N17/4/ENVSO/SP1/ENG/TZ0/XX/T

Environmental systems and societies

Standard level
Paper 1

Friday 3 November 2017 (afternoon)

1 hour

Resource booklet
Instructions to candidates
� Do not open this booklet until instructed to do so.
� This booklet contains all the resources required to answer paper 1.

8817 – 6302
14 pages © International Baccalaureate Organization 2017
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Figure 1(a): Map showing the location of Iceland

Arctic
Circle

Iceland

[Source: adapted from CIA World Factbook]

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Figure 1(b): Map showing the main features of Iceland

Arctic Circle

Norwegian
Sea

Hofsjökull

Langjökull Vatnajökull
Reykjavik
64 N
o

Atlantic Key
Ocean Higher ground

Myrdalsjökull N Icesheets
60 km
Lower ground

[Source: © International Baccalaureate Organization 2017]

Figure 2: Fact file on Iceland

 Land area of 103 000 km2.

 Terrain is mountainous and volcanic.
 Isolated island so biological diversity is low, and there are few endemic species.
 Only 0.7 % of land is suitable for growing crops, and harsh climate means farming is limited to
livestock and geothermally-heated greenhouses.
 60 % of population live in the capital city Reykjavik.
 Total fertility rate is two children per woman.
 Important industries include fishing, aluminum smelting and tourism.
 Ecological footprint is 7.4 GHa compared to a world average of 2.6 GHa.
 A representative democracy and high income country, ranked 13th highest on the human
development index.
 Badly affected by the global financial crisis in 2008.
 Hydroelectric and geothermal power sources provide 85 % of primary energy.
 Expects to be energy-independent, using 100 % renewable energy by 2050.
 Government recently approved oil exploration in Icelandic waters by oil companies.

[Source: Open access/Wikipedia]

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Figure 3(a): Graph showing Icelandic population change over time

350 000

300 000

250 000

200 000
Population

150 000 874: first settlement of Iceland

(prior to this Iceland believed to be uninhabited)

100 000

50 000

0
850 900 950 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year

[Source: adapted from Statistics Iceland, www.statice.is]

Figure 3(b): Age-gender pyramid for Iceland in 2014

Male 100+ Female

95–99
90–94
85–89
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
15 12 9 6 3 0 0 3 6 9 12 15
Population (in thousands) Age Group Population (in thousands)
[Source: www.indexmundi.com]
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Figure 4(a): Climate graph for Reykjavik, Iceland

Removed for copyright reasons

Figure 4(b): Surface air temperature anomaly for May 2016 to April 2017
relative to the average for 1981-2010

0ûC

-2
-4

-6
-8

[Source: ECMWF Copernicus Climate Change Service]

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Figure 5: Photographs showing Icelandic flora and fauna

Invasive lupin Atlantic puffin and burrow

(Lupinus nootkatensis) (Fratercula arctica)

[Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupinus_nootkatensis#/ [Source: Sebastian Kennerknecht/ Minden Pictures]

media/File:Lupinus_nootkatensis_-_Iceland_20070706b.jpg.
Photo taken by user Jutta234, see https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/legalcode]

Atlantic herring Great sand eel

(Clupea harengus) (Hyperoplus lanceolatus)

[Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_herring#/media/ [Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_sand_eel#/media/

File:Clupea_harengus.png] File:Hyperoplus_lanceolatus.jpg]

(This figure continues on the following page)

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(Figure 5 continued)

Native birch trees in Iceland Arctic fox

(Betula pubescens) (Vulpes lagopus)

[Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montane_ecosystems#/ [Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arctic_

media/File:Mountain-birch-Trollheimen.jpg, by Orcaborealis. fox_(6375703941).jpg, photo taken by Emma J. Bishop, see
Licensed here: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/legalcode.]
sa/3.0/legalcode.]

Picture removed shows puffin hunter in Iceland

using a sky fishing net

Atlantic mackerel Puffin hunter in Iceland

(Scomber scombrus)

[Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_mackerel#/
media/File:A_mackerel.jpg, photo taken by Peter van der
Sluijs, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
legalcode.]

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Figure 6(a): Map showing distribution of birch forest in 874 and in 2015

Key

Distribution of
birch before
settlement (874)
Distribution of
birch in 2015

[Source: Map drawn by Björn Traustason, Icelandic Forest Service (www.skogur.is). Used with permission.]

Figure 6(b): Map showing soil erosion in Iceland in 2007

Key

Severe erosion

Very severe erosion

Icesheets

Relatively little
erosion

[Source: Agricultural University of Iceland, created by Arnauds et al 2001 http://k-sql.lbhi.is/desert/desertkort.html]

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Figure 6(c): Model to show changes in vegetation cover during

the six stages of soil degradation in Iceland

I II III IV V VI
High High Low

Woodland

Probability of success
Nutrient conservation
Vegetation cover

Restoration cost
Soil nutrients

Heath and moor

Desertified

Low Low High

Time
Grazing
Key
Changes to vegetation cover
Probability of success and cost of
returning to original vegetation cover

[Source: adapted from Aradottir, A.L. et al., (1992), Hnignun gróđurs og jarđvegs. (A model for land degradation.
In Icelandic.) Grœđum Island (Yearbook of the Soil Conservation Service), (4), pages 3–82]

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Figure 7(a): Fact file on Nootka lupin

 Native to North America.

 Introduced in Iceland to stop soil erosion in 1885.
 Invasive – spread quickly and outcompetes native flora.
 Ministry of Environment recommended eradication of the lupin in highlands (above 400 m), national
parks and conservation areas.
 Removal methods include: grazing, use of herbicides, pulling up by hand, mowing.
 Public participation encouraged to help with removal of the lupin.

[Source: Icelandic Institute of Natural History]

Figure 7(b): Known distribution of lupin in 2010

Key
Presence of Nootka lupin
60 km Each grid square is
10km × 10km

[Source: Icelandic Institute of Natural History]

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Figure 8(a): Fact file on the Atlantic puffin

 Estimated worldwide population of twelve million.

 60 % of the world’s puffins live in Iceland.
 Puffins lay their eggs in burrows on cliffs in June–July, one egg per year.
 Adult puffins bring small fish to their young.
 Classified as “vulnerable” on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list.
 Current population in decline.
 Threats to puffins include overfishing, native predators such as foxes and gulls, introduced predators
such as cats, hunting and egg collection by humans, oil spills, extreme weather and disturbance from
tourists.
 Puffins can be hunted legally in Iceland in April by a technique called “sky fishing”, which involves
catching low-flying birds with a big net. Their meat and eggs are commonly featured on hotel menus.
 Puffin populations affected by extreme weather events, and changes in availability of food.

[Source: Adapted from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puffin#cite_note-BNA_Atlantic-21]

Figure 8(b): Atlantic puffin range

Arctic Ocean
Arc
tic Cir
cl e
Asia
Atlantic Puffin
North Range Europe
America
30o

Atlantic
Ocean Africa

Equator
South
America

1800 km
Scale at 30o N

[Source: Adapted from: James Lauren E./National Geographic Creative, http://

ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/06/pu ns/img/atlantic-pu n-range-map-525.png]]

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Figure 8(c): Food web for the Atlantic puffin

Tuna
Humans Fox Black backed gull Mink Sharks
Dolphins

Puffin Mackerel

Squid Herring Sand eel Capelin

Zooplankton

Phytoplankton

[Source: © International Baccalaureate Organization 2017]

Figure 8(d): Graph showing global capture fisheries of Atlantic herring in tonnes 1950–2010

4 000 000

3 000 000
Tonnes

2 000 000

1 000 000

0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year

[Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO,

Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved April 2012, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Atlantic_herring#Baltic_herring Reproduced with permission]
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Figure 9(a): Graph showing primary energy consumption in Iceland 1940–2008

250

200
Energy consumption (Pj)

Coal
150

Oil
100

Geothermal
50

Hydropower
0
0

5
194

194

195

195

196

196

197

197

198

198

199

199

200

200
Year
Pj = Petajoule (1 Pj = 1015 Joules)

[Source: Energy Agency of Iceland]

Figure 9(b): Map showing hydropower and geothermal energy resources in Iceland

N Key
Hydropower – in use
Hydropower – planned
Hydropower – potential
Geothermal – high temperature field
Rivers

60 km

[Sources: Map of hydropower potentials, produced by Nordregio based on similar produced by

Landsvirkjun, Iceland’s state-owned national power company and Energy in Iceland, published by the
National Energy Authority / Ministry of Industry and Commerce, Reykjavik, September 2006]

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Figure 9(c): Pie chart showing sources of greenhouse gas emission in Iceland in 2010

Industrial
processes
40 %

Geothermal
energy
4 % Agriculture
14 %

Waste
Energy 5 %
37 %

[Source: Environment Agency of Iceland National Inventory Report 2012]