or more of the characteristics of hazardous wastes? (MSDS, conducting tests)

Does it Exhibit one of these Characteristics?

Any waste that exhibits one or more of these characteristics is considered hazardous waste

 Corrosive  Reactive
 Ignitable  Toxic

Is it a Waste?

For a material to be considered as hazardous waste, it must first be classified as a waste. The following materials are
classified as wastes:

 Industrial wastewater  Commercial grade chemicals that are discarded

 Sludge from wastewater treatment  Garbage or refuse
 Spent materials (those that could no longer be  Empty containers
used for their intended purpose)  Process residues

Classification of Hazardous Wastes

Waste
Class Description
Number
A. Wastes with Cyanide

Waste containing CN with concentration

Waste with cyanide A101
> 70 mg/L

Sulfuric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Nitric

Acid Wastes B201-B299
Acid, Phosphoric Acid, Hydrofluoric Acid,
 Mixtures of H2SO4 and HCL, organic
acid, inorganic acid and other acid
wastes
Class Description Waste Number
Caustic soda, potash, alkaline cleaners,
C. Alkali Wastes ammonium hydroxide, lime slurries, C301-C399
other alkali wastes
Selenium(1), Arsenic(1), Barium(70),
Cadmium(0.3), Chromium(5), Lead(1),
D. Wastes with inorganic chemicals Mercury(0.1), Fluoride (100) compounds D401-D499
and other wastes with inorganic
chemicals
Class Description Waste Number
Oxidizing Agents, Reducing Agents,
E. Reactive Chemical Wastes Explosive and unstable chemicals and E501-E599
highly reactive chemcials
F.
Inks/Dyes/Pigments/Paint/Resins/Latex/Adhesives/Organic F601-F699
Sludge
Halogenated and non-halogenated
G. Waste Organic Solvents G703-G704
solvents
Includes all Grease wastes generated
H. Organic Wastes from establishments and institutional H802
facilities
Class Description Waste Number
I. Used oil Used oil including sludge I101
Vegetable oil including sludge I102
Tallow I103
Oil-contaminated materials I104
J. Containers previously containing toxic chemical Containers that used to hold hazardous
J201
substances wasts
Solidified Wastes, chemically fixed and
K. Stabilized wastes polymerized wastes and encapsulated K301-K303
wastes
Class Description Waste Number
Chemical wastes listed in the Priority
L. Organic chemicals L401-L404
Chemical List
M. Miscellaneous wastes
Includes healthcare wastes from
hospitals, medical centers and clinics
Pathological or infectious wastes M501
containing pathological, pathogenic and
infectious wastes, sharps and others
Asbestos wastes All asbestos wastes M502
Class Description Waste Number
Expired pharmaceuticals and drugs
stocked at producers and retailers’
Pharmaceutical s and drugs M503
facilities which contain hazardous
constituents harmful to the environments
Pesticides M504
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) M505
 Includes all WEEE that contain
hazardous components such as Pb, Cd,
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) Hg, Cr, PBBs, PBDEs that includes its
peripherals i.e. ink cartridges, toners,
etc.
Class Description Waste Number
Household hazardous wastes such as
paints, thinners, household batteries,
lead-acid batteries, spray canisters and
the like that are consolidated in MRFs.
Special wastes M507
These include wastes from residential
and commercial sources that comprise of
consumer electronics, white goods,
batteries, oil and busted lamps

Exempted Wastes

 Household wastes such as garbage under RA 9003 except special wastes.

 Industrial and commercial wastewaters which are disposed of onsite through the sewerage system.
 Industrial and commercial solid wastes which do not contain hazardous wastes.
 Materials from building demolition except those containing asbestos.
 Septic tank effluents and associated sullage wastewaters.
 Unstreated spoils from mining, quarrying and excavation works but not materials in nature of tailings,
commercially treated materials and mine facility consumables.

Three main players in the management of hazardous waste

Waste generator – entity that generates/produces hazardous wastes

Waste Transporter – entity that is licensed to transport hazardous wastes

Waste Treater – entity that is licensed to treat, store, recycle or dispose hazardous wastes

“RULE OF THUMB”

 the GENERATOR has the responsibility until the waste has been disposed of properly in an environmentally sound
way or liable in case of spill or illegal disposal

Requirements for Waste Generators

 Designate a Pollution Control Officer

 Implement proper waste management from the time the wastes are generated until they are rendered non-
hazardous.
 Continue to own responsibility of the wastes generated in the premises until the wastes have been certified by an
accredited treater.
 Adhere to the hazardous waste transport manifest system when transporting wastes offsite
 Prepare and submit to the Department a comprehensive emergency preparedness and response program to
mitigate spills and accidents

 Communicate to its employees the hazards posed by the improper handling, storage, transport, use and disposal
of hazardous wastes and their containers.

 Develop capability to implement the emergency preparedness and response programs and continually train core
personnel on the effective implementation of such programs
Hazardous Waste TSD Facilities
Minimum Requirements for Siting TSD Facilities

 Consistent with the overall land use plan of the LGU.

 Accessible from major roadways and thoroughfares
 Located in an area where TSD operation will not be detrimental to sensitive resources
 Shall not be constructed within 75 m from a Holocene fault or known recent active fault
 Shall not be located in areas known to be habitat of listed endangered species
 Shall not be located in a floodplain and reclaimed areas
 Shall be located at least 50 m away from any perennial stream, lake or river.
 Ground water monitoring wells shall be placed at appropriate locations and depth that are representative of
groundwater quality

EMERGENCY CONTINGENCY PLAN

OBJECTIVE OF A Contingency PROGRAM

It is developed and designed to mitigate and combat spills involving chemical substances and/or hazardous wastes. The
program provides assurance to EMB, nearby communities and other stakeholders on the emergency preparedness and
response capacity of waste generators, transporters and TSD facilities.

CONTENT OF THE CONTINGENCY PROGRAM

 EMERGENCY RESPONSE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

a. name and responsibility of an emergency response coordinator

b. name and responsibility of an emergency response team
 c. communication or information network among the:
• emergency response team
• fire brigade
• Police
• ambulance and medical service
• school, hospital and local population (Barangay captain)
• LGU officials
• national government

 SPECIFIC PROCEDURE FOR RESPONDING TO SPILLS OR CHEMICAL RELEASES

a. Type of emergencies f. evacuation procedure for all personnel on site

b. Scenario g. emergency response equipment
c. Notification procedure h. protective clothes and equipment
d. Response Organization i. Decontamination process
e. Layout plant indicating the location of the source
of spills

Personnel Training

 HAZAROUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

a. Regulatory framework for toxic and hazardous f. Public participation

substances g. Site investigation and remediation
b. waste identification (types and characteristics) h. Siting of waste management facilities
c. Hazard and risks in handling hazardous wastes i. Waste minimization/Cleaner Production
d. Labelling and Placarding j. Treatment and disposal technologies
e. Proper storage k. Healthcare waste management

CONTINGENCY PLAN

a. Types of emergencies arising from wastes d. PPE

handling, storage, treatment and disposal e. Decontamination Procedures
b. Emergency preparedness f. Incident command systems
c. Health and safety plans

COMPLIANCE MONITORING PROCEDURES

a. Laws and regulations concerning hazardous waste management

b. Monitoring requirements

PERMIT TO TRANSPORT
Prohibited Acts and Penalties

a. Failure to provide appropriate information to the DENR upon registration 10,000

b. Submission of documents containing 50,000

false information

c. Failure to comply with reporting 50,000

requirement under the law

d. Failure to comply with conditions of a 50,000

permit except those specified herein / conditions violated

e. Failure to comply with the labeling 50,000

requirements

f. Failure to place placards on the 50,000

conveyance/vehicle

g. Failure to comply with the subpoena or 50,000

subpoena duces tecum issued by the
Secretary or his duly authorized
 representative

h. Failure to provide the required information within the mandated period by 50,000
the Regulations

i. Violation of any of the provisions on the Governing Rules and Regulations 10,000

j. In addition to the above-stated penalties, violation of any of the

provisions on any of the Governing Rules and the rules covering the Contingency
Program shall result in the immediate suspension of the Permit issued to the violator

Prohibited Acts and Penalties- Sec. 41 DAO, Chapter 8 DAO 2004-36

Generators

a. Failure to submit completed copy of the hazardous 50,000

waste manifest form t o the DENR

b. Performs the functions of a TSD facility 50,000

without the appropriate TSD facility permit

Transporters

a. Conveys or transports hazardous wastes without the 50,000

proper manifest forms

b. Conveys or transports hazardous wastes 50,000

without the proper labels and placards

TSD Facilities

a. Accepts hazardous wastes without the proper manifest 50T

b. Stores, recycles, reprocesses, treats or disposes of hazardous wastes at a TSD facility 50T
without the appropriate TSD Facility

c. Failure to notify the DENR of the residuals generated as a consequence of its 10T
recycling, reprocessing or treatment activities
“Regulatory Frameworks of Toxic Chemical and Chemical Substances and Hazardous Waste Management
in the Philippines”

Toxic Substances & Hazardous & Nuclear Wastes Control Act”

 RA 6969 passed by the Congress of the Philippines in July 1990 and directs the DENR to establish rules,
regulations, and programs for controlling chemical substances and hazardous wastes in the Philippines.
 DENR Administrative Order No. 29, Series of 1992 (DAO 92-29) The “IRR of Republic Act 6969” , was signed in
June of 1992. It provides a general regulatory framework that industry must meet to reach compliance.

DENR Administrative Order No. 29, Series of 1992: THE IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS

Title II: Management of Chemicals and Toxic Substances (Sections 14 to 23)

 provides for the regulation of all chemical substances that may pose threat to public health and the environment
whether through import, manufacture, sale, use, distribution, and disposal

Title III: Hazardous Waste Management

(Sections 24 to 31 of DAO 29),(DAO 36-2004)

 provides for the regulation of all hazardous wastes from generation, transport, storage, re-use/recycling,
treatment and disposal

CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT : TITLE II OF DAO 1992-29

Components of Chemical Management (Title II of DAO 92-29)

Existing Chemicals
A. Philippine Inventory of Chemical and Chemical Substances (PICCS)
New Chemicals
B. Pre-manufacture, Pre-Importation Notification scheme (PMPIN)
C. Small Quantity Importation (SQI)
Regulated Chemicals
D. Priority Chemical List (PCL)
E. Chemical Control Orders (CCOs)
Enter CAS Number or chemical name

http://emb.gov.ph/internal/CasREgistry.aspx

DAO 2005-27 - REVISED PRIORITY CHEMICAL LIST

PRIORITY CHEMICAL LIST -

• List of existing chemicals that DENR has determined to potentially pose unreasonable risk to public health,
workplace and the environment.

• There are 48 chemicals listed on the PCL.

DAO 23, Series of 2007

• Authorizes the DENR to prescribe additional requirements and establish procedural requirements for issuance of
a PCL Compliance Certificate.

PRIMARY CRITERIA FOR ADDING NEW CHEMICALS FOR PCL

• Persistence
• Bioaccumulation potential
• Toxicity and hazards potential
SECONDARY CRITERIA FOR ADDING NEW CHEMICALS FOR PCL

• Exposure Potential
• Quantity of Chemicals manufactured and used.

PRIORITY CHEMICAL LIST

Chemical Abstract Philippine Inventory of Chemicals and Chemical Abstract Services (CAS)/
Services No. Chemical Substances (PICCS) Name INDEX Name

108-90-7 1,4-CHLOROBENZENE Benzene,chloro-

106-93-4 1,2-DIBROMOETHANE Ethane,1,2-dibromo

95-50-1 0-DICHLOROBENZENE Benzene,1,2-dichloro

106-46-7 1,4-DICHLOROBENZENE Benzene,1,4-dichlro-

107-06-2 1,2-DICHLOROETHANE Ethane, 1,2-dichloro-

122-66-7 1,2 DIPHENYLHYDRAZINE Hydrazobenzene

108-46-3 3-HYDROXYPHENOL 1,3-Benzenediol

7647-18-9 ANTIMONY Antimony chloride

PENTACHLORIDE

7440-38-2 ARSENIC COMPOUNDS Arsenic

1332-21-4 ASBESTOS* Asbestos

71-43-2 BENZENE Benzene

7440-41-7 BERYLLIUM COMPOUNDS Beryllium

7440-43-9 CADMIUM COMPOUNDS Cadmium

56-23-5 CARBON TETRACHLORIDE**

General Name CHLORINATED ETHERS

General Name CHLOROFLUORO CARBONS**

67-66-3 CHLOROFORM Trichloromethane

76-06-2 CHLOROPICRIN Methane, trichloronitro

18540-29-9 CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS Chromium

57-12-5 CYANIDE COMPOUNDS* Cyanide

64-67-5 DIETHYL SULFATE Sulfuric acid,diethyl ester

106-93-4 ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE 1,2 Dibromoethane

Chemical Abstract Philippine Inventory of Chemicals and Chemical Abstract Services (CAS)/
Services No. Chemical Substances (PICCS) Name INDEX Name

75-21-8 ETHYLENE OXIDE Oxirane

111-30-8 GLUTARALDEHYDE Pentanedial

50-00-0 FORMALDEHYDE Formaldehyde

9002-83-9 HALONS** Ether, chlorotrifluoro-homopolymer

118-74-1 HEXACHLOROBENZENE Benzene, hexachloro

67-72-1 HEXACHLOROETHANE Ethane, hexachloro

302-01-2 HYDRAZINE Hydrazine

7439-92-1 LEAD COMPOUNDS Lead

149-30-4 MBT 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione

594-42-3 MERCAPTAN, Methanesulfenyl chloride,

PERCHLOROMETHYL trichloro-

7439-97-6 MERCURY COMPOUNDS* Mercury

74-87-3 METHYL CHLORIDE Methane, chloro

75-09-2 METHYLENECHLORIDE Methylene,dichloro

2385-85-5 MIREX

87-86-5 PENTACHLOROPHENOL Phenol, pentachloro

127-18-4 PERCHLROETHYLENE Ethene,tetrachloro

108-95-2 PHENIC ACID Phenol

75-44-5 PHOSGENE Carbonyl chloride/ Carbonicdichloride

85-44-9 PHTHALIC ANHYDRIDE 1,3 Isobenzofurandione

59536-65-1 POLYBROMINATED BIPHENYLS Fire Master BP6

1336-36-3 POLYCHLORINATED 1,1-Biphenyl chloroderivatives

BIPHENYLS*

1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE**

79-01-6 TRICHLOROETHYLENE Ethene,trichloro

TRIBUTYLTIN

7782-49-2 SELENIUM Selenium

75-01-4 VINYL CHLORIDE Chloroethylene

WHO ARE COVERED?

• Importers • Distributors
• Users (Industrial) • Manufacturers

PCL COMPLIANCE CERTIFICATE FLOW

APPLICATION FORM FOR PCL COMPLIANCE CERTIFICATE

What is a Chemical Control Order?

 Chemical Control Orders (CCOs) prohibit, limit, or regulate the use, manufacture, import, export, transport,
processing, storage, possession, and wholesale of those priority chemicals that DENR-EMB determined to be
regulated, phase-out, or banned because of the serious risks they pose to public health, workplace, and
environment.
 At any one time, DENR-EMB may impose a regulation, a phase-out plan, or a ban on a chemical or chemical
substance when it determines that such action is necessary.

Chemicals subject to CCO

 Ozone Depleting Chemicals (DAO 2004 -08)  Asbestos (DAO 2000-02)

 Cyanide (DAO 1997-39)  Mercury (DAO 1997-38)
 PCBs (DAO 2004-01)  Lead (DAO 2013-24)

General Requirements Applied to All CCOs

 Registration with DENR-EMB & Obtaining Import Clearance

 Limitation in Industrial Use:

o Gradual phase out of import and manufacturing

o Gradual substitution of the chemical uses and premises

 Annual Report to DENR-EMB. All manufacturers, importers, and industrial users of chemicals must submit an
annual report to DENR-EMB that include the following information:

a. General Information (premise)

b. Production and management information

c. Number and category of employees exposed and exposure duration

 d. Waste generated (fluids, sludge, slurry, scraps, etc.), and storage, treatment, and disposal information
(type of treatment and land disposal premises, location, methods, etc.)

 Labeling Requirements  Labeling Requirements

 Storage Requirements  Storage Requirements
 Treatment and Disposal Requirements  Treatment and Disposal Requirements
 Self-Inspection  Self-Inspection
 Reporting and Recordkeeping Requirements  Reporting and Recordkeeping Requirements

General Exemptions under the CCO Rules

 Chemicals exempt under the PICCS rules

 Small-quantity chemicals
 Chemical substances that are reaction intermediates and do not leave the production process or undergo
intermediate storage
 Chemical substances and mixtures regulated by laws other than RA 6969
 Special circumstances as determined by DENR-EMB

Graduated Administrative Fines (MC 2005-03)

Noise Pollution
NOISE

“The word noise comes from the Latin word noxia meaning "injury" or "hurt” Noise is an unwanted, unpleasant and annoying
sound caused by vibration of the matter.

Vibrations impinge on the ear drum of a human or animal and setup a nervous disturbance, which we call sound. When the
effects of sound are undesirable that it may be termed as “Noise”.

Physically there is no distinction between sound and noise. Sound is a sensory perception and the complex pattern of sound
waves is labeled as noise, music, speech etc. Noise has become a very important "stress factor" in the environment of man.

MEASUREMENT OF NOISE

“A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise”

• 20 db is whisper. • 60 db is normal conversation.

• 40 db the noise in a quiet office. • 80 db is the level at which sound
Becomes physically painful. And can be termed as noise.

Noise pollution is a type of energy pollution in which distracting, irritating, or damaging sounds are freely audible. Noise
pollution contaminants are not physical particles, but rather waves that interfere with naturally-occurring waves of a similar
type in the same environment.

In the narrowest sense, sounds are considered noise pollution if they adversely affect wildlife, human activity, or are capable
of damaging physical structures on a regular, repeating basis.

Classification of Noise Pollution

There are 2 kinds of noise pollution.

A. Community Noise/ Environmental Noise (nonindustrial noise pollution).

• Air craft noise

• Roadway noise pollution
• Under water noise pollution

B. Occupational Noise( industrial noise pollution)

COMMUNITY NOISE

Community noise (also called environmental noise, residential noise or domestic noise) is defined as noise emitted
from all sources, except at the industrial workplace. Main sources of community noise include road, rail and air
traffic, construction and public work, and the neighborhood.

Typical neighborhood noise comes from live or recorded music; from sporting events including motor sports; from
playgrounds and car parks; and from domestic animals such as barking dogs.

Air craft Noise Pollution

Noise from planes flying over residential areas impairs people's ability to work, learn in school and sleep, and
consequently also results in lowered property values in affected areas.
 As passenger volume increases and new and larger airports are built, noise is becoming even more of a concern.

Roadway noise pollution

Roadway noise is the collective sound energy emanating from motor vehicles.

In the USA it contributes more to environmental noise exposure than any other noise source, and is constituted
chiefly of engine, tire, aerodynamic and braking elements.

In other Western countries as well as lesser developed countries, roadway noise is expected to contribute a
proportionately large share of the total societal noise pollution.

Under water noise pollution

UNP is intense human-generated noise in the marine environment. It is caused by use of explosives, oceanographic
experiments, geophysical research, underwater construction, ship traffic, intense active sonars and air guns used
for seismic surveys for oil and related activities.

OCCUPATIONAL NOISE

The many and varied sources of noise is industrial machinery and processes include: rotors, gears, turbulent fluid
flow, impact processes, electrical machines, internal combustion engines, pneumatic equipment, drilling, crushing, blasting,
pumps and compressors. Furthermore, the emitted sounds are reflected from floors, ceiling and equipment.

Occupational exposure limits specify the maximum sound pressure levels and exposure times to which nearly all
workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse effect on their ability to hear and understand normal speech. An
occupational exposure limit of 85 dB for 8 hours should protect most people against a permanent hearing impairment
induced by noise after 40 years of occupational exposure.

Sources of Noise Pollution

• Road Traffic noise - In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos,
smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles.

• Air Craft - Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to community
annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations over national parks, and other
areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed national attention over recent years.

• Noise from railroads - Rail car retarders can produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels
of 120 dB at a distance of 100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad worker’s
ear.

• Construction Noise - The noise from the construction of highways, city streets, and buildings is a major contributor
to the urban scene. Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders,
dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers.

• Noise in Industry

• Noise in building - Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is
not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air
conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying

• Noise from Consumer products - Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners, mixers and some kitchen
appliances are noisemakers of the house. Though they do not cause too much of problem, their effect cannot be
neglected.
 • Loud Speakers / Public Address Systems - Use of loud speakers / public address systems in functions, meetings,
and religious places in open areas is a source of serious nuisance.

• Firecrackers - Use of firecrackers with high noise level may harm the human hearing system. Especially sensitive
are small children.

The effects of Noise Pollution on Human Being, Animal and property are as follows:

• Hearing Impairment

Hearing is essential for well-being and safety. Hearing impairment is typically defined as an increase in the
threshold of hearing as clinically assessed by audiometry. There is general agreement that exposure to
sound levels less than 70 dB does not produce hearing damage, regardless of the duration of exposure.
There is also general agreement that exposure for more than 8 hours to sound levels in excess of 85 dB is
potentially hazardous; to place this in context, 85 dB is roughly equivalent to the noise of heavy truck traffic
on a busy road

• It Decreases the Efficiency of A Man

Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency there are number of experiments which print out the
fact that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. A study by Sinha & Sinha in India suggested that
reducing industrial booths could improve the quality of their work. Thus human efficiency is related with
noise. Noise can adversely affect performance, for example in reading, attentiveness, problem solving and
memory.

• Lack of concentration

For better quality of work there should be concentration, Noise causes lack of concentration. In big cities,
mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns
divert the attention of the people working in offices. Deficits in concentration can lead to accidents.

FATIGUE

• Abortion is caused

There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds make a lady of
irriative nature. Sudden Noise causes abortion in females.

• Pupil Dilation

Noise Pollution causes dilation of the pupil of the eye

• Mental Illness

Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on the person’s peace of mind. The noises are
recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating the already existing tensions of modern living.
These tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or mental illness etc..

Noise pollution may cause or contribute to the following adverse effects: anxiety, stress, nervousness,
nausea, headache, emotional instability, argumentativeness, sexual impotence, changes in mood, increase
in social conflicts, neurosis, hysteria, and psychosis.

• It Causes Heart Attack

 Noise Pollution causes Increase in the rate of heart-beat, increased cholesterol level and Constriction of
blood vessels which leads to blood pressure that resulted in heart attack.

Noise can trigger both endocrine and autonomic nervous system responses that affect the cardiovascular
system and thus may be a risk factor for cardiovascular. High levels of stress hormones such as cortisol,
adrenaline, and noradrenalin can lead to hypertension, stroke, heart failure, and immune problems.

Acute exposure to noise activates nervous and hormonal responses, leading to temporary increases in
blood pressure, heart rate, and vasoconstriction.

• Digestive problems

Noise Pollution causes digestive spasms and stomach disorders

• Temporary or permanent Deafness

The effect of nose on audition is well recognized. Mechanics, locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc.
All have their hearing Impairment as a result of noise at the place of work. Physicist, physicians &
psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe, loud
noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.

• Aggressive Behavior

Noise above 80 dB may increase aggressive behavior. Annoyance is defined as a feeling of displeasure
associated with any agent or condition believed by an individual to adversely affect him or her.

• Effect on Vegetation Poor Quality of Crops

Now is well known to all that plants are similar to human being. They are also as sensitive as man. There
should be cool & peaceful environment for their better growth. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops
in a pleasant atmosphere.

• Effect on Animal

Noise pollution damages the nervous system of animal. Animal looses the control of its mind. They become
dangerous

Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress, increasing risk of mortality by changing
the delicate balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with their use of sounds
in communication especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation.

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called Lombard vocal response. Scientists and
researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is longer when submarine-
detectors are on.

EFFECT ON BEACHED WHALE

One of the best known damage caused by noise pollution is the death of certain species of beached whales,
brought on by the loud sound of military sonar.

Each year, 1,200 to 1,600 whales and dolphins are found stranded off the U.S. coast, according to the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Most are dead: In 2007, the most recent year with data,
195 out of 1,263 animals were found alive. But many are euthanized on the scene or die later. Others
survive but are too young or too debilitated to be returned to the wild. Of the 195 animals found alive that
year, five were released.

In January 2009, 45 sperm whales got marooned on a sand bar off Tasmania.
 Rescue effort at Farewell Split South Island, New Zealand

Beached whale at Port Waikato

Dead Risso's dolphin on Norwick Beach

• Effect on Property

Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments. It creates waves which struck the walls
and put the building in danger condition.

• Sleep interference

Very high levels of noise can wake people from their sleep with a jerk and keep them awake or disturb
their sleep pattern. This could make them irritable and tired the next day. Arousal associated with night
time noise exposure increased blood and saliva concentrations of these hormones such as cortisol,
adrenaline, and noradrenalin even during sleep. It is known, for example, that continuous noise in excess
of 30 dB disturbs sleep.

• Speech interference

Noise more than 50dB can be very difficult to hear and interpret and cause problems such as partial
deafness. Some effects may lead to increased accidents, disruption of communication in the classroom,
and impaired academic performance.

Environmental Noise

Weakest sound heard 0dB

Whisper Quiet Library at 6' 30dB
Normal conversation at 3' 60-65dB
Telephone dial tone 80dB
City Traffic (inside car) 85dB
Train whistle at 500', Truck Traffic 90dB
Jackhammer at 50' 95dB
Subway train at 200' 95dB

Level at which sustained exposure may result in hearing loss 90 - 95dB

Hand Drill 98dB

Power mower at 3' 107dB
Snowmobile, Motorcycle 100dB
Power saw at 3' 110dB
Sandblasting, Loud Rock Concert 115dB
Pain begins 125dB
Pneumatic riveter at 4' 125dB
Even short term exposure can cause permanent damage - Loudest
140dB
recommended exposure WITHhearing protection

Jet engine at 100' 140dB

12 Gauge Shotgun Blast 165dB
Death of hearing tissue 180dB

Loudest sound possible 194dB

OSHA Daily Permissible Noise Level Exposure

Hours per day Sound level
8 90dB
6 92dB
4 95dB
3 97dB
2 100dB
1.5 102dB
1 105dB
.5 110dB
.25 or less 115dB

Sound Levels of Music

Normal piano practice 60 -70dB

Fortissimo Singer, 3' 70dB
Chamber music, small auditorium 75 - 85dB
Piano Fortissimo 84 - 103dB
Violin 82 - 92dB
Cello 85 -111dB
Oboe 95-112dB
Flute 92 -103dB
Piccolo 90 -106dB
Clarinet 85 - 114dB
French horn 90 - 106dB
Trombone 85 - 114dB
Tympani & bass drum 106dB

Noise Mitigation

“Noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution.”

 Construction of sound proof rooms for noisy machines in industries.

  Use of horns with jarring sounds to be banned. No motor vehicle should be fitted with multitioned horn giving a
succession of different note or with any other sound producing device giving an unduly harsh, shrill , loud or
alarming noise on other similar vehicles of such sound signals.
 Every motor vehicle shall be fitted with a device (silencer).
 Noise producing industries, aerodromes, and railway stations to be shifted away from the inhabited areas.
 Proper law should be enforced to check the misuse of loudspeakers and public announcements systems. Loud
speakers are banned from 10pm to 6am.
 Growing green plants/trees along roadside to reduce noise pollution as they absorb sound.
 To avoid noise-induced hearing loss, pay attention to the noises around you and turn down the volume whenever
possible.
 Avoid or limit time spent in noisy sports events.
 Wear adequate hearing protection, such as foam ear plugs or ear muffs, when you must be in a noisy environment
or when using loud equipment.
 We must constantly check up on the appliances we use at home. Most of them have rubber insulations that act for
soundproofing. But over time, this insulation may wear out, and that is when the noise pollution will begin. Keep
track of which appliances need maintenance, and replace insulations if needed
 Noise is also made by the escape of exhaust gases from the engine, therefore every motor vehicle should be so
constructed and maintained as not to cause undue noise when in motion.
 Before buying a home, see how far it is from the local airport.

NOISE

“The word noise comes from the Latin word noxia meaning "injury" or "hurt" .” Noise is an unwanted, unpleasant and
annoying sound caused by vibration of the matter.

Vibrations impinge on the ear drum of a human or animal and setup a nervous disturbance, which we call sound. When
the effects of sound are undesirable that it may be termed as “Noise”.

WHAT IS NOISE POLLUTION?

 an excessive, displeasing human, animal or machine-created environmental noise that disrupts the activity or
balance of human or animal life. This environmental pollutant is the summary of noise pollution from outside,
caused by transport, industrial and recreational activities.

 Sound that is unwanted or disrupts one’s quality of life is called as noise. When there is lot of noise in the
environment, it is termed as noise pollution.

Sound - the sensation produced by stimulation of the organs of hearing by vibrations transmitted through the air or
other medium.

Characteristics of Sound

Intensity and Loudness

 Loudness - amplitude of sound waves

 Intensity - the rate at which power (rate of energy transfer, or work per unit time) is transferred across a given
area (Power/Area, or rate of energy transfer per unit area; units of watts/m 2).
  Pitch - refers to how low or high a sound is. depends on its frequency (Frequency of Sound is the number of
pressure variations per second and is measured in Hertz (Hz) which is defined as cycles per second)

 Timbre or Quality of Sound - characteristic of sound which allows the ear to distinguish same or different sounds

Different Intensity Level of Sound in Decibels (dB)

• The sound intensities that human ears are sensitive to are very small compared to a watt, but still very wide
between the weakest sound detectible and the strongest that does not cause pain (or damage the ear). Since the
watt itself is far too large, the reference level of intensity that all others are compared to is, by convention, 10 -
12
watts/m 2 . This intensity was chosen as the standard reference level because it is approximately the weakest
intensity of a pure tone at 1000 Hz that can be detected by human listeners, that is, an auditory threshold.

• The sound intensity I may be expressed in decibels above the standard threshold of hearing I0 (10-12 w/m2). The
expression is:

There are 2 kinds of noise pollution.

A. Community Noise/ Environmental Noise (non industrial noise pollution).

• Air craft noise • Under water noise

• Roadway noise pollution pollution

B. Occupational Noise( industrial noise pollution)

Sources of Noise Pollution

• Transportation systems
• Social Events
• Commercial and Industrial Activities
• Household Sources
Effects of Noise Pollution

Hearing Problems

 Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause problems within the body.
 Man made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even vehicles can be too loud for our
hearing range.
 Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the damage of our ear drums and loss of hearing.
 It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears pick up unconsciously to regulate our body’s rhythm.

Sleeping Disorders

 Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead to irritation and uncomfortable situations.
 Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems related to fatigue and your performance may go down in office
as well as at home.
 It is therefore recommended to take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.

Cardiovascular Issues

 Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related heart problems are on the rise.
 Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood pressure and increases heart beat rate as it disrupts
the normal blood flow.
 Bringing them to a manageable level depends on our understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.

Effects on plants

 The reproductions of plants which are pollinated by birds or animals get reduced due to noise pollution.
 Birds or animals generally avoid noisy atmosphere, hence pollination of the plants which are grown in noisy areas
cannot be possible by them.
 Mostly the seeds of different plants are dispersed by the birds and animals.
 Plants growing in a noisy atmosphere hardly get any animals or birds to disperse their seeds.

Noise control

Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact of that
noise, whether outdoors or indoors.

METHODS TO CONTROL NOISE POLLUTION

SURVEYS / Source-Path-Receiver Concept -The first step in controlling noise pollution is identifying all of the sources of
sound pollution in a given area.

- Examine the problem in terms of its three basic elements: sound travels from a source, travels over a path and
affects a receiver or listener.

CONTROL OF NOISE BY DESIGN -it simply means placing certain restrictions on the use of certain devices.

• Reduce Impact Forces • Reduce Noise Leakage

• Reduce Speeds and Pressures • Isolate and Dampen Vibrating Elements
• Reduce Fristional Resistance • Provide Mufflers / silencers
• Reduce of Radiating Area

Noise Control in the Transmission Path

 • Separation • Barriers and Panels
• Absorbing Materials • Enclosures
• Acoustical Lining

Noise Control in the Transmission Path

• Sound insulation: prevent the transmission of noise by the introduction of a mass barrier. Common materials
have high-density properties such as brick, thick glass, concrete, metal etc.
• Sound absorption: a porous material which acts as a ‘noise sponge’ by converting the sound energy into heat
within the material. Common sound absorption materials include decoupled lead-based tiles, open cell foams and
fiberglass
• Vibration damping: applicable for large vibrating surfaces. The damping mechanism works by extracting the
vibration energy from the thin sheet and dissipating it as heat.
• Vibration isolation: prevents transmission of vibration energy from a source to a receiver by introducing a flexible
element or a physical break. Common vibration isolators are springs, rubber mounts, cork etc.

Protect the Receiver

• Work Schedule
• Use of Ear Protection

Noise pollution prevention and control tips

• Construction of soundproof rooms for noisy machines in industrial and manufacturing installations must be
encouraged
• Noise producing industries, airports, bus and transport terminals and railway stations to sighted far from where
living places
• Community law enforcers should check the misuse of loudspeakers, worshipers, outdoor parties and discos, as
well as public announcements systems
• Community laws must silence zones near schools/colleges, hospitals etc.
• Vegetation (trees) along roads and in residential areas is a good way to reduce noise pollution as they absorb
sound.
• People can be educated through radio, TV, street play etc. about noise pollution.

Ways of Controlling Noise Pollution

METHODS TO CONTROL NOISE POLLUTION

 SURVEYS -The first step in controlling noise pollution is identifying all of the sources of sound pollution in a given
area
 CONTROL -it simply means placing certain restrictions on the use of certain devices.
 REDUCE -Some noise cannot be eliminated but can be reduced.
 REDUCING EFFECTS -Where noise cannot be controlled or reduced, personal protection can be employed.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
 is a process of identifying and predicting the impacts of proposed projects and programs on the bio geophysical
environment, man’s health and well-being, and interpreting and/or communicating information on such impacts
which can be utilized by planners and decision makers

 It aims to prevent and/or abate environmental damage or degradation by a systematic identification, prediction
and assessment, and monitoring of the adverse impacts of a proposed action/activity plan or policy on the
environment

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

 is the formal (official) documentation containing the findings and recommendation of an EIA

EIS should contain the following:

1) proposed action and its purpose

2) existing environment affected
3) magnitude and significance of the various activities to be undertaken & parameters affected
4) assessment & prediction of impacts
5) alternative actions
6) resources necessary
7) mitigating measures for unavoidable impacts

Project Description (PD)

 this document is usually required if a project is non-critical but to be located in an Environmental Critical Area
(ECA)

 a brief description of the sources & control measures for pollution and other socio-economic problems generated
by the project

Environmentally Critical Projects (ECP)

- project or program that has high potential for significant negative environmental impact as defined under Presidential
Proclamation 2146 (1981).
Environmental Critical Area (ECA)

 All areas declared by law as national parks, watershed reserves, wildlife preserves, sanctuaries, etc.
 Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots.
 Areas of unique historic archaeological and scientific interests.
 Areas that constitute the habitat for any endangered threatened species of indigenous Philippine wildlife.

Areas frequently visited or hard-hit by:

- typhoons - storm surge

- tsunamis - volcanic activity
- earthquakes
Flood prone areas.

• Mangrove areas • Agricultural lands

• Coral reefs • Areas with critical slope
• Water bodies

Difference between PD & EIS:

PD EIS

- descriptive - predictive
- inconclusive - conclusive
- brief in format - comprehensive
- support document - decision document

Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)

 is a preliminary assessment of the environmental impacts of the proposed project with the objective of
determining whether detailed EIA is necessary

 sometimes this is referred to as Preliminary EIA; Environmental Impact Investigation; Partial EIA; Ecological
Reconnaissance

Activities involved in EIA:

1) Preparation of the description of project needs and the project.

- it examines the needs for which the project was designed

- requires a complete project description
- a site visit must be done for a realistic picture of the ‘present’ environmental conditions & how these
would change

2) Identification of relevant institutional information (national, provincial, and local)

- environmental laws and regulations including standards and indices of environmental quality are
gathered and examined
3) Identification of Impacts (Scoping)
- the process of focusing on the more important impacts is called scoping
 4) Description of the Affected Environment.
- this refer to a detailed description of the physical setting of the project
- the range of factors include the physico-chemical, biological, social, economic, cultural, & political

5) Prediction of Impacts.
- the most technically demanding step
- predictions are based on the expert knowledge of how environmental components behave
- specific with respect to the magnitude of an impact, its duration, geographical extent or coverage
- its done in qualitative expressions, conceptual & mathematical models, & professional judgement

6) Assessment of the Predicted Impacts.

- Another technically demanding task in EIA

- determining the desirability and un-desirability of the impacts anticipated from the project
- the EIA team uses institutional information (standards, societal beliefs& traditions, public concern and
professional judgement)

7) Mitigating Measures
- are proposed actions that aim to minimize, if not, prevent the occurrence& intensity of identified
adverse impacts
- in the design, both economic and environmental concerns are considered
- may be related to site relocation, process modification through timing of activities, change of the
material to be used, the addition of enhancement measures, etc.

8) Comparison of Alternatives.

- to guide the proponent over the possible alternatives, the EIA team makes a comparison of alternatives
in which both environmental and economic costs are given important ratings or weights
9) Documentation
EIS – environmental impact assessment
- the end result of EIA
PD – project description; required of those project not needing a full blown EIA for not being included
among the environmentally critical projects
ECC – environmental compliance certificate; issued by the authorizing agency like the EMB

10) Design & Implementation of the Environmental Monitoring Program

- a monitoring program should always accompany the EIS
- it should address key impacts of the projects

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) SYSTEM in the Philippines

BACKGROUND EIA Laws (Presidential Issuances)

PD 1151 (1977) – Philippine Environmental Policy

 Requires sponsors of projects affecting the quality of the environment to prepare environmental impact
statements
PD 1586 (1978) – Establishment of the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement System (PEISS) w/ the then
National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC) as the lead agency
PP 2146 (1981) – Proclaims certain areas and types of projects as environmentally critical & w/in the scope of the
PEISS
 Administrative Order 42 (2002) – Rationalizing the Implementation of the Philippine EIS System giving authority, in
addition to the DENR Secretary, to the EMB Central and Regional Office Directors to grant or deny issuance of ECCs

EIA in the context of the Philippines Environment Impact Statement (EIS) System

The process of predicting the likely environmental consequences of implementing a project and designing
appropriate preventive mitigating and enhancement measures as an input to decision making
The emphasis, compared with any other mechanisms for environmental protection is on PREVENTION.

REQUREMENTS FOR PLANNING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

 ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY
 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
 EIA

Conduct of EIA Study and Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) Applications

 EIA Study is conducted by the proponent or expert group commissioned by the proponent
 result of the EIA Study is documented and submitted to the EMB for review and evaluation as the major basis for
the decision on Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) applications

Environmental Compliance Certificate / Denial Letter

Contents of the ECC

 Scope and limitations of approved activities/components
 Conditions to ensure compliance with EMPs
 Recommendations to other agencies
Denial letter
 Specify basis of decision

ECCs of Projects not implemented within 5 years from its date of issuance is deemed expired

Environmental Assessment Levels

Difficulty in SEA Implementation

Responsibility over programs, plans and policy is divided among different government departments/agencies and
jurisdictions.

Programmatic Compliance for Co-located Projects

What’s the difference?

 A single EIS may be submitted for a multi-component program or an Industrial Development Area (IDA) taking
into consideration all anticipated industrial activities within a contiguous area

Considerations in the Analysis of ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

 DIRECT IMPACTS
 INDIRECT (including Induced) IMPACTS
 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Direct Impacts

 Pollution due to discharge of waste streams into air/water/land

 noise pollution due emission of sound from plant activities
 intentional addition of substances such as pesticides, herbicides etc,
 contamination of physical environment due to accidental release of hazardous substances or addition resulting
from spills blowouts, explosion

INDIRECT AND INDUCED IMPACTS AS A RESULT OF CASCADE OF EFFECTS

NON BUDGETARY FUNDING SUPPORT FOR EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment in the Philippines

Early Adopters of EIA

 1969 - US  1978 – Philippines

 1974 – Australia  1981 – Israel
 1975 – Thailand  1983 – Pakistan
 1976 – France

Basic EIA Laws

Philippine Environmental Policy (1977) - Required Environmental Impact Statement for undertakings with significant
environmental impacts

EIA Law (1978) - Establishment of the Philippine Environmental Impact Statement System

PD 1151 PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

• Took note of the conflicting demands of:

– The individual
– Population growth
– Industrial expansion
– Rapid natural resource utilization
– Increasing technological advances
• Recognized the right of the people to a healthy environment
• Stressed the urgent need to formulate an intensive, integrated program of environmental protection through EIA

PD 1151: EIA POLICY

• Requires:
– ALL agencies & instrumentalities of the national government
– Government-owned & controlled corporations
– Private corporations, firms, and entities
• To prepare, file, & include in EVERY action, project or undertaking which SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTS the
environment
• A detailed statement xxx
• A detailed statement on the following:
– The ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT of the proposed action, project, or undertaking
– Any ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT which cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented
 – ALTERNATIVE to the proposed action
– A determination that the short-term use of the resources of the environment are CONSISTENT with the
maintenance & enhancement of the long-term productivity of the same; and – Whenever a proposal
involves the use of depletable or non-renewable resources, a finding must be made that such USE &
COMMITMENT are WARRANTED

PD 1586: Philippine EIS System

• Established to facilitate the attainment & maintenance of a rational & orderly balance between socio-economic
growth & environmental protection

• Introduced the concepts of Environmentally Critical Projects (ECP) and projects within Environmentally Critical
Areas (ECA) as projects requiring the submission of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

No person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate any environmentally critical project (ECP) or
locate a project within an environmentally critical area (ECA) without first securing an Environmental Compliance
Certificate (ECC).

Presidential Proclamation (PP) 2146 PEISS Coverage Technical Description

Environmentally Critical Project (ECP) or Located in ECAs

• HEAVY INDUSTRIES
• RESOURCE EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES
• INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS
– GOLF COURSE PROJECT

• All areas declared by law as national parks, watershed reserves, wildlife preserves, & sanctuaries
• Areas set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots
• Areas which constitute the habitat for any endangered or threatened species of indigenous Philippine wildlife
(flora or fauna)
• Areas of unique historic, archeological, or scientific interests
• Areas which are traditionally occupied by cultural communities or tribes
• Areas frequently visited and/or hard-hit by natural calamities, geologic hazards, floods, typhoons, volcanic
activity, etc.
• Areas with critical slopes
• Areas classified as prime agricultural lands
• Recharged areas of aquifers
• Water bodies (tapped for domestic purposes, within protected areas; which support wildlife and fishery
activities)
• Mangrove areas (primary and pristine, adjoining mouth of major river systems, natural buffers etc.)
• Coral reefs (50% and above, spawning and nursery, act as natural breakwater of coastlines)

Categorization of Projects

Category A - projects or undertakings which are classified as environmentally critical projects (ECPs) under
Presidential Proclamation No. 2146 (1981), Proclamation No. 803 (1996), and any other projects that may later
be declared as such by the President of the Philippines.

Category B – projects or undertakings which are not classified as ECP under Category A, but which are likewise
deemed to significantly affect the quality of the environment by virtue of being located in Environmentally Critical
Area (ECA) as declared under Proclamation 2146 and according to the parameters set forth in the succeeding
sections.
 Category C – projects or undertakings not falling under Category A or B which are intended to directly enhance
the quality of the environment or directly address existing environmental problems.

Category D – projects or undertakings that are deemed unlikely to cause significant adverse impact on the quality
of the environment according to the parameters set forth in the Screening Guidelines. These projects are not
covered by the Philippine EIS system and are not required to secure an ECC.

Environmental Impact Assessment and Environmental Compliance Certificate

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Detailed study to determine the type and level of effects an existing facility is having, or a proposed project would have,
on the environment.

Environmental Impact Identification

 DIRECT IMPACTS
 INDIRECT IMPACTS
 CUMULATIVE IMPACTS

Significance with respect to Environmental Effects relate to :

 SCALE OF DEVELOPMENT
 SENSITIVITY OF THE LOCATION
 NATURE OF THE ADVERSE EFFECTS
Impacts to Environment at different implementation phases

 Site Preparation: large scale and short term changes occur in the environment
 Project Operation: continuous and long term environmental impacts
 Project Termination : recovery and remedial measures for the rehabilitation of the environment

EIA is a planning and management tool that will help government, the proponent, the affected communities and other
decision makers assess whether the benefits of the project will outweigh the negative consequences or risks on the
environment

A good EIA

Results to an appropriately designed Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

Key Features of Good EMP

• All Significant Aspects & Impacts have been identified

• Critical parameters have been identified for monitoring

Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC)

- Application decision document issued to the proponent after thorough review of the EIA Report

- It outlines the commitments of the proponent which are necessary for the project to comply with existing
environmental regulations or to operate within the best environmental practice that are not currently covered by
existing laws

Decision on ECC Applications

- Based on striking balance between socio-economic growth & environmental protection

- Use environmental and socio-economic criteria
- Primacy of jurisdiction of other gov’t agencies respected & supported

Contents of the ECC

- Scope of project or undertaking

- Conditions conformed by the proponent to implement mitigating measures for potentially negative impacts and
enhancement measures for potentially positive impacts
- Recommendations to concerned permitting, deciding and monitoring entities

Validity of the ECC

- Once project is implemented, ECC remains valid and active for the lifetime of the project (unless otherwise
specified);
- The continued validity of the ECC sustains the active commitments of the Proponent to comply with ECC
conditions and with environmental regulations

Expiry of the ECC

- Not implemented w/in 5 years from ECC issuance

- New ECC is necessary if baseline characteristics have significantly changed to the extent that the impact
assessment w/c was the basis of the EMP is no longer appropriate
Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

Background

Environmental Impact Assessment has made commitments to:

– Meet defined standards

– Implement defined mitigation measures
– Limit defined impacts
– Monitor compliance and environment

Approval will include these as conditions to be attached to consents.

Environmental Management Plan: Implementation Plan for meeting Commitments and Conditions of Consents

1. Regulators think in terms of environmental compartments – consent organised in terms of Air, Water, Waste.
2. Operators think in terms of Activity – Management Plan organised in terms of operation and management
structure.

Objective

• A standalone tool for the management of potential adverse impacts and to enhance project benefits
• Activity based mitigation of impacts identified in the EIA

Responsible Parties

• Each Phase of the project will be implemented by different groups

– Construction: Contractors
– Operations: Company/outsourcing

Barriers to Implementation

1. Clear definition of Responsible Parties

2. Clear communication of requirements
3. Clear definition of Key Performance Indicators or KPIs, monitoring & reporting
4. Clear definition of consequences of non-compliance
5. Irregular or inappropriate internal checks (audits)
6. Not included in tender documents – contracts

Content of Environmental Management Plan

1. Targets and Standards – Reporting

2. Procedures
3. Organization and Responsibilities
– Activities 4. Monitoring and Reporting
– Aspects 5. Auditing
– Mitigation 6. Management Review
– KPIs 7. Specific Plans

Targets and Standards

– Taken from consents & company – Environmental Quality standards

requirements – Frequency of monitoring
– Emissions and effluent standards – Reporting requirements
Procedures

Day to day operations

– Organized by Activity – Defines KPIs

– Lists impacts – Define what is to be reported and when
– Defines mitigation measures
Basis of audit protocols

Organisation and Responsibilities

– Who is accountable?
– Who is responsible for each activity?
– Tendering and Contracting

Reporting Lines

Monitoring and Reporting

 As per Management Plan Requirement

 Refer to Environmental Monitoring Plan

Auditing

Compliance:

– To assess performance of operations – Check on documentation and recording

against targets – Check on equipment
– QA/QC of monitoring programme
Scope reflected in protocols

Management Review

Review team
Frequency
Scope:

Review of results of KPIs and internal audits

Response to exception reporting (including non-compliance)
Response to and investigation of incidents
Response to complaints
Updating EMP for changes in regulations
Training reviews

Specific Management Plans

References to Stand Alone Plans, e.g.

Solid Waste Management Plan Emergency Response

Hazardous Waste Management Plan Human Resources and Training Plan
Occupational Health and Safety Plan
Introduction to Environmental Management Systems

What is an Environmental Management System?

• “The part of the overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities,
responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes and resources for developing, implementing achieving and
reviewing the environmental policy.” ISO14001

• An environmental management system brings together the people, policies, plans, review mechanisms, and
procedures used to manage environmental issues at a facility or in an organization.

Things About EMS You May Not Know

• You already have one

• May not meet requirements of ISO 14001
• After this class, you may be able to identify ways to improve your EMS

An EMS is Environmental

• Facilitates environmental compliance

• Addresses environmental impacts
• Broadens environmental responsibilities to all whose work can have a significant impact on the environment
• Environmental office has technical expertise to contribute

An EMS is Management

• Must have commitment of top managers

• EMS owned by facility manager
• Must be consistent with other management systems

An EMS is a System

• Requires awareness of formal structure

• Addresses policies, procedures, programs
• Doesn’t specifically address compliance components (drums, labels, etc.)

Continual Improvement Cycle

EMS Frameworks

• ISO 14001 Standard • Compliance-Focused EMS

• Code of Environmental Management Principles • Eco-Management and Audit Scheme

ISO 14001 Components

• Environmental Policy • Checking and Corrective Action

• Planning • Management Review
• Implementation and Operation
Environmental Policy

• Issue a policy statement signed by facility manager

• At a minimum, commit to
- Continual improvement
- Pollution prevention
- Environmental compliance
• Identifies EMS framework
• Publicly available

Planning

• Identify aspects and impacts from facility activities, products, and services
• Review legal requirements
• Set objectives and targets
• Establish formal EMS program

Implementation and Operation

• Define roles and responsibilities • Establish document control system

• Provide EMS training • Establish operational controls
• Establish internal and external communication • Integrate with or establish emergency
mechanisms preparedness procedures

Checking and Corrective Action

• Conduct periodic monitoring of environmental • Maintain environmental records

performance • Conduct periodic EMS audit
• Identify root causes of findings and conduct
corrective and preventive actions
Management Review

• Conduct periodic senior management review of EMS

• Revise policies as needed
ISO 14001 Elements

Other ISO 14001 Terms

Registration - An external audit of an EMS for conformance with ISO 14001 by an entity certified in the US by
Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB)

Registrar - Entity that conducts external audit of EMS for registration

Conformance - Adherence to ISO 14001 standard measured externally or internally

Self-Declaration - An assertion by an organization that it is in conformance with the ISO 14001 standard based on
an internal audit of its EMS

Benefits of an EMS

• Helps maintain compliance • Increase employee involvement

• Reduce operating costs • Reduce environmental impacts
• Integrate environmental programs into mission

What’s Missing?

• Structure • Management review or ownership

• Continual improvement • Formal awareness of “system”
• Top level management commitment • Or is it something else?

Summary

• An EMS is the combination of people, policies, procedures, review, and plans to help address environmental
issues
• Important EMS elements include continual improvement, management commitment, formalization, and
awareness of system approach