THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY

“NICOLAE TESTEMITANU”

fish

Nervous System
human

mammal

DEPARTAMENT OF HISTOLOGY, CYTOLOGY AND EMBRIOLOGY

GLOBA TATIANA
 Nervous system
• To detect, analyze, utilize & transmit all
information generated by the sensory stimuli
(such as heat & light) & by the mechanical &
chemical changes that take place in the internal &
external environment
• Controls and integrates all body activities
within limits that maintain life
• To organize & coordinate most functions of
the body, especially the motor, visceral,
endocrine & mental activities
Development of the NS
 Development of the NS
I. Stage of 3 brain “bubbles” (at the end of the 4-th
week of embryonic development)
 Prosencephalon
 Mesencephalon
 Rhombencephalon
II. Stage of 5 brain “bubbles” (6-th week)
 Prosencephalon
 Telencephalon --- cerebral
hemispheres
 Diencephalon + nervous components
of the eye
 Mesencephalon - arise reflex centers of
the vision, hearing, t & tactile sensitivity
 Rhombencephalon
 Metencephalon - cerebellum, brain
stem
 Myelencephalon
Development
Anatomical Nervous System Divisions

• Central nervous system (CNS)

– consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– consists of cranial and spinal nerves that contain
both sensory and motor fibers
– ganglia (collections of neurons outside the CNS)
– motor & sensory nerve endings
– connects CNS to muscles, glands & all sensory
receptors
Major Structures of the Nervous System
 Functional Subdivisions of the PNS
• Somatic (voluntary) nervous system (SNS)
– neurons from cutaneous and special sensory receptors to the
CNS
– motor neurons to skeletal muscle tissue
• Autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems
– sensory neurons from visceral organs to CNS
– motor neurons to smooth & cardiac muscle, glands & blood
vessels
• sympathetic division (speeds up heart rate)
• parasympathetic division (slow down heart rate)
• Enteric nervous system (ENS)
– involuntary sensory & motor neurons control GI tract
– neurons function independently of ANS & CNS
 Peripheral nervous system

• Sympathetic = increases (↑) organ’s activities,

excitatory.
• Parasympathetic = decreases (↓) organ’s activities,
inhibitory.

• The ENS consists of neurons in two enteric

plexuses that extend the length of the GI tract and
function independently of the ANS and CNS.
 Histology of nervous tissue
 White matter consists of:
• aggregations of myelinated nerve fibers,
• few unmyelinated nerve fibers
• neuroglia
• blood vessels
Gray matter contains:
• neuron cell bodies (perikarya),
• mostly unmyelinated nerve fibers
• few myelinated nerve fibers
• neuroglia
• blood vessels
 In the spinal cord, gray matter forms an H-shaped inner core
(central position) that is surrounded by white matter (peripheral
position).
 In the brain, a thin superficial shell of gray matter covers the
cerebrum (form cortex), the white matter is located in the center
(medulla).
 In the CNS
Groups of nerve cell bodies are called nuclei.
Bundles of nerve fibers are called tracts.

In the PNS
Groups of nerve cell bodies are called ganglia.
Bundles of nerve fibers form nerves.
 Spinal Cord
• Is a cylindrical structure that is directly continuous with the
brain & is situated in the vertebral canal but not reaching up
to its end.
• In cross section, it exhibits a butterfly-shaped grayish-tan
inner substance, the gray matter & a whitish peripheral
substance, the white matter.
• The white matter is composed of myelinated and
unmyelinated nerve fibers that represent ascending,
descending and transverse pathways
• The gray matter consists of mirror-image lateral gray
masses connected by a cross-bar of gray matter called the
gray commissure that encloses the central canal.
 Posterior medial sulcus

The central
canal is the
small channel
in the gray
matter which
connects the
gray matter of
left and right
sides. It is
lined by
ependymal
cells

The spinal cord has two grooves that mark its surface
Anterior median fissure / Posterior medial sulcus Anterior median fissure
Central canal
 Spinal Cord
• Gray matter is divided
into the:
Dorsal (posterior)
horns – are fine-
bored & long
Ventral (anterior)
horns – are wide &
short
Lateral horns
According of the topography of neurons axons the
neurons of spinal cord are divided into

• Radicular – axons of neurons form anterior

roots.
• Inner – axons of neurons are located inside of
the gray matter.
• Fascicular – axons of neurons form bundles of
nerve fibers inside of the white matter – tracts.
 Dorsal (posterior) horns
Inside of them are distinguished:
• Spongy layer – contains many interneurons.
• Substantia gelatinosa – mostly is formed by
neuroglia.
• Proper nucleus – is formed by interneurons that
axons come to the opposite part of spinal cord &
inside of tracts go to the cerebellum & thalamus.
• Thoracic nucleus (Clara’s nucleus) - is formed by
interneurons that axons come to the cerebellum.
 white columns of
posterior funiculus

gray matter
posterior horn

lateral
central canal
funiculus

commissures
 Ventral (anterior) horns
• Contain multipolar motor neurons.
• Spinal motor neurons have the largest nerve cell bodies in the
ventral horn. These cells are also called "lower motor neurons",
or just "motor neurons“. Axons of these cells extend through
ventral (anterior) roots into peripheral nerves, and hence to motor
end plates on muscle fibers.
• The anterior horns are the largest in the areas where the
innervation for limbs is present
– Cervical enlargement (arms)
– Lumbar enlargement (legs)
• Most evident are:
 Medial group of motor neurons that innervate muscles of
the trunk (body)
 Lateral group of motor neurons that innervate muscle of
upper & lower extremities
 lateral
funiculus

gray matter
anterior horn

white columns of
anterior funiculus
 Lateral horns
• Are well developed in thoracic & sacral
regions.
• The lateral horn neurons are autonomic
(sympathetic) motor neurons that serve the
visceral organs.
• Their axons also leave the cord via the ventral
root.
 White Matter
• The white matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated
and unmyelinated nerve fibers that allow communication
between different parts of the spinal cord and between the cord
and the brain.
• Nerve fibers run in three directions:
– Ascending / up to higher centers (sensory inputs)
– Descending / down to the cord from the brain or from within
the cord to lower levels (motor outputs)
– Transversely / across from one side of the cord to the other
(commissural fibers).
• The white matter on each side of the column is divided into three
white columns or funiculi and labeled according to their position
(posterior, lateral, anterior).
• Each funiculi contains several fiber tracts, and each tract is made
up of axons with similar destinations and functions.
White Matter
 Cerebellum
• There are three portions - 2 lateral hemispheres and the middle
portion (vermis)
• Functions: - coordination of voluntary muscles, maintenance of
balance, maintenance of muscle tone.
• Consists of gray (cortex) & white matter (medulla)
 Gray matter – cerebellar cortex
The cortex of the cerebellum consists of three well-defined layers:
I. Molecular layer is relatively acellular and contains:
 Stellate neurons
 Basket neurons
 Dendrites of Purkinje neurons
 Parallel fibers (axons of granule cells)
 Neuroglia
II. Purkinje cell layer contains:
 Cell bodies of Purkinje neurons that are surrounded by the
basket (axons of basket & stellate neurons)
III. Granule cell layer is rich in cells and contains:
 Granule neurons (cells)
 Golgi cells
 cerebellar Glomeruli
 Neuroglia
 Neurons of Cerebellar Cortex
I. Purkinje cells (neurons)
• are the largest neurons in the
brain.
• have extensive dendritic trees that
are broad perpendicular and
compressed parallel to the length
of the folium.
• the dendrites fill the molecular
layer.
• the axons run through the white
matter and synapse in cerebellar
nuclei (or in vestibular nuclei).
• Purkinje axons engage in
inhibitory synapses; they release
GABA as a neurotransmitter.
Purkinje Cell (cerebellum) 100X

Purkinje cells

Purkinje Cells

Purkinje Cells (cerebellum) 400X

 Neurons of Cerebellar Cortex
II. Basket cells (neurons) are located in the depth of the
molecular layer.
• Their dendrites receive excitatory synaptic input from
parallel fibers.
• Their axons run transversely in the folium and inhibit bands
of Purkinje cells that border the excited zone. Axonal
branches form basket synaptic contacts around initial
segments of Purkinje axons and release GABA.
III. Stellate cells are intrinsec neurons named for their star-like
shape, which results from dendrites arising in many
directions.
• serve as inhibitory interneurons.
IV. Golgi neurons (cells) in the granule cell layer like as stellate
cells in the molecular layer serve as inhibitory interneurons.
 Neurons of Cerebellar Cortex
V. Granule cells (neurons)
• are the smallest neurons in the
brain.
• they are the only excitatory
neurons in the cerebellar cortex;
they release glutamate as a
neurotransmitter.
• have a few short dendrites within
the granule cell layer.
• axons of granule cells enter the
molecular layer, bifurcate, and
run along the length of a folium
(parallel fibers).
• each granule cell makes synaptic
contact with numerous Purkinje
neurons along a longitudinal
band.
 Cortical Afferent Fibers
Two types of afferent fibers enter the cerebellar cortex. Both
afferent types are excitatory to the cortex and they send
excitatory collateral branches to cerebellar nuclei before
entering the cortext. The afferent fibers are:
– Mossy fibers — have terminations that resemble moss. The
mossy endings synapse in glomeruli, with dendrites of granule
cells. Mossy afferents come from all sources (spinal cord,
pontine nuclei, vestibular nuclei & nerve) except the reticular
formation.
– Climbing fibers — terminate by climbing the dendritic tree
of a Purkinje neuron, exciting it greatly via numerous synaptic
contacts. All climbing fibers come from the olivary nucleus.
Like mossy fibers, climbing fibers send excitatory collaterals to
cerebellar nuclei before terminating in the cortex.
 Cortical Circuitry
• Afferent fibers, both climbing and mossy, are excitatory. The fibers
send collaterals to cerebellar nuclei before terminating in cerebellar
cortex. • Climbing fibers excite Purkinje cells
directly. Mossy fibers excite granule
cells. Granule cells excite bands of
Purkinje cells and basket cells along
the length of a folium. Basket cells
inhibit Purkinje cells along the
bilateral margins of the excited band.
• Purkinje cell axons terminate in
cerebellar nuclei (or vestibular nuclei)
where they selectively inhibit output
neurons. Efferent axons from
cerebellar nuclei constitute cerebellar
output.
Note: Granule cells are the only excitatory cells in the cerebellar cortex, all other cells are
inhibitory. Purkinje cell axons are the only axons that leave the cerebellar cortex.
 The Brain
• Functions: interprets sensations, determines
perception, stores memory, reasoning, makes
decisions, coordinates muscular movements,
regulates visceral activities, and determines
personality.

Has Gray matter (cerebral cortex), and White matter

 Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex forms the surface of gyri and sulci
over each entire cerebral hemisphere:
There are 6 layers:
 Molecular layer
 Outer granular layer
 Outer pyramidal cell layer
 Inner granular layer
 Ganglionic (inner pyramidal) layer (large pyramidal
cells – Betz cells) – is well developed in the motor
area.
 Fusiform (polymorphic) cell layer
• Layer I ("molecular layer") is the outermost layer.
This layer contains relatively few nerve cell bodies.
The odd name "molecular layer" derives from the fine
texture of this layer, due to its composition largely of
dendrites and fine axon terminals (and glia, of course).
• Layer II ("outer granular layer"), typically contains
many very small cells (granule cells, stellate cells).
• Layer III ("outer pyramidal layer") contains cell
bodies of small pyramidal cells. Axons from these
cells typically project to the upper layers of
neighboring cortical regions.
• Layer IV ("inner granular layer") contains axonal
ramifications of afferent fibers, such as sensory axons
from the thalamus.
• Layer V ("inner pyramidal layer") contains cell
bodies of large pyramidal cells. Axons from these
cells typically project to more distant cortical
regions, to other parts of the brain, or to lower
centers (such as spinal motor neurons). The larger
size of these pyramidal cells is associated with the
greater length of their axons.
• Layer VI ("layer of pleiomorphic cells) typically
contains cells of assorted size and shape (hence,
"pleiomorphic").
 Neurons of Cerebral Cortex
• The cortex of the cerebrum consists of: stellate cells, horizontal
cells, granule cells - intrinsic neurons, and pyramidal cells – the
efferent (long-axon) cells of the cerebral cortex.
 Neurons of Cerebral Cortex
• Pyramidal cells may be recognized by their relatively large
soma and by their prominent apical dendrites (the upward "apex"
on the "pyramid"). The diagrammatic pyramidal cells alongside
the image suggest the extent of these dendrites (although most
lateral branches are truncated here as well).
• Although typically an apical dendrite is conspicuous only near
the soma of its pyramidal cell, these are actually very long
processes which may extend (with many branches) into the
molecular layer (layer I).
• Basal dendrites (beginning the lower "corners" of each
"pyramid") may extend to either side far beyond the width of this
image.
• Axons from pyramidal cells project distances which, at this
magnification, could equal many tens meters. Some go to
adjacent areas of cortex ("association fibers"). Others cross
through the corpus callosum.
 The giant Betz cells

• are extremely large pyramidal cells of the motor

(precentral) cortex. These pyramidal cells comprise
some of the upper motor neurons.
• Axons from these cells descend in the corticospinal
tract, or pyramidal tract, to synapse with lower
motor neurons.
• Their exceptionally large size is presumably
associated with their need to sustain extremely long
axons.
 Types of cerebral cortex
• Ungranular - is specific for its motor centers.
III, V, VI layers are well developed.
• Granular – is specific for its sensitive centers.
II, IV layers are well developed.
 White matter
• The white matter of the cerebrum is composed of
myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers that allow
communication between different parts of the brain and
between the brain and the spinal cord.
• There are three type of nerve fibers:
– Associative nerve fibres (connect gyri of one
hemisphere).
– Commissural nerve fibres (connect gyri of opposite
hemispheres).
– Projective nerve fibres (connect a cortex to
underlying departments of nervous system).
 Meninges
• The central nervous system is enveloped by specialized layers of
connective tissue.
– The outermost layer is the dura mater (or just "dura"), very
dense fibrous connective tissue, tough and fairly
impermeable.
– Immediately adjacent to the brain is the pia mater (or just
"pia"), a delicate layer of collagen and fibroblast-like cells
that adheres closely to the underlying glia limitans (the
outermost layer of proper nervous tissue), includes blood
supply for the brain.
– In between dura and pia is the arachnoid, a layer of very
loose connective tissue in which cerebrospinal fluid occupies
the position of ground substance.
 Ganglia are aggregations of neuron cell bodies
outside of the CNS.
• There are two principal types, distinguished mainly by their
function and sometimes by location. One type is sensory, the
other motor.
• The first type (sensory) of ganglia: are cranial ganglia and
spinal ganglia. Sensory ganglia – contain pseudounipolar or
bipolar afferent neurons.
• They are located by course of posterior roots of the spinal cord
(spinal ganglia) & cranial nerves (V, VII, VIII, IX, X)
• The second type of ganglion is the autonomic ganglion. They're
functionally motor ganglia. Autonomic ganglia can be:
 Paravertebral
 Prevertebral
 Intramural
 Spinal ganglion
• is encapsulated by a dense CT tissue, which is
continuous with the epineurium and perineurium
of the sensory neuron.
 Spinal ganglion
• The ganglion cells are grouped together on the
periphery.
• The ganglion cells are pseudo-unipolar
neurons, have centrally-located nuclei.
• They are surrounded by flattened satellite cells
with round (or ovoid) nuclei. The satellite cells
serve similar functions as the Schwann cells:
structural and metabolic support (don’t produce
myelin).
• Between the ganglion cells are septa of loose
CT (fibroblasts and connective tissue fibers)
 Spinal ganglion
• Fascicles of myelinated nerve fibers course through the
middle of the spinal ganglion. There are two type of
fibers:
– the afferent fiber — comes into the soma from a
sensory structure in the periphery. This can be any
kind of sensory structure: a touch receptor, cold
receptor, pain fiber, pressure sensor, etc.
– the efferent fiber — leaves the soma in the ganglion
and carries the information into the central nervous
system for further action.
Myelinated nerve
fibers
 Sympathetic ganglion
• Contains the soma of the second neuron in the autonomic motor
chain.
• The neurons in an autonomic ganglion receive input from the
CNS, process it, and send the signal to some effector organ other
than skeletal muscle.
• Typical effector organs for autonomic ganglia are sweat glands,
salivary glands, smooth muscle, etc.
• In sympathetic ganglia are multipolar neurons.
• The neuron soma are smaller than those of a sensory ganglion, and
their nuclei are more eccentric, some ganglion cells are
binucleated. There are fewer satellite cells, only 2 or so per soma.
• The nerve fibers, scattered between the cell bodies, have little to
no myelin.
• The capsule surrounding the ganglion cells is less distinct.
 Parasympathetic ganglia
• Due to their short, postganglionic axons, these ganglia are
often seen within or in proximity to their effector region.
This is evident within the walls of the gastrointestinal tract
(as parasympathetic ganglia are located within the
submucosa or between the circular and longitudinal layers
of smooth muscle).
 Nerve
• A "nerve" is a grossly visible anatomic structure, and
is a bundle of axonal processes from many different
neurons, wrapped in a connective tissue sheath.

Connective tissue sheath:

• Each axon is surrounded by an ENDONEURIUM –
a layer of loose CT.
• Groups of fibers are bound together into bundles
(fascicles) by a PERINEURIUM (loose CT).
• All the fascicles of a nerve are enclosed by a
EPINEURIUM.
Composition and Connective Tissue Coverings of a Spinal Nerve
 Nerve fiber classification
1. Sensory nerves – impulses conducted into CNS
2. Motor nerves – impulses conducted away fom
CNS to effector organs ( muscles, glands)
3. Mixed nerves – contain both sensory & motor
nerves
I. Cranial nerves – originate from brain, go to other
body parts
II. Spinal nerves – originate from spinal cord , go to
other body parts
 Beginning of examinations…

…At the end of examinations