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Motor Control Hierarchy

“pick up sweater” generated at the highest

level of the motor
“write signature” control hierarchy
MOTOR CONTROL “answer telephone”

These higher centers

include many regions of the
brain, including those
involved in memory,
emotions, and motivation

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Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11

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MOTOR
PROGRAM
defined as the
pattern of
neural activity
required to
properly
perform the
desired
movement

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Principal Motor Domains

• The primary motor cortex (M1) lies
along the precentral gyrus, and
generates the signals that control the
execution of movement.
• Secondary motor areas are involved
in motor planning.

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Kolb & Whishaw, An

Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11

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Planning & the Motor Cortex

Motor Homunculus
• Primary motor cortex
– Brodmann Area 4
– precentral gyrus • A figurative representation of the
– Somatotopic map like somatosensory cortex body map encoded in primary
– Final output pathway from cortex to lower centers motor cortex.
• Premotor area (PMA) • Body parts with complex
– lateral Brodmann Area 6 repertories of fine movement, like
– Somatotopic map the hand, require more cortical
– Projects to reticulospinal neurons in proximal motor units
space in M1, while body parts with
• Supplementary motor area (SMA) relatively simpler movements, like
– medial Brodmann Area 6 the hip, require less cortical space.
– Somatotopic map
– Projects directly to distal motor units

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Posterior Parietal & Prefrontal

•
Cortex
Mental body image is constructed from
somatosensory, proprioceptive & visual inputs to
posterior parietal cortex
• Posterior parietal areas 5 and 7
– Area 5 receives input from primary somatosensory cortex
– Area 7 receives input from higher order visual cortices
• Prefrontal cortex
– Area 8
– center for abstract thought, decision making, etc.
– Extensively interconnected with areas 5 & 7

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Hierarchy Initiating Movement

• Movements are planned in areas 5, 7 & 8
• Area 6 is the place where the action desired is
converted into how the action will be carried out
• Area 4 becomes active when the movement is
initiated
• The command to initiate comes from the subcortical
basal ganglia
• Input to area 6 arises in the ventral lateral nucleus
(VL) of the dorsal thalamus
• Input to the VL arises from the basal ganglion in
the telencephalon
• The basal ganglia are targets of the frontal,
prefrontal, & parietal cortex
• This forms a loop: information cycles from the
cortex, to the basal ganglia and thalamus, and
back to the cortex
• One function of this loop is selection & initiation
of voluntary movements

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Kolb & Whishaw, An

Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11

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Dorsal
Spinothalamic

Kolb & Whishaw, An Kolb & Whishaw, An

Introduction to Brain and Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition - Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11 Chapter 11

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Ventrolateral
thalamus

Pain &
Temperature:
Medial Lemniscus
Kolb & Whishaw, An
Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11

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Organization of the Motor System Organization of the Motor System

Corticospinal Tracts Corticospinal Tracts

• Corticospinal Tract • Lateral Corticospinal Tract

– Bundle of nerve fibers directly connecting the cerebral – Branches at the brainstem level, crossing over to the
cortex to the spinal cord opposite side of the brain and spinal cord
– Branches at the brainstem into opposite-side lateral – Moves the digits and limbs on the opposite side of the
tract that controls movement of limbs and digits, and a body
same-side ventral tract that informs movement of the • Ventral Corticospinal Tract
trunk – Remains on the same side of the brain and spinal cord
– Also called the pyramidal tract – Moves the muscles of the midline body (trunk) on the
same side of the body
Kolb & Whishaw, An Kolb & Whishaw, An
Introduction to Brain and Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition - Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11 Chapter 11

31 32

Organization of the Motor System

Motor Neurons
• Two kinds of neurons located in the spinal
column’s ventral horns
– Interneurons project to motor neurons
– Motor neurons project to muscles of the body
• Laterally located motor neurons project to the muscles that
control the fingers and hands
• Intermediately located motor neurons project to muscles
that control the arms and shoulders
• The most medially located motor neurons project to muscles
that control the trunk

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Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11

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Kolb & Whishaw, An Kolb & Whishaw, An

Introduction to Brain and Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition - Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11 Chapter 11

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The Basal Ganglia and the Cerebellum

The Basal Ganglia and Movement Force
Basal Ganglia
• Collection of subcortical nuclei within the forebrain
• Receives input from
– All areas of the neocortex and limbic cortex
– The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system
• Project back to the motor cortex and substantia nigra
• Allow us to adjust the force of our movements

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Introduction to Brain and Introduction to Brain and
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The Basal Ganglia and the Cerebellum

The Basal Ganglia and Movement Force
• Damage to the basal ganglia can produce two
main types of motor symptoms
• Hyperkinetic Symptom
– Symptom of brain damage that results in excessive
involuntary movements, as seen in Tourette’s syndrome
• Hypokinetic Symptom
– Symptom of brain damage that results in a paucity of
movement, as seen in Parkinson’s disease

Kolb & Whishaw, An

Introduction to Brain and
Behavior, Third Edition -
Chapter 11

39 40

The Basal Ganglia and the Cerebellum

The Basal Ganglia and Movement Force
Volume Hypothesis
• The internal globus pallidus acts like a volume dial
and projects to the thalamus, which projects to the
motor cortex
• Two pathways within the basal ganglia
– Direct
• Inhibitory: Too much activity leads to overactivity in the thalamus
and amplified force of movement
– Indirect
• Excitatory: Too much activity leads to underactivity in the thalamus
and reduced force of movement

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The Basal Ganglia and the Cerebellum

The Cerebellum and Movement Skill
Cerebellum
• Flocculus
– Small but dense lobe involved in eye movements and balance
• Two hemispheres
– Homuncular organization
– Lateral parts
• Controls movement of limbs, hands, feet, and digits
– Medial parts
• Controls movement of face and midline of body

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The Basal Ganglia and the Cerebellum

The Cerebellum and Movement Skill
Two Main Motor Functions
1) Timing
• Movements and perceptions

2) Maintaining Movement Accuracy

• Error Correction
– Compares intended movement with actual movement
and makes the necessary adjustments accordingly
Kolb & Whishaw, An
Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction
Introduction to Brain and
to Brain and Behavior, Third
Behavior, Third Edition -
Edition - Chapter 11
Chapter 11

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Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction

to Brain and Behavior, Third
Edition - Chapter 11

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8

The Brain Motor Centers and the Descending Pathways They Control
Cerebellum
Principal afferent tracts to the cerebellum
49
afferent tracts to the cerebellum
from the Brain
• reticulocerebellar fibers:
– which originate in different portions of the brain
stem reticular formation and terminate in the
midline cerebellar areas (mainly in the vermis).
51
afferent tracts to the cerebellum
from the periphery
• Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
– through the inferior cerebellar peduncle and
terminates in the vermis and intermediate zones
of the cerebellum on the same side as its origin.
– mainly from the muscle spindles
– a lesser extent from other somatic receptors
throughout the body(Golgi tendon organs, large
tactile receptors of the skin, and joint receptors)
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afferent tracts to the cerebellum
from the Brain
• olivocerebellar tract:
– which passes from the inferior olive to all parts of the
cerebellum and is excited in the olive by fibers from
the cerebral motor cortex, basal ganglia, widespread
areas of the reticular formation, and spinal cord
• vestibulocerebellar fibers:
– originate in the vestibular apparatus itself and others
from the brain stem vestibular nuclei—almost all of
these terminate in the flocculonodular lobe and
fastigial nucleus of the cerebellum
50
afferent tracts to the cerebellum
from the periphery
• Dorsal spinocerebellar tract
– through the inferior cerebellar peduncle and
terminates in the vermis and intermediate zones
of the cerebellum on the same side as its origin.
• Ventral spinocerebellar tract
– through the superior cerebellar peduncle, but it
terminates in both sides of the cerebellum
52
afferent tracts to the cerebellum
from the periphery
• Dorsal spinocerebellar tract à All these signals
apprise the cerebellum of the momentary status
of :
(1) muscle contraction
(2) degree of tension on the muscle tendons
(3) positions and rates of movement of the
parts of the body
(4) forces acting on the surfaces of the body
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afferent tracts to the cerebellum The Brain Motor Centers and the Descending Pathways They Control
from the periphery Cerebellum
• Ventral spinocerebellar tracts:
– receive less information from the peripheral
receptors.
– they are excited mainly by motor signals arriving
in the anterior horns of the spinal cord from:
• (1) the brain through the corticospinal and rubrospinal
tracts and
• (2) the internal motor pattern generators in the cord
itself.

Principal efferent tracts from the cerebellum

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Efferent from the cerebellum Efferent from the cerebellum

• Midline structures of the cerebellum (the
vermis) à fastigial nuclei à into the
medullary and pontile regions of the brain
stem:
– Assosiation with equilibrium apparatus and brain
stem vestibular nuclei to control equilibrium
– Association with the reticular formation of the
brain stem to control the postural attitudes of the
body
• The intermediate zone of the cerebellar
hemisphere à the interposed nucleus à the
ventrolateral and ventroanterior nuclei of the
thalamus à the cerebral cortexàseveral midline
structures of the thalamus àthe basal ganglia à
the red nucleus and reticular formation of the
upper portion of the brain stem:
– Coordinate mainly reciprocal contractions of agonist
and antagonist muscles in the peripheral portions of
the limbs (hands, fingers, and thumbs)

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Cerebral and cerebellar control

of voluntary movements

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