As soon as the skirmishers fall back, the Akkadian spearmen and shieldbearers will close ranks to resist whatever

comes.

Old Kingdom Egypt; Nubian tribes menace the southern frontier.

Hittite troops bravely defy every Achaean warlord who invades their territory.
 CONTENTS
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Setting Up the Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Bronze Age Skirmish Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Skirmish Rules Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Early Bronze Age, 2500-2000 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Battle of Ugiga, Sumer 2400 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Battle of Akkad, Mesopotamia 2268 BC. . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conquest of Magan, Persian Gulf 2270 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fall of Ebla, Syria 2225 BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Encounter on the Sura River, Eurasian Steppe 2200 BC . . 27
Downfall of the Guti, Mesopotamia 2125 BC . . . . . . . . . . 30
The Necropolis of Abudju, Egypt 2050 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Outflanking Muriq-Tidnum, Mesopotamia 2015 BC . . . . 36
The Middle Bronze Age, 2000-1500 BC . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Rearguard at Sekmem, Canaan 1825 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Battle of Eshnunna, Mesopotamia 1762 BC . . . . . . . . 46
The Battle of Hit, Mesopotamia 1760 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Minoan Skirmish, Aegean 1700 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The Storming of Hahhum, Syria 1625 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Battle of Nekheb, Upper Egypt 1610 BC . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Cutting Off Avaris, Western Desert Oasis 1540 BC . . . . . 66
The Late Bronze Age, 1500-1250 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Battle of Megiddo, Canaan 1457 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Written By:
Nigel Stillman
Cover Artwork:
Peter Dennis
Miniatures Painted by:
Andrés Amián Fernández & Jamie Getliffe
Production:
Dylan Owen
Photography:
Andrés Amián Fernández,
Adam Want & Darek Wyrozebski
Across the Orontes, Syria 1420 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
The Battle of Zippasla, West Anatolia 1385 BC . . . . . . . . . 82
Not Quiet on the Kaska Front, Anatolia 1353 BC. . . . . . . 86
The Battle of Isuwa, Anatolia 1345 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
A Long Way to Karduniyash, Syrian Desert 1335 BC . . . . 96
The Ambush of Zannanza, Amurru 1325 BC . . . . . . . . . 100
The Battle of Beth Shan, Canaan 1294 BC . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Skirmish at Shabtuna Ford, Orontes Valley 1275 BC. . . . 112
The Siege of Dapur, Syria 1270 BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
The End of the Bronze Age, 1250-1000 BC . . . . . . . 120
Shipwreck Skirmish, Cyprus 1250 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
The Battle of Peryeru, Egypt 1208 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The Battle of Mount Tabor, Canaan 1200 BC . . . . . . . . . 129
Chariot Duels, Troy 1180 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
The Battle of the Nile, Egypt 1176 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Raiders of Pylos, Greece 1150 BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The War of the High Priest, Egypt 1087 BC. . . . . . . . . . . 145
Bronze Age Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Military Organisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Wargear of the Bronze Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The Soldier’s Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
How Do We Know? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Editing & Proof-reading:
Andrés Amián Fernández, Duncan Macfarlane,
Rick Priestley & Paul Sawyer
With Special Thanks To:
John Stallard
ISBN: 978-1-911281-52-8
© Copyright Warlord Games Ltd 2019
Warlord Games, the Warlord Games logo, Hail Caesar and the Hail Caesar logo are
trademarks of Warlord Games Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means
without the prior written permission of the publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar
condition being imposed upon the subsequent purchaser.
www.warlordgames.com
This book is all about fighting battles of the Bronze Age with
model soldiers. It is a supplement for the Hail Caesar
rulebook. The Bronze Age is the early part of the Ancient era.
It is also the greater part of the Biblical era and the Chariot
age. The Bronze Age is so called because weapons and armour
were mainly made of bronze which is an alloy of copper and
tin. It is a bright, gleaming, hefty reddish coloured metal. This
metal was used in the time before techniques of smelting and
working iron were discovered or widely known. Iron is a
cheaper and more abundant metal which is harder, lighter
and can be honed to be sharper. In the Bronze Age, anyone
who had a bronze weapon had a certain amount of status and
a warrior with two or three weapons and some armour was
likely to be a noble or in the retinue of a lord. Many of their
tribal opponents were still armed with Stone Age weapons
and clad in animal hides for armour. Initially, iron was not
superior to bronze, but as it was easier to find iron ore, more
warriors could be armed with a good weapon and so the
warrior nobility no longer had the edge over the tribesman.
2
The Bronze Age begins almost at the same time as the
invention of writing and the building of the first cities,
around 3000 BC and comes to an end (that is it transforms
into the Iron Age) around 1200 BC. Of course, the changes
are more gradual than these dates might imply. Copper
weapons were in use before the Bronze Age and bronze
continued to be used for weapons and especially armour
long after iron swords and spears were in use. The end of
the Bronze Age coincides with the fall of the mighty empires
of Egypt, the Hittites and the Mycenaean Greeks. According
to Greek legendary history, the fall of Troy marked the end
of the ‘Heroic Age’ of bronze. The beginning of the Iron
Age coincides with the rise of the empires of Assyria and
Babylon and the Israelite kingdoms. The Old Testament,
which is a source for many battles, spans both the Bronze
and Iron Ages.
The Bronze Age is the era of the two horse chariot. The
chariot was made possible by the invention of the wheel, the
cart and the domestication of the horse, all in the
Neolithic era. The Early Bronze Age was the time of
warring city states with the first organised armies
and chariots drawn by wild asses. The Middle
Bronze Age saw the rise of mighty kingdoms and
the introduction of the fast horse-drawn chariot
with spoked wheels. The Later Bronze Age
saw the expansion of these kingdoms
into widespread empires, doubtless
made possible by the mobility of the
chariot and the increase in trade
resulting from innovations in ship
design. Towards the end of the Bronze Early chariots drawn by wild asses.
Age and in the early Iron Age, the mounted warrior
riding a horse or camel appeared to challenge the supremacy
of the chariot warrior. Infantry warriors became better China. Priority has been given to the many battles known
armed, armoured and disciplined. Chariots continued in use, from early Mesopotamia and the neighbouring lands of the
but the light, fast two horse chariot with two crew was Near East.
gradually replaced by heavier chariots with four horses and
three or four crew. The dates given for the battles are based on the widely
favoured Middle Chronology. Locations of battles are often
This book tells the military history of the Bronze Age in the based on guesswork. The orders of battle and commanders
Ancient Near East and surrounding regions through the are based on ancient records as far as possible. The passages
battle scenarios. At first it might seem to be a difficult task to quoted from ancient sources are very loose paraphrased
find out much about battles from such a remote period, but renderings based on translations to create dramatic dialogue
thanks to many years of archaeological research, started off by in the story, as in many historical films where characters use
Napoleon when he took scholars with him on his Egyptian the words historically attributed to them. The main aim is to
campaign of 1798-1801 to record the monuments, there is an show that such sources actually survive. Often I have merged
increasing amount of evidence to work with. At one time, ideas from several versions and consulted the footnotes and
this information would be hidden away in academic tomes in looked up technical military terms or geographical names in
the depths of a university library, but now a readily accessible dictionaries and opted for different interpretations to the
Osprey book will bring you rapidly into direct contact with original researchers. Most original texts include many gaps,
up-to-date discoveries, as will television documentaries and repeated phrases and bombastic titles of rulers and so on,
the internet. from which the information of military interest has to be
extracted. Scribes composing inscriptions often worked up a
The battles were chosen to reveal the military history from terse battle report handed to them by military counterparts
the earliest documented battles up to the end of the Bronze with grandiose language and no doubt left out things that
Age. There are many battles which are referred to in ancient might have been of great interest to us. Even the first hand
records with enough information to create an interesting despatches dictated to scribes to be sent immediately by
battle scenario. Some of the scenarios described here may be messenger contain enraged rantings or over the top
close to reality, others involve more guesswork and new expressions of loyalty interspersed with the useful
discoveries might lead to an alternative scenario. There are information. Some of the best are in the Amarna letters,
several important battles which are left out, including the such as “May your household, your harem, your chariots and
famous Battle of Kadesh, best documented of all Bronze Age troops be well, my chariots and innumerable troops are very
battles, because they have been covered so often and so well well,” or “Seven times seven I fall at the feet of my lord,” or
elsewhere. Indeed Kadesh as a battle scenario is included in “I am the dirt beneath the feet of my lord, the king’s house
the Hail Caesar rulebook. Several important battles between dog!” Remember this protocol when declaring your orders!
Mitanni and Assyria and the Hittites and Assyria, such as the
Battle of Nihriya have been left to be dealt with in a
supplement on Assyria, as have clashes between Kassites and
Assyrians. Another massed chariot battle that could have
been included was fought at Susa between the Babylonians
and Elamites in 1120 BC. Here we are on the brink of the
Iron Age and many famous battles of the Bible, such as those
between Philistines and Israelites really belong to the Early
Iron Age. The Trojan War and associated documented
Hittite battles in West Anatolia might be the subject of a
book in themselves. There are of course also several
documented Bronze Age battles known from Shang Dynasty Fierce Sherden warriors.

3
This section explains the
basic method for setting up a
battle scenario. Each scenario Blue Army Deployment Zone 12"
will also give further details
and variations relevant to the
specific battle or skirmish.

ORDERS
OF BATTLE
The orders of battle for each 24" Middle Zone
army are based as much as
possible on what the ancient
records can tell us. These
often give a basic divisional
structure, indicate allied
contingents and name the
commanders and certain
units. This information is Red Army Deployment Zone 12"
interpreted with reference to
the Hail Caesar army lists,
Biblical and Classical,
sticking fairly closely to the
lists. Indeed very little deviation is required to deal with the 2'x2' terrain boards. If you intend to use a bigger table simply
scenarios and armies as revealed by the ancient records enlarge the playing area accordingly or add more boards to
showing that the lists are both flexible and accurate. each flank. For a skirmish involving a few models or units
you could reduce the playing area appropriately.
The armies suggested in the orders of battle are usually
around 16 units in size organised into two, three or four
divisions. This is so that players can try out the scenarios SCENERY
with the models that they can reasonably expect to gather The important items of scenery for the scenario are the
together between them. You can of course expand these tactically significant terrain features which play a part in
armies with more units, since the historical armies in the the battle. These are represented by a few big terrain pieces
bigger battles would have been fairly large. As a rule of or groups of smaller pieces. Each scenario describes
thumb, for the battles, regard a standard unit as equivalent important features that were on the original battlefield or
to a ‘standard’ unit of the time which was usually 400 to which characterise the landscape in which the battle was
600 infantry or 150 to 200 chariotry. These were literally fought. Players can then add any purely decorative items of
‘standard’ units since this is the size of unit that would scenery to enhance the visual effect, but which do not
qualify for a unit standard! Such units are referred to influence the game. All terrain features are as defined in
frequently in the records of most of the ancient nations. the Hail Caesar rulebook.

For skirmish scenarios you can interpret the ratio as one

model representing one warrior or chariot, or a small unit
as representing a basic squad or company of 50 to 100
men, or a troop of 5 to 10 chariots, or squadron of 25 to
50 chariots.
BATTLEFIELD
The game is played on a table divided into three main areas.
These are the deployment zones of each army which run
along opposite edges of the table, and the much wider
middle zone where most of the action takes place. The
middle zone should be at least 24 inches deep and 36 inches
would be even better. The deployment zones should be at
least 12 inches deep.
The plan of the table representing the battlefield, shown
above, is based on a six by four foot table equivalent to six
DEPLOYMENT
The armies usually deploy along the long edges up to 12"
from the edge and at least 24" inches apart. In certain
scenarios a division or army enters or deploys on one or
other of the short edges. This represents a flank march or
scenarios where an army on the march is ambushed. Any
other variations are explained in the scenario.
FIRST TURN
Determine who has first turn as in the Hail Caesar rulebook
unless the scenario indicates otherwise.
GAME LENGTh
The battle lasts until one side has won according to the Hail
Caesar rulebook or has achieved its objective.

4
The Hail Caesar rules are designed to represent battles
between entire armies, or at least between fair sized bodies of
troops organised into fighting units representing dozens or
even hundreds of men apiece. The way that the units move,
the manner in which orders are issued and the role of
commanders all reflect this precept. However, in his
supplement Rome’s Dacian Wars, author Craig Woodfield
demonstrates that it is perfectly possibly to fight smaller
skirmish style games using the Hail Caesar rules, albeit with
the proviso that players are willing to make suitable
adjustments where necessary. We have found that this
approach allows short, action-packed games to unfold within
a very short space of time with only a handful of models and
using a relatively small playing area. So, suitably encouraged MODELS AND UNITS
by Craig’s example, this book includes a number of skirmish When playing a skirmish game you will need a number of
scenarios alongside the standard-sized battles. individually based models as each model becomes a unit in
its own right and represents one man. In the case of
The rules adaptations that follow are inspired by and in part chariots and other models that otherwise have a crew (e.g.
based upon those described in Rome’s Dacian Wars, so we war machines) a single model including its crew becomes
must begin by acknowledging the debt of gratitude that we one unit.
owe to Craig’s work. We will also follow in our predecessor’s
metaphorical footsteps by repeating his advice about the Models must be fastened to bases if only to stop them falling
practical applications of these rules, namely, they are by over, but exact basing isn’t critical. We assume players use
necessity a compromise and not supposed to be entirely whatever models they already have, whether fixed on
comprehensive or watertight. So, let us stress that these rectangular or round bases, or whatever.
adaptations are not intended to be a fully-fledged stand-alone
set of rules, but primarily as a fun change of pace between
larger, regular games of Hail Caesar. There will inevitably be STATS AND SPECIAL RULES
occasions when players will have to make a common-sense Individual models have the same range of stats in the
decision or simply roll a dice to decide how something skirmish game as entire units do in the full-sized game.
should go. We have not found such things onerous or Values are adjusted to represent single combatants. If you
difficult in practice, and we encourage players to have a go look at the skirmish scenarios in this book you will see how
for themselves. we have done this – generally reducing attacks and stamina
values to just one for most models on foot, for example.
The rules adaptions are summarised at the end of this section.
Note that commanders are treated differently than in the
main Hail Caesar game. They are treated as fighting units and
GENERAL COMMENT have stats in the same way as other units. See the separate
We have come to the view that the most effective approach in note about Commanders and Leaders.
adapting the Hail Caesar rules for skirmish games is simply to
leave stuff out! Many of the game rules relate to massed Special rules that normally apply to a full-sized unit also
formations and the coordination of entire armies. None of apply to the single model equivalent. You will find that some
this has much relevance in a skirmish game where one model rules don’t make much sense in a skirmishing context – for
represents one man. So here’s our starting point. It’s a example the ‘drilled’ rule doesn’t come into effect because
starting point players can usefully come back to if they are all units can make one move in the skirmish game. If in
unsure how to interpret a regular Hail Caesar rule in a doubt, leave it out.
skirmish game. If in doubt leave it out!

Libyan skirmishers

5
DISORDERED, ShAkEN
AND ShATTERED UNITS
We don’t need to change any of these standard rules for the
skirmish game. They work the same way as in the main game.
The terms themselves might feel a little incongruous, and we
offer the following by way of explanation.
A model that is disordered might be considered to be
temporarily exhausted or momentarily disoriented.
A model that is shaken can be thought of as badly wounded -
a man has suffered damaging hits equal to his stamina.
In the main Hail Caesar rules units accumulating double their
stamina value of damage in hand-to-hand fighting are
shattered and destroyed outright. In the skirmish game any
model accumulating double its stamina value of damage at any
time during hand-to-hand combat or as a result of shooting, is
immediately removed from play as dead or incapacitated.
FACING AND PROxIMITY
Each model represents just one individual or chariot, so we
assume all models are free to turn to face an enemy at any
time during the course of play, for example, to shoot a
weapon or face a charge. Models do not therefore have flanks
or a rear as such, as units do in the main Hail Caesar rules.
Because they are free to turn-to-face, cavalry and chariots are
able to countercharge when attacked assuming they are
otherwise able to do so, for example if they are not already
engaged in combat, shaken or disordered. This is the same as
in the full-sized game when such units are charged to their
front, but now it applies all round.
The proximity rules are generally ignored in the skirmish
game. Instead, we will not allow a model to move within 1" of
an unengaged enemy model unless it is to ‘charge’ it, i.e. you
can only move within 1" of an enemy you intend to attack!
Once an enemy model is engaged in combat it is acceptable
to barge past, passing within 1", for example to charge
another enemy model behind the first or to move beyond it.
See below for hand-to-hand fighting for how this affects
multiple combats.
It can happen that a model begins its move within 1" of an
unengaged enemy. In such a case the model must either
charge that enemy or move away from the enemy model
New Kingdom Egyptian spearmen
6
Hittite levy archers
without charging another. If a friend engages the same enemy
model in hand-to-hand fighting then – of course – it is no
longer unengaged and can be barged past as noted above.
SEqUENCE OF MOvES
Models can move in any sequence, it is not necessary that
units making a move on their own initiative be moved first as
in the main rules. In the skirmish game it is more convenient
to move models in whatever sequence you wish, whether
using their initiative or acting under orders.
COMMANDERS AND LEADERS
In the skirmish game both the Commander (the guy in
charge!) and Leaders (his subordinates) can issue orders to
other models. We imagine orders to be the equivalent of
shouted instructions, exhortations and encouragement.
In the skirmish game both Commanders and Leaders are
units that have regular stats and which move, fight and can
be killed like any other individuals. The Hail Caesar rules for
Commanders fighting and falling casualty are therefore not
needed and are not used.
ORDERS AND MOvES
The role of orders is much less important in the skirmish
game. In fact, players don’t have to give orders at all if they
don’t want to, because models can always move without them.
In the skirmish game units can move once using their own
initiative and regardless of how close the enemy might be.
Units can move in any sequence the player wishes, regardless
of whether they use initiative to move or an order.
Commanders and leaders are able to give orders to friendly
units, exhorting them to move further and faster in a
comparable way to the main Hail Caesar game.
Commanders and leaders cannot be given orders. However,
this is only because they don’t need them as they can always
make three moves if you wish.
When a model moves it can either move once using its
initiative, or the player can get a nearby leader or commander
to instruct the model to ‘get a move on’ – i.e. to make two or
three moves instead of one. This is the same process as giving
an order in the main Hail Caesar rules, except that if the
order is ‘failed’ the model still makes one move anyway
(blunder results aside!).
 Pharaoh Ramesses III gives orders (author’s collection).

Commanders can issue orders to any friendly units on the

battlefield. Leaders issue orders in the same way as EXAMPLE SKIRMISH FORCE
commanders, but up to a maximum distance of 12".

Orders can be given by commanders/leaders either before or

Chariot Squadron
after they have moved themselves. Individual commanders/ • Commander of the task force in chariot
leaders are not allowed to split their move with order issuing. • 2 chariot models
In other words, either finish moving your leader and then • 2 chariot runner models attached to each chariot
issue any orders, or finish issuing orders and then move him. (total six figures.)

A commander/leader can only issue a ‘follow me’ before he Pathfinder Squad

moves. A follow me order can only be issued to a ‘team’ of • Commander
which the commander/leader is a part (see below for more
• 5 skirmisher models or 4 light cavalry models
about teams).

A commander/leader who fails to give an order can give no

Infantry Squad
• Commander
more orders that turn, as in the main game. Don’t forget,
even though the order has been failed, units still make one • 5 spearman models
move and must try to fulfil their order as best they can.
Support Squad
Moving Commanders/Leaders • Commander
Both commanders and leaders can make up to three moves at • 5 archer models
a time as if they had passed an order giving them three
moves. They do not need to test for this – it happens
automatically – and they can make this move even after they
have failed to give orders to other models.

Because commanders and leaders are also units they can be

disordered just like other models, in which case they will be
unable to move that turn. This does not affect their ability to
issue orders other than a ‘follow me’ order.

7
TEAMS
In the full Hail Caesar game, a commander can give the same
order to a group of units at once. This is the same in the
skirmish game. A commander or leader can give the same
order to several models at once so long as they are grouped
together. In the skirmish game we call our grouped units a
team. As in the main game, a team is not a permanent
organisation, it just allows us to form our warriors into
groups or bodies and move them all at once. A team consists
of any number of models forming a group with no model
separated from the group by more than 1". It doesn’t matter
which models form a team – they can be different types and
armed in different ways.
If you wish to give an order to a team all the models must be
given the same order and all the models must continue to
form a team once any move is complete.
A chariot and chariot runners normally form a team.
When they do so, all chariot runners in the team can move
at the speed of the chariot. The whole team moves along at
9" per move. The chariot runners might hitch a ride on the
chariot or more likely they just jog along rapidly so they can
keep up.
Leaders have a maximum range of 12" for giving orders as
already noted. Models beyond this distance cannot be
included in a team even if they are within 1" of other models
that are within range.
BLUNDERS
If a commander or leader attempts to give an order to an
individual or team and rolls a blunder (a result of two 6s)
then rather than use the blunder chart in the Hail Caesar
rules the model or team simply does not move at all – not
even the one automatic move that it would otherwise make.
A blunder simply means no move at all.
A blunder doesn’t prevent the commander or leader who
issued the order from moving normally.
RALLY ORDERS
In the skirmish rules we shall dispense with the rally
order altogether because damage to our troops now represents
actual wounds inflicted upon individuals. To allow these to be
‘recovered’ would slow down our game as well as endowing
our commanders with seemingly mystic healing abilities.
Early levy skirmishers
8
ShOOTING AND COMBAT
Generally speaking, models shoot and fight in the standard
way, rolling ‘to hit’ and then for ‘morale saves’, accumulating
any damage scored against the target’s stamina value. Once a
model has accumulated its stamina value as damage it is
‘shaken’ (often this is just one) and it then suffers the same
penalties and restrictions as in the main game.
As in the full rules, models can be obliged to take a break test
if they suffer damage from shooting or if defeated in hand-to-
hand fighting (assuming they have not been killed outright).
If you do need to take a break test, use the troop type result
corresponding to the troop type exactly as you would
normally: mounted, infantry or skirmish. Even though we are
playing a skirmish game, and effectively all the troops are
skirmishing, only use the ‘skirmisher’ result line for troops
that are categorised as skirmishers.
Models that suffer double their stamina value in damage are
killed and removed immediately without fighting back if they
have not done so already. Because most models only have a
stamina value of 1 or 2 this tends to happen more often, and
much more quickly, than in a regular battle. This isn’t any
different to the normal Hail Caesar rules, but it is worth
pointing out because its ramifications are more significant
during a skirmish. For example, it means that ‘heroic’
individuals, with a stamina value of perhaps as high as 3,
become extremely durable compared to ordinary warriors.
Shooting
In a skirmish game we can ignore the usual rules for target
priorities and instead allow models to shoot at whatever
targets present themselves.
Where a group of say five models is facing an enemy group of
five models it seems somewhat inappropriate for all the
shooters to pick on just one enemy! So, we shall say there where
you have multiple shooters and multiple targets in close
proximity, we will roll all ‘to hits’ at once and distribute any hits
scored amongst the potential targets. Hits are allocated as evenly
as possible, so a second hit is only allocated once all targets have
one, and so on. Otherwise, in principle we don’t allow shooters
to concentrate their shooting upon a single model if there are
other potential targets nearby, closer or more obvious.
When a player wishes to shoot he should indicate which
models/groups are shooting, and at which targets/target
groups, before making any shots. If a player wishes to shoot
individually or to break down shooters into smaller groups,
nominate all targets before shooting at any.
 Amorite levy infantry
Hand-to-Hand Fighting
We do not need to take account of supporting units.
Support rules and rules that refer to supporting units don’t
apply during a skirmish. As with the proximity rule this
removes a whole swathe of rules that we simply don’t need
for a skirmish.
Open Order
Don’t apply the –1 ‘to hit’ modifier for troops fighting in
Open Order because most of our models will be in Open
Order most of the time. Instead we will allow certain bonuses
for some kinds of troops in ‘formation’ as noted below.
Charges
When a model charges into contact with an enemy it initiates
an engagement in the usual way. Any additional attacking
models can join in the engagement if they are able to charge
into touch with the enemy model. In the first turn they will
all fight using their ‘clash’ number of attacks and charge
bonuses. I.e. all models in touch with an enemy fight.
Ganging Up
In so far as possible, when a group of warriors charges an
opposing group of warriors the intention is that they divide
as equally as possible one-on-one. We only allow chargers to
gang up against a single enemy model if the enemy has no
unengaged friends within 1". A model cannot charge an
enemy that is already engaged if it has an unengaged friend
within 1", regardless of whether the charger can reach that
friend or not.
Note that the ganging up rule may sometimes make it
impossible for chargers to find opponents. By keeping friends
close by, even behind, you make it impossible for enemy
warriors to gang up.
Outnumbered
If a model is outnumbered in a fight then it suffers a ‘to hit’
penalty of –1 when it strikes. A chariot or other crewed unit
is only outnumbered if fighting more foot or cavalry models
than its crew. This is comparable to a unit fighting to its
flank in the main game.
Sequence of Attacks
In a skirmish game it is much more realistic – and exciting –
to work out who strikes first rather than assume all blows are
simultaneous. If the first warrior to strike inflicts damage
9
then his enemy might be shaken, which means he suffers the
appropriate penalty when fighting back. An opponent might
even be killed outright, in which case there is no fighting
back to worry about!
Roll a D6 for each model to decide which warrior strikes
first. The highest score strikes first and the lowest last. If both
roll the same then roll again until one gains ascendancy over
the other.
If one side has managed to gang up on a single enemy roll a
dice for each warrior and work out strikes in the sequence
that results, from highest to lowest.
Dividing Attacks
If a model has more than one attack and is facing more than
one enemy it can divide its attacks between them in any way
the player wishes. There is no need to divide equally or to
concentrate against any single foe – you can do as you wish.
Kills
If a model has suffered damage equal to double its stamina in
total then it is killed or destroyed. This is also the same as in
the main rules, but it happens more often in a skirmish
because of the low stamina values of the combatants.
Break Tests following combat
The side that suffers the most damage during an engagement
is defeated. If two, three or more models are fighting on one
side then all are defeated if they suffer more damage than
they inflict in total.
If a model is defeated during a combat engagement, a break
test is taken and the results applied in the same way as for a
full-sized unit. Ignore references to supporting units on the
results table, as these are not used in skirmish games.
If the defeated side has more than one model fighting in a
ganged up combat, then take a separate break test for each
model. This means different results can apply to individual
models, some perhaps standing to fight and others retreating
or breaking and falling casualty.
Break tests are also required for shaken units following a
draw. This is the same as for the main rules, but because
most warriors have a stamina value of only one it happens
more often in a skirmish.
 ExTRA RULES FOR ChARIOTS
Chariots are the most important and most impressive
weapons of the Bronze Age. Their riders are heroic and
aristocratic figures, individuals of considerable standing in
their communities, and often they will be the key elements
of your force.

Hittite spearmen
Post Combat Moves
Defeated units may be forced to retreat as a result of a break
test, and units that ‘break’ are assumed to be slain and are
removed as casualties. Victors are allowed the usual follow-up
moves assuming all of the enemies they were fighting have
either retreated or been killed. Remember we don’t allow
models to move within 1" of an unengaged enemy to reach
another; this applies during follow-up moves too, and allows
retreating troops to take refuge behind friends.
Joining Ongoing Combats
If a combat goes on from turn to turn it is possible that
additional models from either side will join in. Where this
happens, always divide the fights into one-on-one
engagements where possible, and divide any superfluous
attackers as equally as you can between their enemies. Don’t
worry if this means moving models around a bit – it is a
swirling melee after all.
medium infantry with large shields
There are no heavy infantry in Bronze Age battles but for
skirmish games we will allow medium infantry carrying large
shields to use the rules normally reserved for heavy infantry.
Chariot Stamina
Chariots usually have a stamina value of 3 so they are
extremely durable compared to ordinary warriors.
Once a chariot has taken damage equal to its stamina value it
becomes shaken like any other unit. In the skirmish game we
wish to determine whether it is the chariot’s warrior who is
hurt, the driver, or the horses. Roll a D6.
D6 Score Result
1-2 Horse Team
3-4 Driver
5-6 Warrior
Horse Team
The horses are wounded or the chariot
itself is damaged. In addition to being shaken,
the unit can only make a maximum of one move at a time,
even if it is a commander or leader.
Driver
The driver is wounded. This has no additional penalty.
Warrior
The chariot warrior is wounded. In addition to being shaken,
this means the chariot’s hand-to-hand clash and sustain stats
are reduced to 1, and its shooting stats are reduce to 0. In
other words, from now on the chariot model can only make
one attack in hand-to-hand fighting and cannot shoot.

If two or more medium infantry with large shields are Chariot Charge
arranged base-to-base in something like a conventional If a chariot charges or counter-charges into combat, then
formation they benefit from the close ranks rule if the player instead of rolling a dice to determine the order in which
wishes (-1 to hit but +1 morale save). combatants strike, roll two dice and choose the best result.

When shooting at medium infantry with large shields there
is a –1 to hit penalty (i.e. the same rule as usually applies to
shielded heavy infantry). In addition, this protection
extends to one other model placed in base contact adjacent
to the shielded model even if the model doesn’t have a
shield itself. For example, a bowman or slinger placed next
to the shield bearer.
When a chariot charges into enemy infantry models arranged
in formation with their bases touching, place the chariot so
that its frontage touches as many enemy as possible.
When a chariot charges into enemy infantry not arranged into
formation, it is up to the charger whether to arrange the
chariot so that it contacts one, two or more models as desired.

Suggested Chariot Stat for Skirmishes

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special

Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Light chariot: 2 crew with javelins and bows 2 2 1 1 4+ 3 Marksman, Tough Fighter
Light chariot: 2 crew with spears and javelins 3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Eager, Tough Fighter
Light Chariot: 3 crew with spears and javelins 3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Stubborn, Tough Fighter

10
 SKIRMISH RULES SUMMARY
• One man or chariot is one unit.
• Models can turn to face any direction at any time.
• A model may not move within 1" of an unengaged
enemy model unless it intends to charge it.
• A model may not charge an enemy that is already
engaged if there are any unengaged enemy within 1"
of the engaged enemy model.
• Models can make one move without orders.
• Commander and leader models can make up to
three moves without orders.
• Apart from commanders and leaders, units can be
issued orders to move two or three times. If an order
is failed, units can still make one move unless the
order is blundered.
• If an order is blundered a unit cannot move that turn
– there is no other effect.
• Rally orders are not used in the skirmish game.
• Commanders can give orders regardless of distance
and the usual Leadership penalty applies for distance.
• Leaders can give orders to units within 12".
• Commanders and leaders can give orders either
before or after they have moved, but not both.
• Units, including commanders and leaders, can move
in any sequence regardless of whether they are using
an order to move or not.
• Models within 1" can be teamed together for
purposes of giving orders at the same time.
11
• Chariots runners forming a team with a chariot
move at chariot speed whether by means of an order
or otherwise.
• The ‘open order’ modifier does not apply to shooting
or hand-to-hand fighting.
• In hand-to-hand fighting, all models in touch fight.
• In hand-to-hand fighting, roll a dice for each
combatant to determine the order of striking.
• In hand-to-hand fighting ‘flanking’ modifiers do
not apply.
• In hand-to-hand fighting, models that are
outnumbered 2:1 or more suffer a -1 ‘to hit’ penalty.
• In hand-to-hand fighting, if a model has multiple
attacks and is facing two or more enemies it can
divide its attacks as desired.
• Medium infantry with large shields can use the ‘close
ranks’ rule (-1 to hit, +1 save)
• Medium infantry with large shields are -1 to hit with
shooting, and this protection extends to an adjacent
model, e.g. a slinger or archer.
• Chariots that are shaken roll a dice: 1-2 = maximum
one move, 3-4 no effect, 5-6 hand-to-hand stats
reduced to 1 and shooting stats to 0.
• Chariots that charge/countercharge roll two dice to
determine strike order and choose the best.
In a skirmish game this represents three chariots.
In a bigger game this represents a chariot squadron.
The intense rivalry and warfare between the city states led to innovations in armaments and the raising of organised armies.

12
 THE ERA OF CITY STATES
AND THE RISE OF THE
AKKADIAN EMPIRE
Around 2500 BC written records were starting to be
used for recording historical events in enough detail for
us to use them to reconstruct battles. Some of the
earliest records concern the long war between the
Sumerian city states of Lagash and Umma. Organised
warfare had been going on for many centuries and the
armies of the Sumerian city states already featured
massed rank formations of men with long spears and
onager drawn battle-wagons. Egypt was already a unified
country, the early chiefdoms of the Nile having been
bound together under the rule of a single king through
military conquest. Elsewhere in the Near East, the
civilised regions were divided into many city-states.
There were many wars between them over territory and
access to vital materials such as copper and tin. The
cultivated lands and trade routes had to be protected
from marauding nomadic tribes. Sometimes a powerful
city state, under the leadership of an able ruler with
military genius might conquer surrounding cities and
regions and establish a small hegemony for a time as
did the cities of Ebla and Kish, and Lugal Zaggesi, king
of Uruk.

The conquests of king Sargon of Akkad went far beyond

anything that had gone before and he created the first
real empire of vast extent stretching from Anatolia and
the Mediterranean Sea as far as the Persian Gulf. His
successors held on to this and even expanded the empire
despite many rebellions, until Akkad was overrun by the
Gutian highlanders from the Zagros Mountains of Iran.
Eventually, the Sumerian city states overthrew the
Gutian overlords and established the last Sumerian
Empire under the rule of the kings of the Third Dynasty
of Ur. Their influence extended far to the east where
they traded with the lost civilisation of Margiana. Here
they encountered the ‘foreign ass’ which was the horse.
The menace that threatened the empire of Ur and
eventually brought it down were the fierce Amorite
nomadic tribes of the western deserts and steppes.
Together with rebellious Elamite mercenaries they
accomplished the fall of Ur in 2004 BC. While all this
was going on in Mesopotamia, they were building
pyramids in Egypt which was a peaceful, stable land only
occasionally making forays against desert tribes. But the
highly centralised government of the Egyptian kings
collapsed, leading to anarchy and civil war. Provincial
nobles raised their own private armies and became
warlords. Rebels fought against those still loyal to the
king, but eventually the Upper Egyptians re-united the
country around 2050 BC.

13
 “On the day that he violates his
word, may Ninki by whom he has
sworn, cause a serpent to rise up
out of the earth to sink is fangs
into the foot of Umma at the
moment that Umma crosses over
the boundary canal!”
This is a pitched battle between the two Sumerian city states
of Lagash and Umma. It is one of several battles fought in a
bitter rivalry over possession of the territory between the
cities. The war continued for several generations and is one
of the earliest well documented conflicts in history. One of
the battles is recorded on the famous ‘Stela of the Vultures’
which depicts Sumerian troops going into battle. Several
other cuneiform texts inscribed on clay tablets and various
artefacts add further details and record other battles.
The main events of the war can be summarised as follows. In
circa 2450 BC, the territorial dispute between Lagash and
Umma was arbitrated by Mesalim, King of Kish, overlord of
Who will prevail – shielded spearmen or those with armoured capes?
14
Sumer, who ruled in favour of Lagash. “Mesalim king of Kish
… measured the field and placed a stele.” Sometime later,
Ush, ruler of Umma, toppled the boundary markers and
occupied the disputed territory. “Ush ruler of Umma acted
arrogantly. He ripped out the stele and marched into the
plain of Lagash.” This resulted in the Battle of the Fields of
Ningirsu, in which Eannatum, ruler of Lagash, defeated Ush
of Umma despite being wounded by an arrow. “They fought,
and at Eannatum a man shot an arrow. He was hit by the
arrow but he broke it off.”
Undaunted, Umma tried again to seize the disputed
territory resulting in the First Battle of Gu-Edina, known as
the Battle of Black Dog Hill in which Enannatum, brother
and successor of Eannatum of Lagash, defeated and nearly
slew Urlumma of Umma. “Urlumma brought up his
vanguard by the Hill of the Black Dog.” Enannatum chased
after Urlumma during the pursuit, but Urlumma swam
across the boundary canal to get away and Enannatum
snatched his armoured war cape from his shoulders in an
effort to catch him. “In the canal he went after him and he
pulled off his cloak.”
ThE BATTLE
After the battle a settlement was imposed which was soon
disregarded by Urlumma. This resulted in the Second Battle
of Gu-Edina, called the Battle of Ugigga, in which
Entemena ruler of Lagash decisively defeated Urlumma of
Umma. Urlumma had made a breach through the bank
along the boundary canal so that his army could invade the
disputed ground. Here the opposing armies clashed and
“His onager chariots, 60
when the Umma army broke and fled, Umma’s elite unit of teams, on the banks of
60 onager chariots were recoiled against the canal, trapped
and wiped out. Following his defeat, Urlumma was the Lummagirnunta
overthrown and killed in a revolution in Umma. “Because canal were stranded. The
the barley remained unpaid and Urlumma, the Ensi of
Umma, stopped the flow of water from the boundary bones of their crews were
ditches of Ningirsu and the boundary ditches of Nanshe, left out on the plain.”
ripped out the steles and cracked them by fire, destroyed
the shrines of the gods, hired foreign mercenaries and
finally crossed the boundary canal of Ningirsu, in the Gana
Ugigga where the fields and farms of Ningirsu are, where
Enannatum had previously fought with him, Entemena, plunderer of fields and farms, speaker of evil, said “the
Enannatum’s beloved son, defeated him. Urlumma then boundary dyke of Ningirsu and the boundary dyke of
fled while Entemena slew Umma troops up into Umma Nanshe are mine!” This resulted in a negotiated settlement
itself. Even Urlumma’s elite force of sixty teams, he wiped between him and Entemena. At the end of the war there
out on the bank of the Lummagirnunta canal. As for were said to be twenty burial mounds over the fallen soldiers
Umma’s soldiers, Entemena left their bodies in the plain for in the Gu-Edina.
the birds and beasts to devour and then heaped up mounds
of bones in five places.”
ThE ARMIES
Urlumma was replaced as ruler of Umma by Il who also The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
claimed the disputed Gu-Edina territory “when book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Akkad and
Entemena the Ensi of Lagash repeatedly sent envoys to Il Sumer army list as a guide. The order of battle for each army
concerning the boundary dyke, the Ensi of Umma, is below.

ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

UMMA ARMY LAGASH ARMY

Urlumma’s Household Division
• Urlumma of Umma, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of javelin-armed skirmishers
Entemena’s Household Division
• Entemena of Lagash, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of javelin-armed skirmishers

Umma City Division Lagash City Division

• Nammahni, Commander (Ld 8)
• 3 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of Akkadian light infantry archers
• 1 unit of onager chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of sling-armed skirmishers
• Barakisumun, Commander (Ld 8)
• 3 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of javelin-armed skirmishers
• 1 small unit of sling-armed skirmishers

Foreign Ally Division Girsu Division

• Ikushamagan, Mari or Akkadian Commander (Ld 8) • Dudu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Mari medium infantry spearmen • 4 units of Sumerian medium
• 1 Amorite tribal warband infantry long spearmen
• 1 unit of Akkadian or Mari light infantry archers • 1 small unit of
• 1 unit of onager chariots with javelins sling-armed skirmishers
• 1 small unit of javelin-armed skirmishers

Note: Apart from the generals, the names of other commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some real names of
officials from contemporary records to stand in for them and give personality to the commander figures.

15
SCENERY AND LAGASH
DEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as
Hut &
ZONE
described in the section Setting
Fields

up the Scenario. The Lagash and Hut & Fields

Umma forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective
deployment zones. The scenery
is as follows. Bu
ria
Black Dog Hill
lM
ou
Lagash nd
s
Deployment Zone
This is open level ground,
grazing land with a few flat
fields here and there and the
odd farmer’s reed hut. UMMA

e
rin
18"

ne
DEPLOYMENT
Sto

Sh
Middle Zone Levee
This is open level ground,
ZONE
grazing land and steppe.
Canal

Somewhere in this zone is a low

hill known as Black Dog Hill. Here and there are small low OBJECTIvES
mounds marking the burial places of fallen soldiers from The objective of each army is to defeat the other as defined in
previous battles. the Hail Caesar rulebook.

Umma Deployment Zone

The boundary canal runs along the Umma player’s table
edge with a low levee running beside it on the inner side
between the battlefield and the canal. In the centre of the
Umma zone, the levee has been breached and the earth
thrown into the canal to create a gap 18 inches wide to allow
the Umma army to march through and deploy. This means
that as the Umma army deploys into a battle line, some
Umma units may have their backs to the canal. Treat the
levee as a line of narrow low hills. On top of the levee are
the toppled boundary stone and a small reed shrine of the
Lagash gods.
SPECIAL RULES
Wild Ass Temper
Onager chariots are drawn by four wild asses and are
treated as light chariots with a span of four, based as heavy
chariots. Because of the ferocious bad temper and
intractability of the wild ass (which however is quite fast
when it gets going) any order given to an onager chariot
unit or division including such a unit will blunder on a roll
of 11 or 12.

LAGASH & UMMA TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Sumerian medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Sumerian Guard medium infantry
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
axemen with throwsticks
Akkadian or Mari light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Mari medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Amorite medium infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters
tribal warband with spears, javelins, bows
Onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Sub unit of chariots,
Sumerian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4
Small unit
Sumerian skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. The mercenaries hired by Umma are probably Akkadians from Mari or Kish. Mari troops were often recruited from local
Amorite tribes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

16
 “Sargon, the king of Akkad … He
challenged the man of Uruk in battle
and captured Lugalzaggesi, the king
of Uruk in combat and led him in a
wooden yoke to the gate of Enlil.”
This is the mighty battle in which Sargon of Akkad
vanquished Lugalzaggesi, overlord of Sumer, marking the rise
of the Akkadian Empire. Later generations regarded Sargon
as the first and greatest conqueror and empire builder in
history. Indeed many centuries later an Assyrian king was
named after him. Records of Sargon’s conquests survive in
inscriptions on statues and other artefacts and legendary
texts which were often copied in later Babylonian and
Assyrian times.
According to the legends of Sargon, his origins were obscure
and humble. He was the illegitimate son of a priestess and,
rather like Moses, was cast adrift on the river in a basket. He
was found and brought up by a gardener and grew up to
follow that profession. Somehow he became ‘cupbearer’ to
The overlord of Sumer can call upon contingents from many city states.
17
Ur-Zababa, the King of Kish, which was a position as advisor
and confidant. At this time the whole of Sumer had been
recently united under the rule of Lugalzaggesi of Uruk.
“When Enlil [the chief Sumerian god] … had given the
kingship to Lugalzaggesi and had directed to him the eyes of
all people from the rising sun to the setting sun, all the
people from the Lower Sea [Persian Gulf], along the Tigris
and Euphrates to the upper sea [Mediterranean Sea]. The
land rejoiced under his rule.”
Sargon escaped when Lugalzaggesi sacked Kish and according
to legend, ran off with Lugalzaggesi’s queen. At some point
during this time Sargon founded a new city of Akkad. When
Lugalzaggesi’s attempts to lure Sargon into his grasp failed, he
gathered a huge army including fifty city governors of Sumer
and marched on Akkad to get Sargon. In a pitched battle at
Ugbanda, not far from the city of Akkad, Sargon defeated
Lugalzaggesi and captured him together with his supporters
among the Sumerian city rulers. Sargon followed up the
victory and defeated the remnants of the enemy army in
battles at Nagurzam and Ur. Then he conquered the other
Sumerian city states, until his army reached the Persian Gulf
and ritually washed their weapons in the sea. “To Sargon,
king of the land, Enlil gave no rival; he gave him the entire
region from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea. Akkadians were
appointed city governors everywhere, even the men of Mari
and the men of Elam served Sargon as their master.”
ThE BATTLE
How Sargon gained the kingship of Kish and then managed to
defeat Lugalzaggesi in battle is one of the great mysteries of “To Sargon, king
antiquity. “Sargon king of Akkad … laid waste Uruk, slighted its
walls, fought with the men of Uruk, vanquished them, fought of all lands, Enlil
with Lugalzaggesi, king of Uruk, captured him and brought him allowed no rival, from
in a wooden yoke to the gate of Enlil.” Certainly part of
Sargon’s success was due to his large professional army and the the Upper Sea to the
Akkadian skill at organisation. Sargon said that “5,400 soldiers Lower Sea.”
I allowed to eat in my presence every day.” This was the King’s
personal retinue of household troops. The city of Kish in
Akkad was strategically important and any ruler who could
control it claimed the title ‘King of Kish’ which meant overlord
of Sumer and Akkad, a title which Sargon held. Kish was a brought to Mesopotamia. “Sargon the king of Kish triumphed in
centre for onager chariots and chariot burials were discovered 34 battles up to the edge of the sea. He caused the ships of
there as well as at Ur, revealing the design of these four wheel Melukhkha [Indus] the ships from Magan [Oman] and the ships
battlecarts. Perhaps Sargon’s army was strong in chariots. The from Dilmun (Bahrain) to moor at the quay of Akkad.”
use of massed archers with composite bows has often been
regarded as giving the Akkadians a tactical advantage.
ThE ARMIES
During his long reign of 56 years, Sargon subdued regions well The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
beyond where Sumerian armies had ever gone before, not only as book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Akkad and
far as the Mediterranean Sea, but also pushing deep into Sumer army list as a guide. The following is the order of
Anatolia following the trade routes along which metal ingots were battle for each army

ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

SUMERIAN ARMY AKKADIAN ARMY

Uruk Division Sargon’s Household Division
• Lugalzaggesi, General (Ld 8) • Sargon of Akkad, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen • 1 large unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 3 units of medium infantry with long spears • 1 unit of medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of onager chariots • 1 unit of Akkadian light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen • 1 unit of onager chariots
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings • 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows
Ur Division
• Ur-Ensi, Commander (Ld 8) Akkad Division
• 3 units of medium infantry with long spears • Rimush, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of onager chariots • 1 unit of medium infantry axemen
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen • 1 unit of medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings • 1 unit of Akkadian light infantry archers
• 1 unit of onager chariots
Lagash Division • 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen
• Uru-Inim-Gina, Commander (Ld 8) • 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows
• 3 units of medium infantry with
long spears Kish Division
• 1 unit of onager chariots • Zababa, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of light • 1 unit of medium infantry axemen
infantry javelinmen • 1 unit of medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of skirmishers • 1 unit of Akkadian light infantry archers
with slings • 1 unit of onager chariots
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows

Note: Apart from the generals, the names of other commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some real names
from contemporary records to stand in for them and give personality to the commander figures.

18
SCENERY AND LUGALZAGGESI’S
DEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ZONE
described in the section
Setting up the Scenario.
Lugalzaggesi’s and Sargon’s
forces deploy opposite each
other in their respective
deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Lugalzaggesi’s
Deployment Zone
The combined army of the
Sumerian city states has SARGON’S DEPLOYMENT ZONE
advanced almost up to the city
of Akkad and would probably
deploy on the open level
grazing land before reaching
the cultivated fields and
palm groves. SPECIAL RULES
The Akkadian player may equip one of his chariot units with
Middle Zone the more advanced, faster and more manoeuvrable chariot
This is open level pasture with a few gentle hills. types with four onagers, two solid wheels and one rider, often
sitting astride a saddle. Although still subject to Wild Ass
Sargon’s Deployment Zone Temper, this can also be Eager.
The Akkadian army will have deployed on open pasture to
oppose the enemy and defend the cultivated land. There can He can also designate Sargon’s own household unit of
be some fields and palm groves in this zone. Akkadian archers (the unit in his division) to be Marksmen.
Although it is possible that the Sumerian army was
enormous and included fifty city units (after all it needed two
OBJECTIvES battles to finish it off) we can allow the Sumerian army to
The objective of each army is to break the other as defined in have several small units of guard axemen representing their
the Hail Caesar rulebook. bodyguards. Many of the rulers probably fought in the
chariot units.

AKKADIAN & SUMERIAN TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Akkadian or Sumerian
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
medium infantry with long spears
Akkadian or Sumerian Guard
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
Akkadian Royal Guard
9 8 3 0 5+ 8 Tough Fighters, Large unit
medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
Akkadian light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Akkadian or Sumerian
6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
onager light chariots with javelins
Sub unit of chariots,
Akkadian or Sumerian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4
Small unit
Sumerian skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

19
 “Manishtushu … caused the lower
sea to be crossed in boats.”
The sons and successors of Sargon of Akkad fought many
wars, not only to suppress rebellion among the fiercely
independent Sumerian city states, but also to expand the
empire in all directions. Perhaps the most ambitious
campaign was that led by Manishtushu through Iran and
then over the sea to the lands at the far end of the Persian
Gulf. “Manishtushu king of Kish, when he had conquered
Anshan and Sherhum, caused the Lower Sea to be crossed
in boats and the cities on the other side of the sea, 32 of
them, combined for battle, but he was victorious, conquered
their cities and killed their princes.” These were in the land
of Magan which was probably Oman. Beyond lay the land of
Melukhkha which was probably the Indus Valley civilisation.
There were already trade routes to these regions from
Mesopotamia and boats from Melukhkha reached Akkad. An
ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE
MAGAN ARMY
Magan Prince’s Division
• Yafan, General (Ld 8)
• 1 Bodyguard light infantry warband
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 3 small units of skirmishers with slings
Magan Chief’s Division
• Aws, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 3 small units of skirmishers with slings
Melukhkha Division
• Dhammaryada, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Harappan medium infantry with spears/axes
• 1 unit of Harappan medium infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Harappan light infantry slingers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 4 small units of skirmishers with slings
Note: Apart from some of the Akkadian generals, the names of the commanders are not yet known
so I have picked out some real names from early Arabian records to stand in for them and give
personality to the commander figures.
20
important trading centre on the route was Dilmun, now
known to be Bahrain. The various regions east of Elam –
Anshan, Awan, Simashki and Mahashi – extended far into
Iran and the furthest east bordered on the edges of the
Harappan civilisation. Magan perhaps included regions on
both sides of the straits of Hormuz, which may be where the
Akkadian force crossed the sea.
In later times the name Melukhkha was used to refer to
Egyptians and Nubians and so it is sometimes thought that
the Akkadians reached Egypt. It seems more likely that they
saw similarities between the Egyptians and Indus traders in
appearance and style of dress and perhaps thought that Asia
curved around the Arabian Sea and joined up with Africa.
Magan and Melukhkha were rich sources of copper and the
Indus traders not only had outposts in the Persian Gulf, but
even in Mesopotamia. The Akkadians were possibly eager to
secure the sources of raw materials against rivals from the
Indus valley. After vanquishing the Maganites, Manishtushu
continued his advance and reached silver mines. He used the
captured wealth to buy land to settle his professional soldiers.
Ultimately he met his end assassinated by palace officials.
AKKADIAN ARMY
Household Division
• Manishtushu, King of Akkad, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Akkadian medium infantry with long spears
• 2 units of Akkadian light infantry archers
Akkad Division
• Irgigi, Commander (Ld 8)
• 2 units of Akkadian medium infantry with long spears
• 3 units of Akkadian light infantry archers
Anshan Division
• Eshba, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Akkadian medium
infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of Elamite light
infantry archers
• 1 unit of Gutian light
infantry axemen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers
with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers
with bows
ThE BATTLE
Taking the ancient text literally, AKKADIAN
we can give the confederation of DEPLOYMENT
Magan princes an army of 32 ZONE
contingents, represented by
standard and small units. The
record says that they all gathered
together to oppose
Manishtushu. So let us organise
them into three big divisions of
eight units each commanded by
the foremost princes who
appoint one among them as
overall general. We can give him
a leadership of 7 to represent
the lack of cohesion that would
be certain among tribes that MAGAN
usually fought each other and DEPLOYMENT
have been taken completely by
surprise by the audacious
ZONE
Akkadian invasion.

The Magan prince’s strategy might be to draw the Akkadians
away from their boats on the coast and engage them inland
in the desert, causing then to endure a long, thirsty march
over sand dunes. Manishtushu would comply since he would
be keen to engage the enemy in a decisive pitched battle
where he could defeat all of them at once with superior
Akkadian arms and organisation. Considering that this battle
was fought at the end of a long distance campaign along the
Iranian coast, followed by embarking on ships to cross the sea
and land on almost unknown shores, it seems unlikely that
the Akkadians would bring chariots over with them. If they
did, it would certainly take the locals by surprise, but the seas
of sand extending to the coast would be unsuitable terrain.
Akkadian archery might be the most effective tactic. As for
the Maganites, they must rely on ferocity and their hefty,
good quality copper swords, spears and axes.
ThE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Akkad and
Sumer and the Early Arab Raider army lists as a guide. The
opposite page shows the order of battle for each army.
SCENERY AND DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up
the Scenario. The Akkadian and Maganite forces deploy
opposite each other in their respective deployment zones.
Middle Zone
This is open desert with sand dunes and patches of soft sand.
Magan Deployment Zone
This is open desert with low hills or sand dunes.
OBJECTIvES
The objective of each army is to break the other as defined in
the Hail Caesar rulebook.
SPECIAL RULES
This is an opposed landing on an enormous stretch of sandy
beach which extends inland to merge with the Arabian
Desert, so it is sand all the way. It is assumed that the
Akkadian army has had time to disembark from its pitch
covered ships with tall prows and deploy in battle formation
while the thirty-two kings of the Makkanite settlements
gather their forces.
Areas of soft sand count as rough terrain as described in the
Hail Caesar rulebook and sand dunes are low hills that are
also soft sand. This terrain is therefore a challenge for the
Mesopotamian close order infantry which make up the core
of the Akkadian army.

The scenery is as follows:

Akkadian Deployment Zone

This is open desert.

21
 AKKADIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Akkadian Royal Guard
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
Akkadian medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Akkadian light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Gutian light infantry axemen with throwsticks 5 4 1 0 6+ 4 Marauders, Small unit
Elamite light infantry archers 4 4 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit

Notes. The Akkadian army had just marched through Elam and Anshan in modern Iran along the northern coast of the Persian
Gulf, so the army might include Elamite and Gutian mercenaries who were always a favourite of Mesopotamian armies (and a risk.)
The army crossed over the Gulf in boats to attack Makkan and so has had to leave its onager chariot contingent behind for this part
of the campaign. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

Akkadian rulers relied on a bodyguard of axe-armed regular soldiers.

MAGAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Bodyguard light infantry warband
7 5 2 0 6+ 6 Eager, Tough Fighters
with spears and javelins
Light infantry warband with spears and javelins 6 5 2 0 6+ 6 Eager
Light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Light infantry javelinmen 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Harappan medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Militia
mix of spearmen and axemen
Harappan medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Militia
Harappan light infantry slingers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with short bows (range 12") 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit

Notes. The Makkanites inhabited the region of modern Oman which was rich in copper and they had quite hefty copper spears
and dirks as did the Harappans of the Indus Valley. This region of the Persian Gulf was perhaps coveted by both the Akkadian
Empire and the Harappans. The Harappan contingent represents a possible trading colony among the many strongholds that
gathered to oppose the Akkadians. Indeed increasing Harappan influence may have been a reason for securing control of this
region. We are far too early for the domestication of the camel as a riding beast. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army
lists apply only to this scenario.

22
 “Since the creation of mankind no
king has ever destroyed the cities of
Arman and Ebla.”
This is a pitched battle between the Akkadian army of the
‘King of the Universe’ Naramsin and the army of the ancient,
proud, independent city state of Ebla, brave, defiant and
doomed. Ebla is the centre of a great empire of her own
stretching as far as Byblos, Hazor in Canaan and the Amanus
Mountains; why should she submit and pay tribute to the
mighty king of Akkad who now claims to be a god?
The reign of Naramsin, grandson of Sargon, marked the high
noon of the Akkadian Empire. When he ascended the
THE RISE OF CHARIOTS
Archaeological evidence from Europe and the Eurasian
Steppes reveals that the horse was domesticated in these
regions during the Neolithic period. The wheel was
invented even before this and the earliest wagons had
solid wooden disc wheels and were drawn by oxen.
Examples of wheels have survived and entire wagons
have been unearthed from under Kurgan burial mounds.
Horse skulls reveal wear from bone and metal bits
showing that they were already being harnessed in the
Neolithic and at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age.
Antler cheek pieces from these bits are often found. The
Sumerians adapted the idea of the wagon as used in the
region beyond the Caucasus to make lighter battlewagons
drawn by four wild asses (known as onagers.) These wild
asses roamed the Mesopotamian steppe. By the time of
the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerians were able to
obtain small horses (known as anshe kurrami or ‘foreign
ass’) from the regions to the east of the Caspian Sea and
possibly also from Anatolia. These were sometimes
ridden by messengers and also harnessed to chariots. It is
not always certain whether a skeleton or depiction in art
is an ass or an early horse, or even some kind of a hybrid,
and so the draught animals are often referred to simply
as ‘equids’. There were four-wheel and two-wheel versions
of the early chariot with the two-wheeled type gradually
replacing the other.
By the time of the Hammurabic wars of the Middle
Bronze Age the true light chariot with four spoke wheels
drawn by two horses was replacing the older types of
chariot. It seems that Mari and the Amorite and Hattic
kingdoms to the north west of Mesopotamia could
23
throne, he faced widespread rebellion throughout the
empire, but vanquished all opposition in a series of nine
battles. Then he set out on campaigns of conquest into the
farthest reaches of the empire and beyond. A famous victory
stele depicts him leading his spearmen and archers up the
rugged, steep and forested highlands of the Zagros
Mountains in the North East, to fight the Guti and Lullubi
tribes. To the North West he pushed as far as the
Mediterranean Sea and into central Anatolia, again leading
his troops into forested mountainous regions. His aim was to
control the trade routes bringing tin and copper into
Mesopotamia. In the way of Akkadian expansion in this
direction was the city state of Ebla, which was the centre of a
small empire of her own. Ebla and Mari had submitted to
Sargon, but since then had reasserted their independence.
“Although since the creation of mankind no king has ever
destroyed the cities of Arman and Ebla, now the god Nergal
opened up the path for mighty Naramsin and has given him
Arman and Ebla. Nergal also presented him with the
obtain horses and were among the first Near Eastern
kingdoms to start using horsed chariots. This type of
chariot had been invented by the Kurgan cultures of the
Eurasian Steppe as shown by the very many early chariot
burials under Kurgan burial mounds. From here the
idea spread not only into the Near East but also into
Europe, India and China. Usually it was a migrating
chieftain and his warband of chariot warriors that
brought the new technology. Such warbands were hired
as mercenaries and soon took advantage of their
superior armaments to seize power. Not only did they
have chariots and expertise with horses, but also
advanced bronze weapons, armour and usually the
composite bow. These chieftains also gathered a
following of foot warriors from such peoples as the
Hurrians and Kassites who also became skilled in
chariot warfare.
The mobility of chariot warriors made it possible for a
kingdom to expand into a mighty empire. Although the
Akkadians had previously created a vast empire it was
difficult to hold it together. Chariot forces could rapidly
respond to the threat of raiders with a good chance of
defeating bands of loose order tribesmen and invading
armies could be intercepted and ambushed while in
column of march. Foot troops pursued by chariots were
usually doomed. Thus began the great age of chariot
empires that would emerge fully during the Late Bronze
Age; first the Hyksos, then Mitanni, New Kingdom
Egypt, the Hittites, Kassite Babylonia, the Achaians,
king Solomon’s Israel, Shang Dynasty China and
ultimately the Assyrians.
Amanus the Cedar Mountain and the Upper Sea.” Indeed
these conquests brought the Akkadian frontier up against the
Egyptian sphere of interest around Byblos and opened up
contact with Cyprus and Minoan Crete.
The city of Ebla is famous for its archive of cuneiform clay
tablets which describe the organisation and some of the
history of the city state and its empire. The archive came to a
sudden end with the sack of the city. The culprit who is
usually blamed for the destruction of Ebla is Naramsin, since
he claimed to have done so and the destruction seems best
dated to his reign. Ebla was a powerful city that had waged
war on all sides and sometimes defeated Mari in battle. On
one occasion Mari was defeated and the Eblan general
Ennadagan ruled the city. “The lands of Ra’ak, Irum,
Ashaldu, and Badul I besieged. The king of Mari, I defeated
on the border near Nahal, heaps of corpses I raised.”
The Eblans had a good army which was strong in chariotry
(records indicate that the city had a special chariotry stables
and workshops) and could count on Amorite mercenaries
and auxiliaries from local tribes such as the Martu. One text
says, “Send me good mercenaries!” Another rebukes a
ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE
AKKADIAN ARMY
Naramsin’s Household Division
• Naramsin, Great King, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Akkadian medium infantry with long spears
• 2 units of Akkadian light infantry archers
• 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of javelin skirmishers
Akkadian Division
• Epurmupi, Commander (Ld 8)
• 3 units of Akkadian medium infantry with long spears
• 3 units of Akkadian light infantry archers
Sumerian Division
• Bilgurakhi, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of mercenary highlander light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Auxiliary Division
• Khita, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of Elamite light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Gutian light infantry axemen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows
Note: Apart from the generals and some possible commanders the names of others are not yet known so I have picked out
some real names from the records to give personality to the commander figures. Rishadad ruler of Amarnum was captured
in the campaign. Epurmupi became a governor of Elam. The cylinder seal of Bilgurakhi, governor of Uruk, depicts an
axeman and a Gutian auxiliary archer.
24
recruiting officer: “Thus says Mari to the king of Adu, your
fit men you did not send to Ebla, instead you sent your unfit
men for Ebla’s campaign!”
ThE BATTLE
Naramsin would have transported his army in barges up the
Euphrates to the ‘great bend’ where the troops would disembark
and march westwards towards Ebla. In all Mesopotamian
campaigns it was usual practice to transport as much of the army
as possible by boat using the rivers Tigris and Euphrates and the
extensive network of canals. This may have made it difficult to
bring many chariots on far flung campaigns, unless these were
also transported by boat or advanced alongside the transports on
the river banks. A powerful city such as Ebla would not submit
without a battle. There was a strong force of chariots and hordes
of Amorite and other allies to call upon. A position would be
chosen that threatened or barred the advancing Akkadian army
on its line of march through a region later known as the
“Wilderness of Niy.” It is not clear whether Ebla and the land of
Arman were attacked separately or whether they stood together
as allies against the Akkadians. The latter option would be wise
since the Akkadian army would be large.
EBLAN ARMY
Ebla Division
• Ibbishipish, Ruler of Ebla, General (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Eblan medium infantry spearmen
• 2 units of onager light chariots with javelins
• 2 small units of skirmishers with javelins
Amorite Auxiliary Division
• Ibubu Commander (Ld 8)
• 3 Amorite medium infantry warbands
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers with bows
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers with slings
Armanum Division
• Rishadad Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Highlander light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of onager chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers
with javelins
• 1 small unit of Mari
medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Mari light
infantry archers
• 1 small unit of highland
skirmishers with slings
ThE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be AKKADIAN
chosen from the Hail Caesar DEPLOYMENT
book of Army Lists: Biblical & ZONE
Classical using the Akkad and
Sumer army list as a guide. The
order of battle for each army is
on the previous page.

SCENERY AND
DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Akkadian
and Eblan forces deploy EBLAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
opposite each other in their
respective deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Akkadian Deployment Zone as Hamazi in Iran and southwards as far as Hazor in Canaan.
This is open steppe with occasional patches of scrub. These allies would be alarmed by the Akkadian threat to Ebla
and none more so than Egypt which had strong connections
Middle Zone to Byblos. Indeed, Naramsin actually pushed on towards the
This is open steppe with patches of scrub and gentle hills. sea and into Anatolia. The Akkadian expansion into this
region has even been thought of as a cause of the decline of
Eblan Deployment Zone the Old Kingdom in Egypt. Ebla fell sometime during the 6th
This is open steppe with a ridge of low hills. Dynasty in Egypt, the same time as the Egyptian commander
Weni led a seaborne campaign to the Canaanite coast. So it is
a possibility that an Egyptian ally contingent might come from
OBJECTIvES Byblos to reinforce Ebla if she was planning rebellion against
The objective of each army is to defeat the other as defined in Akkad. Let’s assume that a hurried cuneiform message has
the Hail Caesar rulebook. been sent from Ebla to Byblos by a swift courier. The Eblan
player may roll a dice before he deploys his army and on a
score of 5 or 6 he has received a unit of Old Kingdom
SPECIAL RULES Egyptian medium infantry archers to add to any division,
Unexpected Reinforcements courtesy of Pharaoh Teti or Pepi I (a gift from this king was
Ebla was the centre of a wide ranging trade network extending found at Ebla.) This creates the opportunity to field some
to Byblos on the Mediterranean Sea, into Anatolia, east as far early Egyptians against Akkadians.

Light troops probe for gaps in the approaching enemy battle line.

25
 EBLAN TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
with throwsticks
Ebla, Mari or Armanum medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
with spears, javelins or throwsticks
Amorite medium infantry tribal warband
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters
with spears, javelins and bows
Mari light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Eblan onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Tough Fighters, Wild Ass Temper!
Small unit of onager light chariots with javelins 4 4 2 0 4+ 4 Wild Ass Temper!
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Armanum highlander light infantry with
4 4 3 3 0 6 Marauders
axes, bows or slings
Amorite skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with bows or slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Highland skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Marauders, Small unit
Allied Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Random chance allies

Notes. Ebla had a special sector of the city assigned to the organisation of the Gish Gigir or chariot stables and early onager
chariotry were a strong element of Eblan forces, backed up by Amorite mercenaries and tribal auxiliaries. Highland regions at this
time made much use of slingers and Mesopotamian records liken the pelting of slingstones to an intense hailstorm. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“The mighty Naramsin vanquished Arman and Ebla with the weapon of the god Dagan
who makes Sargon’s kingdom great”

AKKADIAN TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Akkadian medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Akkadian Royal Guard
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
Akkadian light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Sumerian medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Levy
Sumerian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2 0 5+ 6 –
Mercenary Highlander light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 Marksmen
Elamite light infantry archers 4 4 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Guti light infantry with axes and bows 5 4 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Sumerian skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

26
 “The chariot fighters circled each
other on their chariots.”
Mahabharata
What happens out here on the steppes will have far reaching
effects in the Bronze Age Near East! This is a small battle
between two tribes of prehistoric chariot riding nomads of
the Eurasian steppes. We know about this battle from
archaeological evidence, especially the actual chariots,
warriors and weaponry excavated from beneath the huge
burial mounds of the region, known as Kurgans. These are
indeed the Kurgan warriors, the people who domesticated
the horse, probably invented the wheel and were the first to
use horse drawn chariots in warfare. Their influence was
destined to spread far and wide, and all of this is attested by
many excavations and a mass of archaeological evidence
gathered over recent decades by Soviet archaeologists and
others working in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Chariot burials from Kurgans at Sintashta and Krivoe Ozero
contained the remains of light two-horse chariots each with a
pair of spoked wheels and generally comparable in size to
Egyptian chariots. One burial included the remains of two
crewmen. Chariot types were varied and some were only big
enough for one armed charioteer. Earlier steppe cultures
(Maikop, Yamnaya) had used ‘Sumerian’ style battlecarts with
solid wheels, although they had them before they appeared in
the Near East. Burials also contain javelin heads and bows
over one metre in length. Side arms included bronze daggers,
maces, occasional spears and flat axes or shaft-hole axes.
Some early burials contain armour made of boar’s tusk
plaques and helmets (for example, the Mariupol cemetery, c
4500 BC, Copper Age Dnieper-Donets culture). The
Sintashta folk built circular strongholds of timber, with
ramparts. Even if we did not have the amazing preserved
chariots and other material evidence from burials, there are
the prehistoric petroglyphs of chariots pecked onto the rocks
of the region, doubtless recording heroic chariot warriors and
their battles.
27
Archaeologists, historians and scholars researching the origins
of languages have long suspected that there was a widespread
drift of nomadic tribes with warbands of chariot warriors
outwards from the Eurasian steppes to the south, east and
west. This is traceable in the archaeological evidence and the
spread of the domesticated horse and the horse-drawn light
chariot with spoked wheels. At the same time the spread of
the Indo-European language group brought loan words
connected with horsemanship and chariotry into the
languages of other lands. This is especially apparent in the
Hurrian Caucasus region, Northern India and Europe. Such
warbands were hired as useful mercenaries by city states and
later took over to become a chariot riding nobility (known
among the Hurrians as Maryannu, from the Indo-European
Maryan meaning ‘ young hero’.) This movement is thus the
first wave in a pattern of such waves through history, the next
one being the horse riding Cimmerians and Scythians.
The Ancient Babylonian records called these peoples by the
same name which was Umman Manda. The name was first
used to refer to a horde that was roaming far beyond the
Akkadian Empire, but which unsettled the Caucasus and
Zagros highlanders, causing the Guti to descend into
Mesopotamia. Later on in the Old Babylonian age, Umman
Manda chariot warriors were being hired as mercenaries by
Amorite and Anatolian city states. These may already have
merged with the Hurrians of the region. Later on, the name
Umman Manda is used by the Neo-Babylonians to refer to
the Medes, Cimmerians and Scythians, hinting that they
regarded these peoples as a new wave of the same ‘barbarians’.
In the Cuthean Legend of Naramsin, are words of the
Umman Manda that might even have come from a lost
Kurgan epic poem, “Six kings are we, brothers, resplendent.
Six hundred are our warriors, and with us shepherds and
cow herders, comrade clansmen of the inland seas, and they
have come to you, in a massed horde.” The legend also tells
how a warband swept through the Caucasian Mountains
and the northern regions of Mesopotamia. “The Umman
Manda, their camp was at Shubat Enlil [later the capital of
Shamsi-Adad I] and into the midst of Subartu they all came
down, they scattered the inland seas [the lakes Van and
Urmia] and reached Gutium.”
Early types of horse-drawn chariots.
During the Third Dynasty of Ur, when the horse [‘foreign
ass’] was first introduced into the Near East, Mesopotamia “The horses are brought
was in trading contact with the Margiana oasis civilisation of
the Kara-Kum desert and Oxus region. This is where the down to the river and bathed
prized lapis lazuli came from, as well as metals. Artefacts from four times. Each time they
here are in the Sumerian style and the typical Sumerian
fleece was worn. Margiana was one of the first civilisations to are given a handful of hay
fall prey to the chariot warriors of the steppes. and a scoop of water.”
Kikkuli,
ThE BATTLE
This battle is based on finds from the Pepkino Kurgan burial
site excavated near the Sura River, a tributary of the Volga,
south west of the Ural Mountains. The early Kurgan chariot
peoples are known to archaeology as the Neolithic and Early captured or escaped or survived wounds. Presumably the
Bronze Age Andronovo, Abashevo, Sintashta and Petrovka winning side buried their own, leaving the fallen foe to the
cultures and this site belonged to the Abashevo culture and wolves and buzzards, or perhaps all the fallen were given
dated to the period 2400-2200 BC. In one burial pit, respectful burial.
beneath a Kurgan mound, were found the remains of 28
young men, 18 of whom had been beheaded. The others
had axe wounds to the head and arms. It is thought that ThE ARMIES
these are battle casualties from an encounter with about 500 The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
men on each side, if the casualties represent less than a book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the North
tenth of those involved. It may have been a smaller skirmish European Bronze Age and Mitanni army lists as a guide.
with a higher proportion of slain. Also, many were probably The order of battle for each army is below.

ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

ABASHEVO KURGAN ARMY SINTASHTA KURGAN ARMY

Chieftain’s Retinue Division Chieftain’s Retinue Division
• Pepkino, General (Ld 8) • Krivo Ozero, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of chariots with javelins • 1 unit of chariots with bows
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen • 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 light infantry warband, axes • 1 light infantry warband with spears

Champion’s Division Champion’s Division

• Berlyk, General (Ld 8) • Chiang, General (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of chariots with javelins • 1 small unit of chariots with bows
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen • 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 light infantry warband • 1 light infantry warband

Shaman’s Division Shaman’s Division

• Takhlamakan the shaman, General (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of chariots with javelins
• 1 tiny unit of light infantry javelinmen
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 unit of skirmishers with slings
• Baggage laager, cattle herd and ‘Amazon’ guards
• Loulan the shamaness and General (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of chariots with bows
• 1 tiny unit of light infantry javelinmen
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 unit of skirmishers with slings
• Baggage laager, horse herd and ‘Amazon’ guards

Tribal Scout Division Tribal Scout Division

• 1 tiny unit of skirmisher scouts with bows • 1 tiny unit of cavalry scouts with bows

Note: This is prehistoric, without written records, so we do not yet know the names of the commanders although we could
perhaps use some proto Indo European names or glean some steppe barbarian chiefs from Shang Dynasty Chinese oracle
bone inscriptions. Instead I have named them after archaeological sites, finds and Kurgan chariot burials of the early steppe
chariot cultures to give personality to the commander figures. Loulan for example, is a particularly striking Bronze Age
mummified shamaness, there are others and the face painting is pretty awesome – look them up!

28
SCENERY AND ABASHEVO
DEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ZONE
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario.

The rival Kurgan forces deploy

opposite each other in their
respective deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Abashevo
Deployment Zone
This is open steppe with a few
patches of woodland. SINTASHTA
DEPLOYMENT
Middle Zone ZONE
This is open steppe with a few
low hills and one or two Kurgan
burial mounds marking the
border of tribal territory. SPECIAL RULES
All commanders except the shamans are chariot riding
Sintashta Deployment Zone heroes who must join a chariot unit and fight with it
This is open steppe with a few low hills. throughout the battle. This represents their warrior culture
and the risks of challenges and heroic duels between rival
chariot heroes.
OBJECTIvES
The objective of each army is to capture the wagon laager and If a Shaman joins a unit it becomes subject to the Frenzied
herd of the opposing army. May the best tribe win. May the Charge rule if the player wishes. Like later steppe
survivors of the defeated tribe, if any, migrate vast distances cultures these peoples had battle potions and
across the steppe and introduce the horse drawn chariot idea their shamans might inspire reckless warrior
to India, China, Europe and the Middle East, together with spirits. A fallen chariot warrior was given an
the appropriate technical terms in Old Indo-European elaborate ritual burial under a Kurgan
languages! Who knows, the local king might hire them to mound together with his wargear, chariot,
train and breed horses, or even as mercenary chariot lords sacrificed horses, hunting dogs, maybe some
with feudal retinues of Hurrian peasants. Given the of his loyal followers and as many captives
opportunity they might overthrow the decadent state and be as befits his valour.
remembered as Umman Manda or Hyksos!

KURGAN STEPPE CHARIOT NOMAD TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Stubborn, Tough Fighters,
Chieftain’s medium infantry warband with axes 8 4 1/0 0 5+ 4
Small unit
Light infantry warband with mixed arms 6 3 1 0 6+ 4 Small unit
Light chariots with javelins or bows 4 3 2 0 4+ 4 Tough Fighters, Small unit
Light infantry with javelins 3 3 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Cavalry scouts with bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Marauders, Tiny unit
Wagon laager, herds, Amazon guards 3 3 1 0 4+ 6 Stubborn

Notes. You can use an interesting and eclectic mix of European Bronze Age, Mycenaean, Mitannian and Steppe Nomad figures.
Your baggage might even include Bactrian pack camels and merchants from Margiana (Oxus River oasis civilisation) dressed in
Sumerian fashion hoping to trade for ‘foreign asses’ (Anshe Kurrami, i.e. horses) or lapis lazuli. Note that variations from the Hail
Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

29
 “He laid a trap there; behind the Gutian.”
This is a battle between the resurgent Sumerians and the King
of Gutium and his hordes of highland warriors from the
Zagros Mountains. The Akkadian Empire seems to have come
crashing down to a sudden end amid chaos and revolts. Even
a tribute gathering city being built in Upper Mesopotamia was
left unfinished. A later scribe compiling the king list simply
wrote in dismay, “Who was king? Who was not king?” Into
this confusion burst the Gutian highlanders. “Enlil made all
the inhabitants of the broad mountain ranges descend. He
brought out of the mountains those who do not resemble
other men, who are not reckoned as part of this land, the
Gutians, an unbridled people with human intelligence but
dog like instincts.” They invaded Sumer and Akkad, “like
small birds they swooped on the ground in great flocks. They
stretched their army across the plain, nothing escaped their
clutches, no one left their grasp, messengers no longer
travelled the highways, the courier’s boat no longer passed
along the rivers.” These were indeed dark times, “as if it had
been before the time when cities were built and large tracts of
arable land yielded no grain. Heroes lay dead on top of heroes
and the blood of traitors ran upon the blood of honest men.”
The Gutians of the Zagros Mountains had long been the target
of Sumerian and Akkadian punitive expeditions, perhaps in
response to raids. One cuneiform letter from the time of the
Akkadian Empire gives this advice to outlying farmers: “Man
outposts at one mile intervals and go and cultivate the field. If
the Guti make a raid on you, then bring all the cattle into the
town, but I swear by the life of the king Sharkalisharri that if
the Gutians drive away the cattle and you cannot pay for it, I
shall give you no silver!” Several Gutian chieftains ruled over
Sumer and Akkad as overlords and the cities continued their
local administration under them. The Sumerians were
determined to rid themselves of the Gutian domination and
Utuhegal of Uruk consulted his gods and came up with a plan
of action. In his victory poem he describes the situation he
faced under the rule of Tirigan, King of Gutium, “The enemy
troops were deployed everywhere … no one came out of his city
to face him, he occupied both sides of the Tigris. In the south,
in Sumer, he blocked water from the field, in the highlands he
closed off roads, because of him grass grew high on the roads of
the land.”
ThE BATTLE
The victory poem goes on to describe the battles to liberate
Sumer. “Utuhegal came out of Uruk to face him and made
camp at the temple of the god Ikur. He made a speech to the
citizens of the city … the citizens of Uruk rejoiced and
followed him. Then he lined up his elite troops.” Utuhegal
marched out to seek battle with Tirigan. “After departing
from Ikur on the fourth day, he camped in Najsu on the
Surungal canal and on the fifth day he camped at the shrine
of Ili-Tappe. Here he captured Urninazu and Nabi-Enlil,
30
generals of Tirigan who were sent as envoys to Sumer and put
them in fetters. On the sixth day he camped at Karkara.”
Now closing in on the Gutian army, Utuhegal led his forces
and “above Adab he laid a trap there, behind the Gutian.
Utuhegal the mighty man defeated their generals.” It seems
that the Gutian army was attacked in the rear by part of
Utuhegal’s army which had made a flank march, while Tirigan
was facing the main Sumerian army. The flank marching force
probably went up the Tigris by boat to land upstream of Adab,
indicating that the battle was fought in the Tigris valley (at a
place called Kamuruki.) This resulted in the decisive defeat of
the Gutian army. “Then Tirigan, king of Gutium ran away
alone on foot. He thought himself safe in Dabrum where he
fled to save his life, but since the people of Dabrum knew that
Utuhegal was a king empowered by Enlil, they did not let
Tirigan go and an envoy of Utuhegal seized him.”
ThE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Akkad and
Sumer army list as a guide. The order of battle for each army
is on the following page.
SCENERY AND DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up
the Scenario. The Gutian army and the Uruk and Ur
divisions of the Sumerian army deploy opposite each other in
their respective deployment zones. The Sumerian flank
marching force (which you might like to call the Lagash
division) appears on the short table edge on the left flank of
the Gutian army or to its rear in the Gutian deployment
zone. Roll a dice at the start of each turn to see if the
Sumerian flank marching force arrives. It arrives on a score of
5 or 6. If it arrives in the first or second turn, it appears on
the flank of the Gutian army. If it arrives in a later turn, it
appears in their rear. If enemy are in the way, the Sumerian
player may charge his units directly into them. The scenery is
as follows:
Gutian Deployment Zone
This is open pastureland with low hills and palm groves.
Middle Zone
This is open pastureland with low hills.
Sumerian Deployment Zone
This is open pastureland, but perhaps nearer to the Tigris
and so is level ground with fields and palm groves.
“Then Tirigan, king of Gutium, fled
alone on foot…”
OBJECTIvES
The objective of each army is to GUTIAN
slay, capture or rout from the DEPLOYMENT
field the opposing general. This ZONE
will either end the rebellion or
end Gutian rule.

SPECIAL RULES
The Sumerian army is inspired by
the charismatic leadership of
Utuhegal and also by the
mandate given to him by the gods
to liberate Sumer and Akkad of
the detested Guti. The Sumerian
army therefore follows a sacred
army standard from the temple of SUMERIAN
Uruk which goes before it, carried DEPLOYMENT
by a soldier of the Royal Guard.
All units in sight of the standard
ZONE

and within 18" of it can be either

all Brave, all Eager or all
Stubborn. These effects are lost if the standard falls or retreats.

ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

GUTIAN ARMY SUMERIAN ARMY

Tirigan’s Retinue Division Utuhegal’s Household Division
• Tirigan, King of Gutium, General (Ld 8) • Utuhegal, Lugal of Uruk, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Gutian Royal Guard light infantry axemen • 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 warbands of Gutian light infantry with axes • 2 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
and throwsticks • 1 small unit of Sumerian or Akkadian archers
• 1 small unit of Gutian light infantry archers • 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins
• 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins • 1 small unit of javelin skirmishers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Ur Division
Gutian Right Division • Ur-Nammu, Commander (Ld 8)
• Urninazu, Commander (Ld 8) • 3 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 3 warbands of Gutian light infantry with axes • 1 small unit of Sumerian or Akkadian archers
and throwsticks • 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
• 1 small unit of Gutian skirmishers with bows
• 1 small unit of Gutian skirmishers with javelins Flank March Division
• Gudea, Commander (Ld 8)
Gutian Left Division • 3 units of Sumerian medium
• Yarlagan, Commander (Ld 8) infantry with long spears
• 3 Warbands of Gutian light infantry with axes • 1 small unit of Sumerian or
and throwsticks Akkadian archers
• 1 small unit of Gutian light infantry archers • 1 small unit of skirmishers
• 1 small unit of Elamite light infantry archers with slings

Optional Variations
Tirigan’s order of battle assumes that any Akkadian troops he may have controlled have gone over to Utuhegal or were
defeated in the previous battle. Since some of his commanders seem to have been Akkadians it is possible he had
Akkadian supporters and you may swap a Gutian warband for a unit of Akkadian medium infantry if you wish, but they
would perhaps be Levy or Wavering.

31
 Sumerians! Defend the shrines of the gods against the savage Gutians!

SUMERIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Sumerian medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Sumerian Royal Guard
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
Sumerian or Akkadian light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Sumerian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Sumerian skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

GUTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Gutian highlander warband with axes and bows 5 4 1 0 6+ 4 Tough Fighters
Gutian light infantry with axes and throwsticks 5 4 1 0 6+ 4 Marauders
Elamite or Gutian light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Marauders
Onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Gutian skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Gutian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit

Notes. Tirigan was probably riding a chariot which is why the Sumerian record says he fled ‘on foot’ emphasising the indignity of
defeat. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

32

“Behold, hearts are violent, storm
sweeps the land. Blood is everywhere
and no shortage of the slain.”
Lament of Ipuwer
re-uniting Egypt and marking the beginning of the Middle
Kingdom. The stronghold of Herakleopolis, capital of the
10th Dynasty, was taken by assault. The new Pharaoh,
Menthuhotep II, descendant of Intef II, rewarded his
soldiers who had fallen leading the assault by giving them
burial beside his own pyramid tomb. The mummies were
found, each named and exhibiting the terrible fatal
wounds made by the arrows of the defenders.

This is a battle between a rebel Upper Egyptian army led
by Intef II, Nomarch of Thebes, and the army of the
loyalist supporters of Pharaoh Khety III of the 10th
Dynasty. It was one of many battles in a long civil war that
broke out in Egypt in the troubled times following the Old
Kingdom or ‘Pyramid Age’. Famine stalked the land and
the prestige of the divine kingship had fallen, leaving
ambitious provincial nobles, known as Nomarchs, to look
after their own domains and contend for authority in
Egypt. They raised their own armies rather than send men
to build a pyramid for the king. As the poet Ipuwer wrote,
“behold hearts are violent, storm sweeps the land, blood is
everywhere, no shortage of the slain.” This was when the
great pyramids were first broken into by tomb robbers.
“What the pyramid hid is empty, behold the land is
deprived of kingship.” Another poet wrote, “Death is
before me today like a well trodden way, like coming home
from war.”
Provincial nobles like Ankhtify endeavoured to get a grip
on the situation and restore stability. In his tomb
biography he says, “I am the vanguard of men and the
rearguard of men. One who finds a solution where it is
lacking. A leader of the land through active conduct.
Strong in speech, collected in thought on the day of
uniting the three provinces” (of
Upper Egypt.) It was a time for
soldiers. The stele of the soldier
Qedes says proudly, “I LOYALIST DEPLOYMENT ZONE
surpassed the whole town in
swiftness, its Nubians and its
Upper Egyptians.”
ThE BATTLE
The battle was fought in the ancient and sacred necropolis
of Abydos, legendary burial place of Osiris. During the
battle, tombs were desecrated and the regime, believing
itself cursed, began to crumble. The defeated Pharaoh
Khety III left wise instructions to his son and successor
Merykare, last king of the 10th Dynasty and had this to say
about the battle: “Troops will fight troops as the ancestors
foretold. Egypt fought in the necropolis, despoiling tombs
in vengeful destruction, as I did it so it happened. Lo, a
shameful deed occurred in my time! The province was
ravaged. Though it happened through my doing, I found
out after it was done.”
ThE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Old and
Middle Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide. The order of
battle for each army is on the following page.
SCENERY AND DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up
the Scenario. The Rebel and Loyalist forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective deployment zones.

There was a long period of

fighting in Middle Egypt since
the Nomarchs of Asyut and
Abydos remained loyal to the
Pharaoh and blocked the
advance of the Theban rebels.
Both sides attempted to
outflank each other by
controlling desert routes that
by-passed the Nile and went far
out via the desert oases. There
were raids and skirmishes along REBEL
these routes. The Theban lords DEPLOYMENT
ultimately won and established ZONE
themselves as the 11th Dynasty,

33
 ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

THEBAN REBEL ARMY ASYUT LOYALIST ARMY

Nomarch’s Retinue Division
• Intef II, Nomarch of Thebes, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Shemsu medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Ahauty medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of mercenary Medja medium infantry archers
Theban Division
• Heni, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Henu Nefru medium infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Head of the South Division
• Djemi Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of mercenary Medja medium infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian light infantry archers
• 2 small units of Medja Nubian skirmisher scout archers
Nomarch’s Retinue Division
• Itibi, Nomarch of Asyut, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Shemsu medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Ahauty medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Ahauty medium infantry archers
Asyut Division
• Kheti, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Henu Nefru medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of militia medium infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Overseer of Deserts Division
• Tjauti, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry archers
• 1 Amorite mercenary warband
• 1 small unit of Amorite mercenary light
infantry javelinmen
• 1 unit of Amorite skirmishers with slings
• 1 unit of Tehenu/Tjemehu Libyan skirmishers with javelins

Optional Variations
Both sides recruited by conscription to reinforce the retinues and hereditary warriors and so if you need more troops they
should be Egyptian medium infantry levy. At the later battle of Shedyetsha, the Nomarch Neheri tried to defend his Nome
against both sides but found it difficult to persuade the older men to fight against the Pharaoh’s forces, while the younger
recruits acted with enthusiasm against all comers!
Note: Intef, Heni, Djemi and Itibi were at this battle. The names of other commanders are taken from other battles of this
war and so are those of ancestors or descendants of the known commanders. Upper Egyptian armies made much use of
Nubian, especially Medja, mercenaries and some were settled within Egypt. Lower Egyptian armies countered this by
recruiting Amorite mercenaries which are depicted in battle scenes in the tombs of Asyut nobles. Both sides tried to
control the desert oases and appointed special desert patrol forces.

The scenery is as follows: OBJECTIvES

Loyalist Deployment Zone
This is desert with low hills, a village with a small mud-brick
temple and palm groves.
Middle Zone
This is desert with sand dunes, low hills and various tombs
and ruined tombs here and there, some partly covered by
sand. The more recent of these are very small pyramids,
other, much older tombs are mud-brick enclosures marking
the resting place of Egypt’s earliest kings. Some of these can
be occupied and defended as ruined buildings, creating
strongpoints and this is perhaps how some of the tombs were
desecrated when they were fought over.
Rebel Deployment Zone
This is desert with low hills and low rocky knolls.
The objective of each army is to break the other.
SPECIAL RULES
The sacred necropolis of Abydos surrounds the tombs of
Egypt’s earliest kings and is considered to be the resting place
of Osiris himself. Native Egyptian troops will
treat a tomb enclosure with superstitious
awe and not venture within it except on a
dice roll of 4, 5 or 6. However the foreign
tribal mercenaries and auxiliary troops
have no such qualms and will not only
occupy tomb enclosures and temples, but
despoil them looking for treasure. Thus
such troops risk becoming disordered
when occupying tombs or temples on a
dice roll of 1, 2 or 3.

34
 REBEL ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Shemsu medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Ahauty medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 –
Ahauty medium infantry spearmen 6 6 30 0 5+ 6 –
Ahauty medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Henu Nefru medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Levy, Eager
Egyptian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Nubian Medja mercenary medium
5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Steady
infantry archers
Nubian Medja light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Nubian Medja skirmisher scouts with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit

Notes. The Nomarchs are the generals and would usually be surrounded by their Shemsu retainers accompanied by the totem
standard of the Nome (province). Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

Shemsu medium
infantry axemen

LOYALIST ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Shemsu medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
Ahauty medium infantry spearmen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 –
Ahauty medium infantry spearmen 6 6 30 0 5+ 6 –
Ahauty medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Henu Nefru medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Levy
Egyptian medium infantry militia archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Levy
Egyptian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Amorite mercenary medium infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters
warband with spears, javelins and bows
Amorite mercenary light infantry
3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Marauders, Small unit
javelinmen with throwsticks
Amorite skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy
Tjehenu/Tjemehu Libyan skirmishers
3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
with javelins

Notes. The Nomarchs are the generals and would usually be surrounded by their Shemsu retainers accompanied by the totem
standard of the Nome (province). Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

35
 “Year 4, the year in which Shusin,
king of Ur built the western wall,
called Muriq-Tidnum.”
This is a battle between the Sumerian army of the Third
Dynasty of Ur and an invading horde of Amorite nomads. The
Amorites succeeded in outflanking a line of defences known as
the Muriq Tidnum, which means ‘Keeping Out the Tidnum’
which led ultimately to the fall of Ur and the collapse of the
Sumerian Empire amid chaos and famine. The Tidnum were,
together with the Martu, a powerful Amorite tribe. The key to
the breakthrough of the Muriq-Tidnum defences was the fall of
the fort known as the “Fort before the Mountain,” which fell
due to the lack of resolve or even treachery of its commander.
The Third Dynasty kings started out well. They continued the
Sumerian and Akkadian methods of military organisation
and were adept at logistics and manufacturing arms and
equipment. The governor of Lagash, Gudea, who ruled the
city during the Gutian War describes how troops were raised
and assigned to regiments: “In those days the ruler imposed a
levy on his land on cities, villages and desert edge. There was a
levy on Lagash clans under the emblem of the ‘Rampant-
Fierce-Bull’ and he placed their magnificent standard,
‘King-Who-Makes-The-Mountain-Tremble’, in front of them.”
The greatest of the kings of Ur was Shulgi, a campaigner who
THE MURIQ-TIDNUM
The Muriq-Tidnum defences are the ‘Maginot Line’
of the last Sumerian Empire. Construction was
begun following the repulse of a great invading
Amorite horde approaching Sumer and Akkad from
the north west, along the Euphrates. Shusin of Ur
decided to wall off the steppes of Upper
Mesopotamia by building a line of defences linking
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Instead of using the
narrowest point between the rivers, which was an
important trade route and part of Akkad, a line
further north was chosen to make use of high ground
and natural features. The plan included linking the
rivers to a ditch so that a defensive moat
could be created. The actual defences
were probably a line of linked forts
made of earth or mud brick defended
by a ditch. The defences were still
under construction in the reigns of
later kings and the Amorites attacked
again before they were completed.
36
liked to fight as a skirmisher, according to one of many hymns
of praise to the king:“When I go into battle … I go ahead of
the main body of my troops and I clear the terrain for my
scouts. I have a real passion for weapons and not only do I
carry the javelin and spear I also know how to hurl slingstones
with a sling. The clay shot, the treacherous slingstones that I
hurl fly like a violent hailstorm. In my battle fury, I do not let
them miss.” Years were dated according to events, especially
military victories, year 20 of Shulgi was “the year that the
citizens of Ur were called up as spearmen.”
A cuneiform letter written on clay from the commander
Lipitishtar to another called Nannakiag reveals the main
infantry troop types of the army: “Now I have sent you in
haste 2,000 spearmen, 2,000 bowmen, and 2,000 double-axe
wielding troops.” Another text reveals that the army was well
equipped: “The troop of royal soldiers of Garshana received
570 pairs of leather boots issued by the governor of Girsu.”
As well as Sumerian and Akkadian troops the Kings of Ur
recruited large numbers of tribal auxiliaries and mercenaries,
especially Gutians and Elamites, since these regions were
under Sumerian authority.
The vizier Aradmu reported to Shulgi that when he was sent to
meet Apillasha, a chief of Zagros tribes appointed by the King
of Ur, he had a personal bodyguard: “To his right and left he
had elite soldiers, 5,000 at each side.” Generals and
commanders were often Elamite warlords in the service of Ur,
such as Kutirlagomar, better known as Chederlaomer of the
Book of Genesis, who led a campaign far into the west against
the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. The King of Ur had a
personal bodyguard of ten Amorite soldiers. This reliance on
foreign mercenaries would eventually bring about the fall of Ur,
after the Amorite menace had caused the empire to crumble.
In the reign of the King of Ur, Shusin, a horde of Amorite
tribes from the North West desert and steppe country,
notorious as the warlike Martu and Tidnum, advanced
southwards along the Euphrates towards Sumer and Akkad.
The horde was defeated in battle and fled back the way they
had come, pursued by the royal army as far as Hit on the
Euphrates. The king then decided to take advantage of the
repulse of the Amorites and build a wall to deter any more
invading hordes. The wall was to be called Muriq-Tidnum,
meaning ‘Keeping Out Tidnum’ or ‘Repelling Tidnum’.
Sharrumbani was appointed overseer of works on the wall and
his plans involved breaching the banks of the Rivers Tigris
and Euphrates in order to fill with water a defensive moat in
front of the rampart. The wall was intended to link the two
rivers and so defend the land of Akkad. At the eastern end of
the wall was the strongpoint called Fortress Before The
Mountain, so called because it was located on a desert ridge.
In the reign of the last King of Ur, Ibbisin, the Amorites
attempted to outflank the wall but were repulsed and the year
was named after the event as the year in which “The Amorites
were like a flood and who of old knew not a city, submitted.”
Ibbisin now felt confident enough to begin a campaign on his
eastern flank into Elam. One of his governors in Sumer and
Akkad was Ishbi-Erra, a devious character who established for
himself a power base in the city of Isin. It is still not certain
from the records if he was really loyal or treacherous, although
the king was warned of his ambition. While Ibbisin was heavily
committed in Elam, the Amorites approached the wall again
and attempted to make incursions into Sumer and Akkad. The
commander of the “Fort Before The Mountain”,
Puzermarduk, abandoned it to the enemy, either due to fear of
being surrounded or treachery. This allowed the Amorites to
outflank the wall and swarm into Sumer and Akkad,
disrupting agriculture, making roads and canals unsafe and
causing severe food shortages in the cities. Each city began to
look after itself and the highly organised regime of the Third
Dynasty of Ur began to collapse. Ishbi-Erra began hoarding
many years’ supply of grain in Isin claiming it was for safety,
but it was not long before he made himself king of Isin.
Meanwhile Ibbisin had been successful in Elam, in his 17th year,
“in which Ibbisin, King of Ur struck down like a storm Susa,
Adamdun, and the land of Awan, subdued them in one day and
took their governors captive.” Now he returned to Ur, but it was
too late to reverse the situation there. An eclipse of the moon,
was taken as a sign of impending doom by the citizens. Ur was
surrounded by the Amorite foe, and within the city the Elamite
mercenaries mutinied and took over strongpoints, which they
held long after the fall of Ur. As the Lament for the Fall of Ur
tells us, “In front of the city of Ur formidable battle axes were
sharpened. Spears the arms of battle were made ready. The
leather shields were devoured by the terrible bows and the
composite bows together, barbed arrows covered their surfaces as
if from a storm cloud. Formidable sling stones fell together with
great thuds.” Ur fell and with it the Sumerian Empire.
The order of battle for each army is overleaf.
SCENERY AND DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Amorite army deploys in its deployment zone.
The fort division of the Sumerian army deploys occupying
the fort. The rest of the Sumerian army deploys in its
deployment zone, but they do not deploy here until the third
turn of the game!
The scenery is as follows:
Amorite Deployment Zone
This is desert and steppe with patches of scrub.
Middle Zone
This is a ridge of bare low hills. In the centre of the zone is
the “Fort Before The Mountain”. This is a rectangular
earthwork with a rampart, which takes defensive advantage of
the slope of the ground facing the Amorite deployment zone.
The walls are of thick mud brick and the enclosure is about
18" square with a gate to the rear. It is linked to the left
(western) table edge by a dry ditch along the base of the ridge,
which is assumed to be the unfinished moat. It lacks water
because the sections are unfinished and do not link up to the
rivers and the drought condition exacerbating the widespread
famines (causing the nomads to migrate and shortages in
Sumer) mean that river levels are low. It is not much of a
barrier to the Amorites. On the ridge above is the unfinished
rampart, assumed to be not very high. A large expanse of the
zone to the right (east) of the fort is open ground, but
overlooked by the fort.

ThE BATTLE Sumerian Deployment Zone

This battle scenario represents the moment when the Amorite This is desert and steppe with occasional patches of scrub
horde attempt to overwhelm or swarm around the “Fort and one or two low hills.
Before the Mountain”. The fort is
still being held by the irresolute
commander and his garrison.
However, help is on its way, led by AMORITE
the King of Ur, intending to DEPLOYMENT
reinforce the wall and bar the way of ZONE
the invaders with mobile forces.
This might be the first Amorite
attempt at outflanking the fort, or
what might have happened if the
King of Ur had not taken his army
off to Elam, relying on the wall,
subordinates and mercenaries to
guard his western front.

ThE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen
from the Hail Caesar book of Army SUMERIAN
Lists: Biblical & Classical using the DEPLOYMENT
Akkad and Sumer and Amorite ZONE
Babylonia army lists as a guide.

37
 “In front of the city of Ur, formidable battle axes
were sharpened and spears, the arms of battle, were
made ready.”
Amorite spearmen

OBJECTIvES SPECIAL RULES

If the Amorites capture the fort or the defenders abandon it, The Sumerian units holding the fort are Wavering, until the
the Amorites win the battle, unless the Sumerians retake it rest of the Sumerian army can be seen approaching from the
within three turns. If the Amorite army breaks, the ramparts (that is they appear in their deployment zone).
Sumerians win the battle.

ThE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

SUMERIAN ARMY
Ibbisin’s Household Division
• Ibbisin, King of Ur, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of Akkadian light infantry archers
• 1 unit of onager light chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of javelin skirmishers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Fort Garrison Division
• Puzermarduk, Commander (Ld 6)
• 1 unit of Sumerian medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Sumerian medium infantry with long spears
• 2 small units of Akkadian light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Elamite Auxilliary Division
• Viceroy of Anshan and Susa, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Anshan highlander light infantry axemen
• 1 small unit of Gutian
light infantry axemen
• 2 small units of Elamite
light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Elamite
skirmishers with bows
AMORITE ARMY
Chieftain’s Retinue Division
• Zabaya, General (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite chieftain’s medium infantry warband
• 2 Amorite medium infantry tribal warbands
• 1 Amorite light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of Amorite archers
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers
Martu Division
• Gungunum, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite chieftain’s medium infantry warband
• 2 Amorite medium infantry tribal warbands
• 1 small unit of Amorite archers
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers
Tidnum Division
• Sinkashid, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite chieftain’s medium infantry warband
• 2 Amorite medium infantry tribal warbands
• 1 Amorite light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers
Scout Division
• Yangi, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of mounted scouts riding donkeys

Optional Variations
The fort garrison looks like they might be a tough nut to crack so you might consider trying to hold it with unreliable or
unruly Elamite mercenaries and put the regular units in the relieving force.
Note: Apart from Puzermarduk and Ibbisin, the names of the commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some
real names of Amorite warlords from the records to stand in for them and give personality to the commander figures.
Zabaya and Gungunum were slightly later warlords who seized Larsa. Puzermarduk has leadership 6 because he abandoned
the fort in the face of the Amorite attack. Ibbisin may not have been at this battle. The Viceroy of Elam was known as the
Sukkelmakh. If you want a name for an Elamite commander in the service of Ur you could choose Kutir-Lagomar, the
original Chederlaomer of Genesis who led a raid on Sodom and Gomorrah in the time of Abraham the Amorite, although
he may already have fallen in battle with the latter by this time.

38
 THIRD DYNASTY OF UR TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Sumerian medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Sumerian Royal Guard
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
Sumerian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2 0 5+ 6 –
Akkadian light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Elamite light infantry archers 4 4 2 2 0 4 Levy, Marauders, Small unit
Anshan highlander light infantry warband 5 4 1 0 6+ 4 Wild Fighters
Gutian light infantry axemen with throwsticks 5 4 1 0 6+ 4 Small unit
Elamite skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Marauders, Small unit
Onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Sumerian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots
Sumerian skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit

Notes. The Sumerian player can upgrade one unit of skirmishers with slings to Marksmen as a regular army elite scout unit
representing a possible innovation by King Shulgi. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

Amorite chieftain’s medium infantry warband

AMORITE HORDE TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Amorite chieftain’s medium infantry warband
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Eager, Tough Fighters
with spears, javelins, throwsticks and shields
Amorite medium infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters
tribal warband with spears, javelins and bows
Amorite light infantry warband,
6 5 2 0 6+ 6 Eager
with spears and javelins or throwsticks
Amorite light infantry javelinmen 3 3 3 0 6+ 4 Small unit
Amorite light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with slings or bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Amorite donkey-riding scout cavalry with bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Tiny unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

39
Early Egyptian attempts to push into the Near East encountered resistance from Amorite city states and nomadic tribes.

40
 THE AMORITE KINGDOMS
AND THE RISE OF CHARIOTS
After the fall of the Empire of Ur, Amorite warlords seized power in
many city states throughout the Near East. As chieftains of mercenary
bands, they had the military power to take over decadent cities and
turned them into Amorite kingdoms. While this was going on the two
rival city states of Isin and Larsa, successor states to the Sumerian
Empire, struggled for domination of Mesopotamia. The Amorite warlord
Shamshi-Adad captured Ashur and created an empire in Upper
Mesopotamia, also known as Subartu, which for a time controlled Mari.
This was the origin of the later kingdom of Assyria. An Amorite dynasty
was established in the hitherto minor city of Babylon. Shamsi-Adad’s
empire did not long outlive him and Zimri-Lim of Amorite descent,
regained his ancestral kingdom of Mari. He joined in alliance with
Hammurabi of Babylon against the threat of Elamite domination. Elam
was an old kingdom in Iran which included the regions of Susa and
Anshan. When Elam had been defeated, the allies went on to defeat
Larsa and Eshnunna. This left Hammurabi as ruler of a unified
Babylonia and Mari as the dominant power in Upper Mesopotamia.
Beyond was the Amorite kingdom of Yamkhad in Syria, centred on
Aleppo. Hammurabi vanquished Mari and established the Old
Babylonian Empire which included most of Mesopotamia.

Meanwhile in Anatolia, the Hattic city states and kingdoms were fighting
wars amongst themselves. Chariot warriors, riding new style horse drawn
chariots featured as mercenaries in these wars. These warriors had come
from regions to the north, east and west, various warbands entering the
Near East by different routes. At the same time other warbands from
central Asia were reaching far into Europe, into India and Iran, and into
the western edges of China. The arrival of effective horse drawn chariots
with expert warriors and weapons such as the composite bow began
having far-reaching effects on warfare and society. Incoming chariot
warriors merged with the Hurrians of the highlands to the north of
Mesopotamia and ruled as a chariot riding aristocracy. One effect was
that the kingdom of Kanesh in Anatolia transformed into the old Hittite
Kingdom. Out in the Aegean region, the Minoans were creating a
hegemony of the sea, while in Egypt the kings of the Middle Kingdom
were pushing deep into Nubia against the chiefdom of Kush and also
into Canaan, extending their influence as far as Byblos. New techniques
of siege warfare resulted in innovations in fortification. Chariot warriors
found their way into Canaan and together with desert nomad tribesmen
succeeded in taking over Lower Egypt establishing the Hyksos kingdom
with included half of Egypt and part of Canaan. Again this was a tale of
mercenary warbands seizing power from decadent rulers.

The expanding Hittite Kingdom under the mighty conquerors Hattusili I

and Mursili I began conquering the Amorite and Hurrian kingdoms of
the Upper Euphrates. Then, suddenly, taking advantage of the
opportunity opened up be the defeat of Yamkhad, Musili’s Hittite army
marched down the Euphrates and sacked Babylon, ending the Old
Babylonian Empire. Then they marched back. In the wake of this
disaster, Kassite chariot warriors from Iran seized control in Babylonia
establishing a new dynasty and kingdom. Warfare had been completely
transformed and chariot warriors were becoming dominant throughout
the region.

41
 “To be aggressive is brave, to
retreat is cowardly.”
Senusret III
This is a battle between the rearguard of the Middle
Kingdom Egyptian army of Pharaoh Senusret III of the 12th
Dynasty and the combined forces of the Canaanite city state
of Shechem and her Amorite tribal allies.
The Egyptians had made forays into Canaan since the early
Old Kingdom and probably had an alliance with Byblos on
the coast. Some of the early city states were in alliance with
Ebla. Around 2000 BC many of the early cities in this
region were sacked and this may be due to the movement
of Amorite tribes into the region. During the 6th Dynasty,
the Egyptian general Weni led a campaign into Canaan
which he recorded in his tomb inscriptions. His army of at
least 10,000, including Egyptians and Nubian, Libyan and
Kushite tribal auxiliaries, was sent against the Aamu
(Amorites) also known as the Heryushay (Sand Dwellers).
Weni led the army while other generals led contingents of
Upper or Lower Egypt, fort garrisons and Nubian
contingents. Weni says, “I was the one who made the plan”
which he goes on to describe, “when it was reported that
there was a revolt among the barbarians in the land of
An early Egyptian king’s bodyguard were chosen for loyalty and reliability.
42
Gazelle Nose (Mount Carmel region) I crossed over in
troop ships with the army and landed behind the high
ridge to the north of the Sand Dwellers. When this army
had taken the road, I came upon the foe and smote
them…” Pharaoh Teti sent Weni “five times in order to
invade the land of the Sand Dwellers each time they
rebelled.” These actions were probably taken against
incoming tribes that threatened to cut off the coast road to
Byblos. During the civil war following the end of the Old
Kingdom, Amorites threatened the borders of Egypt and
one of the first priorities of Pharaoh Montuhotep II on re-
uniting the country was to build a defensive line of forts
on the eastern frontier.
The Pharaohs Senusret I and Senusret III of the following
12th Dynasty led campaigns of conquest into Nubia and built
a chain of massive fortresses to guard the Nile from the
powerful Kingdom of Kush. Senusret III next turned his
attention to Canaan, which at this time was known to the
Egyptians as Retjennu. The Pharaoh’s best general on this
campaign was Sebekhu, nicknamed Zaa, who was a veteran of
the Nubian campaigns. On his inscribed stele from Abydos
Sebekhu outlines his early career, “I was born in year 27
under the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt
Amenemhat II. When king Senusret III appeared with the
double crown upon the Horus throne, he caused that I
should render service as a warrior behind and beside him
leading six men of the bodyguard.” Sebekhu was rapidly
promoted: “I was always ready at his side and his majesty
appointed me to be a ruler’s retainer and so I commanded
sixty men when he went south to overthrow the Nubians.”
On the Nubian campaign Sebekhu captured a Nubian chief
in hand-to-hand combat and was rewarded with further
promotion: “Then he appointed me commander of the
retainers and assigned to me 100 men.”
The bATTle
On the Canaan campaign, Sebekhu was given the vitally
important task of commanding the rearguard covering the
return march of the army to Egypt: “His majesty went north
to overthrow the Mentyu-Setej and reached the region of
Sekmem (thought to be Shechem.) His majesty led the main
army homewards when Sekmem had fallen together with the
wretched Retjennu, while I was acting as rearguard.”
However, not all the ‘wretched Retennu’ knew they were
beaten and made an attack on the rearguard: “Then the
soldiers army mixed in to fight with the Aamu and I captured
an Amorite chief and had him disarmed by two soldiers, for I
did not turn back from the fight but my face was to the front
and I showed not my back to the Aamu.” It seems that the
hand-to-hand fighting was so fierce as the rearguard held its
The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle
EGYPTIAN ARMY
Rearguard Division
• Sebekhu Zaa Commander (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Shemsu medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Ahauty medium infantry spearmen
• 2 units of Ahauty medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of Nubian Medja mercenary medium
infantry archers
• 1 unit of light infantry javelinmen
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows
Optional Variations
If you want to give Sebekhu a sub commander to share
command and lead a sub division, Pharaoh might
recommend the up and coming young officer
Amenemhat son of Ibeb whose father was Aabu, destined
to be a commander of Retainers and lead expeditions
into Sinai under the next Pharaoh Amenemhat III. He
has Ld 8.
Note: Apart from the Egyptian general, the names of the
opposing commanders are not yet known so I have picked
out some real names from the Execration Texts. These were
pottery figurines inscribed with the names of enemy
leaders which were ritually smashed thus putting a curse
on the foe (for example, one curse is put upon “Ayyubim,
ruler of Shutu and all his retainers”).
43
“Now My Majesty has caused a statue
of myself to be set up on this frontier,
not only so that you may worship it,
but so that you will fight for it!”
ground that Sebekhu could not leave his position in the front
ranks and just stepped over the stunned foes as he
overpowered them, leaving them for the men behind to
finish off or take captive!
The ARMIeS
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar book
of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Amorite Babylonian
and Old and Middle Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each army is below.
AMORITE ARMY
Amorite Chieftain’s Retinue Division
• Ayyubim, General (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite medium infantry chieftain’s warband
• 1 Amorite light infantry warband
• 1 unit of Amorite light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Amorite Tribal Division
• Kushar, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite medium infantry tribal warband
• 1 Amorite light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of Amorite light infantry archers
• 1 unit of skirmishers with bows or slings
• 1 unit of skirmishers with javelins
Retjennu City State Division
• Erum the Anakim, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of light infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
SCeneRY And
dePlOYMenT AMORITE DEPLOYMENT ZONE
Set up the battlefield as described
in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Amorite army
deploys in the Amorite
deployment zone and the Egyptian
rearguard deploys well forward in
the middle of the middle zone
(not in the ‘Egyptian deployment
zone’ so that it has space to retreat.
The scenery is as follows:

Amorite
deployment Zone
This is open ground in the
centre with low hills and scrub EGYPTIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
towards either flank.

Middle Zone
This has low hills in the middle
and steep hills with woods or scrub towards the flanks.

egyptian deployment Zone AlTeRnATIve bATTlefIeld?

This has low hills in the centre and steep wooded hills to
each flank.
ObJeCTIveS
The objective of the Egyptian rearguard is to break the enemy
army thus making sure that the whole army gets back to
Egypt safely. The objective of the Amorites is to overwhelm
and break the Egyptian rearguard so that they can pursue and
harass or even ambush the Egyptian vanguard.
SPeCIAl RUleS
If the Egyptian General Sebekhu joins the Shemsu axemen to
fight in the front rank, then the unit becomes Valiant while
he is with them.
Although Sekmem is thought to be Shechem in
Canaan, another possibility might be Siqmim in
the northern Negev near Beersheba (albeit an
unlikely possibility since Sebekhu says the Egyptian
army had gone north into Retennu.) This was a
centre for copper smelting in the Early Bronze Age
with a fortified settlement at Arad. Thus the
location would be a definite military objective
since it controlled the copper supplies from a wide
area. If you want to take this interpretation, then
do not place steep or wooded hills on the table
and replace with low hills and scrub. Also choose
the forces opposing the Egyptians from the Early
Arab Raiders army list (infantry only).

The foe comes on with speed and ferocity; the Egyptians respond with discipline and resolve.

44
 MIDDLE KINGDOM EGYPTIAN TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Shemsu Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Valiant
Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Egyptian light infantry javelinmen 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Small unit
Nubian Medja mercenary medium
5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Steady
infantry archers
Nubian Medja skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Small unit

Notes. Egyptian javelinmen, accompanied by bearers carrying big quivers of spare javelins are depicted in the
tombs of Middle Kingdom nobles. City State units raised by the Early Bronze Age Canaanite cities were like
contemporary Amorite Babylonian troop types. There are no mentions by the Egyptians of encountering onager
chariots or other early chariots in these forays, so the Canaanite cities may not have used any. If they ever did, the
Egyptians were not sufficiently impressed to copy the idea, so it seems unlikely. One Middle Kingdom commander
of a fort in Nubia did have a very small horse, the skeleton having been found during excavation.

Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“Year 16, third month of winter: the king made his southern boundary at Heh. I have
made my boundary further south than my fathers. I have added to what was bequeathed
me. ... Now my majesty has had an image made of My Majesty, at this border which
My Majesty has made, in order that you maintain it, in order that you fight for it.”
Stele of Pharaoh Senusret III

AMORITE TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Amorite medium infantry chieftain’s warband
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters, Eager
with spears, javelins or throwsticks and bows
Amorite medium infantry tribal warband
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters, Eager
with spears, javelins or throwsticks and bows
Amorite light infantry warband
6 5 2 0 6+ 0 Eager, Marauders
with spears, javelins or throwsticks
Amorite light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 –
Amorite skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
City State medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Militia
City State light infantry
5 5 3 0 6+ 5 Militia
spearmen with throwsticks
City State light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Militia, Small unit
City State skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

45
 “I will have the omens consulted
and if favourable I will attack the
ruler of Eshnunna.”
This is a battle between the Amorite Babylonian army of
Hammurabi and his allies and a coalition led by Sillisin of
Eshnunna opposing Hammurabi’s domination of
Mesopotamia. Following the fall of Ur, Amorite warlords
established themselves as rulers in city states throughout
Mesopotamia. These warlords began as mercenary
commanders who seized their opportunity to take over. They
founded Amorite dynasties which presided over the
Akkadian population and continued to use the old methods
of administration, while methods of warfare were
transformed by the Amorite style of fighting. During this
time the two-horse, two-wheeled light chariot appeared in the
Near East.
Shamshi-Adad I was an Amorite warlord whose ancestors
had lived in tents, who captured the city of Ashur and made
himself king. He carved out an Old Assyrian empire in
Upper Mesopotamia (Subartu) ruling it with the assistance
of his two sons Ishmedagan and Yashmakhadad.
Hammurabi of Babylon ultimately emerged the victor and
overlord of Mesopotamia after a series of wars, beginning
the Old Babylonia Empire. This lasted until Babylon was
sacked by the Hittites in 1595 BC and subsequently taken
over by the Kassites (probably originally mercenary chariot
warriors from Iran).
The city state of Eshnunna was already at war with Mari, its
king, Ibalpiel, having prompted rebellions by nomadic tribes
The horse-drawn chariot is a battlefield innovation – shoot and scoot!
46
against Mari in 1771 BC. In response Mari tried to get Zaziya
of the Hurrian Turukku tribe in the Zagros Mountains to
attack Eshnunna. He replied, “I will have the omens
consulted and if good I will attack the ruler of Eshnunna, but
if they are not good I will not attack and send a message to
Hammurabi, then when reinforcements come from Babylon
and Zimrilim arrives, we will attack.” It was Mari that ended
up temporarily subordinate to Eshnunna. In 1767 BC the
king of Elam deposed the king of Eshnunna and imposed the
Amorite warlord Atamrum there as viceroy. He fought
against Hammurabi as an ally of Sheplarpak, king of Elam.
When Hammurabi and Mari defeated the Eshnunnan forces
and Sheplarpak started peace negotiations, the retreating
Eshnunnan army felt betrayed. They rebelled and raised up
the general Sillisin to rule the city and Atamrum fled to join
Hammurabi. This completely thwarted Hammurabi’s plans
to take the city for himself. Initially Hammurabi made peace
with Eshnunna so as to secure his eastern flank while
throwing his entire strength against Larsa.
When Hammurabi and Zimrilim began the conquest of
Larsa, Sillisin realised that Eshnunna would be next. Sillisin
therefore closed off his territory to the Babylonians and
began to intrigue with Mari and Elam. He also took control
of the Tigris crossing points, began hoarding grain which he
supplied to Elam and urged Hammurabi’s allies in Subartu
to withhold troops they were required to send to the war in
Larsa. The Babylonians had been raiding into Malgium in
the Zagros Highlands and in response the Queen of Nawar, a
region of Gutium, marched into Mesopotamia with an army
of 10,000 warriors hoping to assist Larsa. Meanwhile after big
battles in the kingdom of Larsa and Larsan forces going over
to Hammurabi, the city of Larsa was besieged and fell.
Rimsin was captured and the entire kingdom was annexed to
Babylon to be ruled directly by Hammurabi. Then, taking
advantage of the large ally contingent from Mari at his
disposal, he turned his formidable forces against Eshnunna.

“Hammurabi overthrew in battle
the army of Eshnunna, Subartu
and Gutium.”
The bATTle
In 1762 BC, Hammurabi claimed that he “overthrew in battle
the army of Eshnunna, Subartu and Gutium.” Hammurabi’s
The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle
ESHNUNNAN ARMY
Eshnunnan Division
• Sillisin, King of Eshnunna, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Sabum Kabitum medium infantry
with long spears
• 1 unit of Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of Elamite light infantry archers
• 1 unit of onager light chariots
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Nawar Division
• Queen of Nawar, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Queen’s retinue medium infantry warband
• 2 warbands of Gutian light infantry axemen
• 1 small unit of Gutian light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Gutian skirmishers with javelins
Subartu Division
• Ishmedagan, King of Ekellate, Commander (Ld 9)
• 1 small unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Sabum Kabitum medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Ba’Irum light infantry
• 1 unit of Hurrian light infantry archers
• 1 unit of onager light chariots
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 Amorite medium infantry warband
• 1 small unit of Amorite skirmishers with slings
Optional Variations
The Eshnunnan player might consider splitting the Subartu
Division and giving command of the fourth division to the King
of Kurda (Ld 8).
Note: The names of the commanders in this campaign are
known and most, perhaps all, were probably at this battle.
47
army with his Mari allies had met Sillisin’s army with his
allies, the Queen of Nawar, Ishmedagan of Ekallate (Shamsi-
Adad’s son) and the king of Kurda from Subartu, somewhere
on the way to Eshnunna and won a decisive battle. It does
not seem that the city of Eshnnuna fell directly afterwards,
that happened years later following a rebellion.
The ARMIeS
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Amorite
Babylonian army list as a guide. The order of battle for each
army is below.
HAMMURABI’S ARMY
Babylonian Division
• Hammurabi, King of Babylon, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Sabum Kabitum medium infantry spearmen
• 2 units of Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
Mari Division
• Zimrilim, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Sabum Kabitum medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Ba’Irum light infantry
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 unit of two-horse light chariots with javelins
• 1 small unit of chariot runners with javelins or bows
Amorite Division
• Atamrum, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite chieftain’s retinue warband
• 2 Amorite medium infantry warbands
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Mari Scout Division
• Yarimaddu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of light cavalry scouts
A commander
riding in an early
horse-drawn
chariot.
SCeneRY And HAMMURABIC
dePlOYMenT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ZONE
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The opposing
armies deploy opposite each
other in their respective
deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

hammurabic
deployment Zone
Assuming that the Hammurabic
army has made a successful
crossing of the Tigris and ESHNUNNAN
brushed aside any opposing DEPLOYMENT
skirmishers there, the army ZONE
advances towards Eshnunna and
encounters the Eshnunnan army
drawn up ready for battle.
However it is quite possible that the Eshnunnan army The Hammurabic deployment zone will be level river valley
advances to defend the river crossing and if so the battle with cultivation, palm groves and perhaps a small village of
would be fought just east of the Tigris, possibly with the mud brick and reed peasants’ houses.
River Diyala on the Hammurabic left flank.

HAMMURABIC ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Royal Guard medium infantry
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
axemen with throwsticks
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
spearmen or javelinmen
Raw recruit medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Freshly Raised, Levy
Sabum Quallatum light infantry
5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
spearmen or javelinmen with throwsticks
Ba’Irum light infantry axemen
6 5 3 2 6+ 6 Marauders
with javelins and bows
Amorite chieftain’s medium infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters, Eager
warband with spears, javelins and bows
Amorite medium infantry warband
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters, Eager
with spears, javelins and bows
Light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Two-horse light chariots with bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Freshly Raised
Chariot runners with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Light cavalry scouts with bows 1 1 1 1 0 1 Tiny unit, Freshly Raised

Notes. Hammurabi began a general conscription to reinforce his army for the war against Larsa, so some of his units are raw recruits.
Chariot units can be two wheeled early chariots and platform cars drawn by four onagers or more ‘modern’ types with two spoked
wheels drawn by two horses such as probably used by the Mari contingent, Zimrilim of Mari being an innovator and horse
enthusiast. Indeed he may ride a horse contrary to the counsel of his advisors.Hammurabi probably didn’t make much use of
chariots since he told Zimrilim that whereas Mari’s strength was in chariots, his was in boats, therefore Mari should cede the town of
Hit with its pitch wells to Babylon (which Zimrilim didn’t do, causing the final war between them and the fall of Mari). Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

48
Middle Zone
This is open level land with fields. In many reports from this
period, ranges and distances were estimated in ‘fields’ showing
that the regular layout of a city state’s field system could be “The Eshnunnans have a reputation for
relied upon throughout Mesopotamia. No doubt this is how treachery, but you can rely on us to
taxable grain yields were estimated. The area between two
armies deploying for battle was about three fields. keep our word!”

eshnunnan deployment Zone

The Eshnunnan general would have chosen a suitable
position before to try and break the enemy army in the open
rather than end up besieged, especially since Hammurabi
and his allies had had plenty of recent experience conducting
successful sieges in the wars against Elam and Larsa. This is
open rough pasture with a few low hills and palm groves.
ObJeCTIveS
The objective of each army is to break the other. There are
reluctant allies on both sides; you only need to break two
divisions of the opposing army to win.
SPeCIAl RUleS
Consulting the omens before a campaign or battle was an
obsession of the age leading to some very unfortunate
decisions being made by otherwise strategically astute rulers.
Either or both sides may consult the omens after deployment
and before battle commences. Each side rolls a dice with a
score of 6 being a good omen and a score of 1 being a dismal
omen and any other score being conveniently ambiguous. If
your omens are good you can make up to three units Eager
or Steady. If omens are bad, you must choose one of your
standard sized units to be Wavering, representing particularly
superstitious troops.
Certain mounted units are subject to the Freshly Raised rule
because horsemanship and horse drawn chariots
were still such a recent innovation and not
many officers had read any Hurrian horse
training manuals yet (or could if there
were any)! It would all have to be learned
by bitter experience. Not only that, your
horses include a curious mix of equines
and hybrids and some rookies will try to
ride a horse using the donkey seat and
fall off when it gallops!

ESHNUNNAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Royal Guard medium
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
infantry axemen with throwsticks
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
with long spears and throwsticks
Sabum Quallatum light
5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
infantry spearmen with throwsticks
Ba’Irum light infantry
6 5 3 2 6+ 6 Marauders
axemen with javelins and bows
Light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Gutian Queen’s Retinue medium infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters
warband with axes, bows and throwsticks
Gutian light infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Wild Fighters
warband with axes and throwsticks
Hurrian light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Elamite or Gutian light infantry archers 4 4 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Onager light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Light infantry javelinmen 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Gutian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. The Eshnunnan army is in a revolutionary and patriotic mood so they are Stubborn. The Eshnunnan army is assumed to be
a bit more old fashioned than the Babylonian force, so uses long spears and onager chariots. Note that variations from the Hail
Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

49
 “In a few months time I will take
my revenge on him and make him
kneel down in the dust.”
This is a pitched battle between the army of Hammurabi of
Babylon and his former ally and last remaining rival Zimrilim
of Mari. The city state of Mari was a powerful Amorite
kingdom on the middle Euphrates. Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria
conquered the city from Zimrilim’s father and it was ruled by
Shamshi-Adad’s younger son Ishme-Dagan. Zimrilim, with
help from the kingdom of Yamkhad (Aleppo) regained his
throne and set about securing his kingdom against enemies in
Upper Mesopotamia. He joined in the alliance with
Hammurabi against Elam, then Larsa and Eshnunna. After
the war, only Zimrilim and Hammurabi, the two best generals,
were left as powerful rulers in Mesopotamia.
The two allies began to fall out when drawing up a treaty
between them defining their spheres of influence. The
messages that went to and fro between them have survived in
the Mari archives. Hammurabi requested that Zimrilim hand
over the city of Hit because he needed the local pitch to caulk
his warships on the Euphrates and Tigris. Zimrilim refused to
consider this because Hit was a religious centre for the river
ordeals in which the accused had to survive swimming the
Euphrates to prove their innocence. Hammurabi proposed a
joint control of Hit with both kingdoms stationing troops in
the city, but Zimrilim was wary, especially since his spies
reported Babylonian troop movements to reinforce
Hammurabi’s potential allies in Subartu (Upper Mesopotamia).
Zimrilim consulted the oracles on the matter as was his habit.
His queen Shibtu was a priestess, skilled in the arcane arts of
divination. He asked her to “consult the oracles about giving
up Hit to the king of Babylon. Would the kingdom be safe if
he did? Ask the oracles about Hammurabi of Babylon. Will he
ever die? Does he deal honestly with us? Will he make war on
us? Will he besiege Mari while I am away campaigning in the
North?” Shibtu reported the results of the divination: “I have
asked questions about Babylon. He is plotting against this
country, but will not succeed. You will defeat and capture him.
His days are numbered and he will not live much longer!”
Amorite medium
infantry warband
50
The bATTle
Relying on the oracles and knowing from his own spies that
Hammurabi was already attempting to surround him and
planning for war anyway, Zimrilim refused to hand over Hit.
When asked why he wanted Hit, Hammurabi’s reply to the
Mari envoys is revealing. He said, “Why do I want Hit? Your
country’s strength is in donkeys and chariots, whereas my
country’s strength is in ships. That is why I want the pitch
from that city. In return for Hit, I will consider anything
Zimrilim asks of me.” This tells us that the Mari army would
be strong in chariots and implies that the Babylonian army,
which would use ships to move up the Euphrates towards
Mari, would have fewer, if any chariots. Due to the
surrounding desert and steppe terrain, Mari would have
more use for chariots than Babylon, which now dominated
Sumer and Akkad with its many irrigation canals. We know
from other documents that Mari could obtain horses from
Hurrian and Anatolian kingdoms to the north and west and
so could have horse drawn chariots as well as older-style
onager chariots. Mari records mention ‘fast’ chariots and this
may be a reference to the new style horsed chariots with
spoked wheels. Babylon would later recruit Kassite warriors
to provide chariotry.
Zimrilim’s scouts reported that Hammurabi had sent 6,000
troops to his ally, the Amorite warlord Atamrum in Subartu.
He also allied with Aqbahammu of Qattara and stealthily sent
yet more troops through Mari territory: “Our scouts report
that 500 Babylonian troops are advancing under orders to go
to Ekallatum. Our border guards asked them where they were
headed and they replied Ekallatum. Later, they left the road to
Ekallatum and went north. Maybe this contingent is going …
in response to a request for troops from Aqbahammu.” As
well as reinforcing his allies, Hammurabi may have been
sending troops to make sure these allies stayed loyal to him. If
Zimrilim wanted to defend Hit, then it would make sense to
try and engage Hammurabi before he reached Hit.
Hammurabi might have expected such a move which would
leave Hammurabi’s northern allies behind Zimrilim’s flank.
Zimrilim lost the battle against Hammurabi, which may have
been fought in defence of Hit or between Hit and Mari.
Then the city of Mari was captured by Hammurabi.
Zimrilim’s fate is uncertain. Mari was only finally sacked after
a rebellion five years later. When Babylonian troops
ransacked the great palace, they took away many clay tablets
from the archives to Babylon, so that Hammurabi could see
“When Marduk sent me to rule over men,
to give the protection of right to the land,
I did right and righteousness … and brought
about the well-being of the oppressed”
Code of Hammurabi
who had supported Zimrilim. Any despatches that might
throw light onto the battle or tell us whether there was an
open battle or just a siege were probably taken away. It seems
likely that Zimrilim would want to use his chariots and his
by now veteran and battle-hardened army to defend his
kingdom in a pitched battle. If so Hammurabi’s army
probably went upriver using transport boats and then
disembarked. He might have to fight an open battle or risk
the enemy cutting his lines of communication back to
Babylon. Hammurabi may have wanted to rendezvous with
his allies before approaching Mari, or as Zimrilim
anticipated, hoped they might distract the Marian army away
from the city. In this scenario we shall assume the former
situation. Thus we might have a battle in which two quite
different Amorite Kingdom armies confront each other, one
relying on chariots and tribal contingents, the other being
larger, but relying on infantry including old-style close order
troops many of which were raised from the armies of recently
conquered Larsa and Eshnunna.
The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle
MARI ARMY
Mari Division
• Zimrilim, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard two-horse light chariots
• 1 unit of Sabum Kabitum medium infantry spearmen
• 3 units of Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Ba’Irum light infantry
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
Amorite Tribal Ally Division
• Abimekim, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite chieftain’s retinue warband
• 2 Amorite medium infantry warbands
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Chariot Division
• Yansibaddu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of two-horse light chariots
• 1 unit of four-ass light chariots
• 2 small units of chariot runners with javelins or bows
Mari Scout Division
• Yarimaddu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of light cavalry scouts
Optional Variations
You could opt for only one type of chariot.
Note: The generals and some ally commanders are known. Other names are picked from the records to
give personality to the commander figures.
51
“Hammurabi is a mighty warrior who
wipes out his enemies, a flood of battles,
waster of enemy lands, who puts an end
to wars, who resolves disputes, who
destroys soldiers like figurines of clay!”
The ARMIeS
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Amorite
Babylonian army list as a guide.
The order of battle for each army is below.
HAMMURABIC BABYLONIAN ARMY
Babylonian Division
• Hammurabi, King of Babylon, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Royal Guard medium infantry axemen
• 3 units of Sabum Kabitum medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen
• 2 units of light infantry archers
Subartu Division
• Atamrum, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Amorite chieftain’s retinue warband
• 2 Amorite medium infantry warband
• 1 Hurrian light infantry warband
• 1 unit of Babylonian Sabum Kabitum medium
infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Qattara Division
• Aqbahammu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 2 Amorite medium infantry warbands
• 1 Hurrian light infantry warband
• 1 unit of Babylonian Sabum Kabitum medium
infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of two-horse light chariots
• 1 tiny unit of chariot runners with javelins or bows
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
SCeneRY And
MARI
dePlOYMenT DEPLOYMENT ZONE
Set up the battlefield as described
in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The opposing armies
deploy opposite each other in their
respective deployment zones. The
Mari zone is to the north, so the
River Euphrates marks the western
short edge of the battlefield. The
opposite side is the desert edge.
The scenery is as follows:

Mari
deployment Zone
Open level ground, pasture or
steppe with a few fields and palm
HAMMURABIC
groves towards the river edge. DEPLOYMENT ZONE
You can include a gently sloping
low hill on the left (desert) flank
of the Mari zone. It might be
interesting to rest one flank on a natural bitumen pit (treat as ObJeCTIveS
a small impassable and inflammable bog!). Such pits played a The objective of each army is to break the other as defined in
part in the Old Testament battle between the ‘Five Kings’ the Hail Caesar rulebook. The first side to slay the opposing
and the army of Sodom and Gomorrah (perhaps fought general (that is the king of Mari or king of Babylon)
shortly before or soon after the fall of Ur?). automatically wins the battle and the war (and goes on to
establish an empire throughout Mesopotamia). The army of
Middle Zone the slain general will lay down its arms and acclaim the new
This is also open level ground, pasture or steppe with fields overlord, as happened recently in Larsa.
and palm groves near to the Euphrates.

hammurabic deployment Zone SPeCIAl RUleS

Again, open level ground with more fields and palm groves
representing a wider point in the cultivated floodplain. You
can include a mud brick village. Only Hammurabi’s
Babylonian division and the Subartu division deploy here
initially. The Qattara division arrives on the short desert side
edge of the table, which is the right flank of Hammurabi’s
zone. It arrives in the second turn on a dice roll of 6 or in a
subsequent turn on a roll of 4 or more. Since Aqbahammu’s
queen, Iltani, is also a divination priestess, he has been
delayed by waiting for favourable omens!
Referring back to the special rule regarding omens in the
previous scenario, here Zimrilim trusts in a favourable
oracle (which turned out to be wrong). So his army is
confident and he can make up to three units Eager.
Presumably Hammurabi also has favourable omens, but we
shall assume he is more wary.
As in the previous scenario, horse mounted units (horsed
light chariots and light cavalry) are subject to the Freshly
Raised rule due to limited experience and expertise.

Mari troops clash with Hammurabi’s soldiers beside the River Euphrates.

52
 MARI ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Royal Guard medium infantry
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
axemen with throwsticks
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
with long spears and throwsticks
Sabum Quallatum light infantry
5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
spearmen with throwsticks
Ba’Irum light infantry
6 5 3 2 6+ 6 Marauders
axemen with javelins and bows
Four-ass light chariots with javelins 6 6 3 0 4+ 6 Wild Ass Temper!
Two-horse light chariot with bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Freshly Raised
Chariot runners with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with
2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
short bows (range 12")
Amorite skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Light cavalry scouts with bows 1 1 1 1 0 1 Freshly Raised, Tiny unit

Notes. Mari was more advanced in the re-arming of chariots with horses obtained from Anatolia instead of asses, although there
would still be ass drawn chariots in use. Spoked wheels were already in use for some ass drawn chariots as well as horsed chariots.
Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

HAMMURABIC ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Royal Guard medium
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
infantry axemen with throwsticks
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
with long spears and throwsticks
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
with spears or javelins
Raw recruit medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Levy
Sabum Quallatum light infantry
5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
spearmen with throwsticks
Amorite chieftain’s retinue medium infantry
7 6 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters, Eager
warband with spear and javelins
Amorite medium infantry
6 6 2 1 6+ 6 –
warband with spears, javelins and bows
Hurrian light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Two-horse light chariot with bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Freshly Raised
Chariot runners with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with short bows (range 12") 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Amorite skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Hammurabi has conscripted Babylonians and troops from the former kingdom of Larsa, so some of his units are recruits and
levies. Spoked wheels were already in use for some ass drawn chariots as well as horsed chariots. Some of Hammurabi’s northern
allies would have chariots at this time. Zimrilim may ride in a chariot or even on a horse contrary to the counsel of his advisors.
Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

53
 “Polycrates was the first Greek we
know of who planned to dominate
the sea, unless we count Minos of
Knossos and any other who may
have ruled the sea at an earlier time.”
Herodotus
This skirmish represents an encounter between a tribute
gathering force from Minoan Crete and Aegean islanders on a
remote island who decide to rebel against the sea power and
tyranny of Minos. A Minoan ship lands on one side of the
island and the Minoan force marches up to the island
settlement. Here the Minoan commander demands the
customary tithe of athletic young men and women destined for
the bull leaping rituals at Knossos. They turn up roughly once
in a generation full of dire threats of retribution if the tribute is
not forthcoming. Reluctantly and with much lamentation, one
tenth of the young adult population are led away, escorted by
the intimidating Minoan soldiers, never to be seen again.
Almost as soon as they are on their way marching across the
rocky, wooded island, the headman has a conference with the
islanders who are seething with rage. Though poorly armed
they resolve to ambush the Minoans and rescue their kinsmen.
As the headman says, “If we keep on rendering the tithe, we
will never be rid of the tyrant!” To which the local soothsayer
added, “Behold, the very earth trembles with rage! Do not fear
to rescue them for the ships of Minos shall soon be cast up
upon the land and shall not return to punish us!”
The bATTle
A hastily gathered force of islanders ambushes the Minoan
force as it marches through a rugged ravine leading down to
the cove where their ship is beached. Although the Minoans
Minoan soldiers defend against rebels from the islands.
54
are far better armed and organised than the islanders, they
have been caught at a disadvantage.
SPeCIAl RUleS: SKIRMISh
This is a skirmish scenario using the skirmish rules guidelines
in the Setting up the Scenario section.
The fORCeS
The opposing forces can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Mycenaean
army list as a guide. The order of battle for each army is on
the following page.
SCeneRY And dePlOYMenT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section
Setting up the Scenario. The arrangement is different in that
this is an ambush scenario in which the Minoan column of
march proceeds along a ravine running the length of the
middle zone of the table from one short edge to the other.
The Minoans deploy at one end of the ravine and need to
leave the table by the other edge to reach the beach and their
ship. The islanders deploy along the two long edges of the
table in what would usually be the deployment zones.
The scenery is as follows:
Middle Zone
This is level open ground along the bottom of the ravine,
which is quite wide. There are outlying boulders and rocky
knolls as well as patches of woods and scrub making the
ravine meander and increasing the distance that the Minoans
need to move to get out of this dangerous terrain.
flanking Zones (usual deployment zones)
There is high rugged ground on either side of the ravine,
represented by long, steeply sloping high or low hills. There
are also many patches of woods and scrub and many rocky
crags. This is ideal ground for light troops and skirmishers.
ObJeCTIveS
The objective of the islanders is
to rescue their kinsfolk and slay
all the Minoans so that no one FLANKING ZONE
gets away to tell tales to Minos.
He will think the ship was lost at
sea. The objective of the Minoans
is to get to the ship and get away
with as little loss as possible,
which means getting off the table
via their deployment edge.

SPeCIAl RUleS
If any of the islander bands
reaches the hostages and
overpowers the Minoans FLANKING ZONE
guarding them, the hostages will
join up with them and be given
daggers or whatever weapons the
rescuing band has.

The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle

AEGEAN ISLAND FORCE MINOAN FORCE

Headman’s Band Minoan Commander’s Band
• Tesejewosso, Commander on foot • Mynawosso, Commander on foot
• 4 light infantry warrior models • 4 medium infantry axeman models

Soothsayer’s Band Minoan Medium Infantry Band

• Leader on foot • Commander on foot
• 4 light infantry, axe-armed models • 6 medium infantry models with long spears
• 3 medium infantry archer models
Elder’s Band
• Leader on foot Minoan Light Infantry Band
• 4 light infantry, spear-armed models • Leader on foot
• 4 light infantry archer models
Goatherd’s Skirmisher Band
• Leader on foot Minoan Light Infantry Band
• 4 skirmisher slinger models • Leader on foot
• 4 light infantry models with javelins
Fishermens’ Skirmisher Band
• Leader on foot Minoan Skirmisher Band
• 4 skirmisher models with javelins • Leader on foot
• 4 skirmisher archer models
Village Women’s Skirmisher Band
• Leader on foot Baggage Band
• 4 skirmisher stone-throwing models • Leader on foot
• 1 baggage guard model
Hunter’s Skirmisher Band • 10 unarmed hostages
• Leader on foot
• 4 skirmisher archer models with short bows (12")

Note: As yet, the Linear A script used on Minoan Crete at this time, which might reveal Minoan
names, remains undeciphered.

55
 Shields to the front! Here come the javelins!

MINOAN TROOP VALUES (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH MODEL VALUES)

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Commander on foot (Ld 8) 3 1 1 0 5+ 2 –
Leader on foot (Ld 8) 2 1 1 0 5+ 2 –
Axeman 3 2 1 0 6 1 Tough Fighters
Spearman with long spear 2 1 1 0 6 1 –
Archer 1 1 1 1 0 1 Levy
Javelinman 1 1 0 0 6 1 Levy
Baggage guard 2 1 1 0 6 1 –

Notes. The values of models are based on the values of a tiny unit with modifications to reflect different warrior types. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

ISLANDER TROOP VALUES (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH MODEL VALUES)

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Commander on foot (Ld 8) 2 2 1 0 5+ 2 Tough Fighter
Leader on foot (Ld 8) 2 1 1 0 5+ 2 –
Warrior 2 2 1 0 6 1 Eager
Spearman 1 1 1 0 6 1 –
Axeman 2 1 1 0 6 1 –
Javelinman or stone-thrower 1 1 1 0 6 1 Levy
Slinger 1 1 1 1 6 1 Levy
Archer with short bow (range 12") 1 1 1 1 6 1 Levy

Notes. The values of models are based on the values of a tiny unit with modifications to reflect different warrior types. Islander
warriors are armed with various dirks, maces and daggers. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to
this scenario.

56
 “Like a lion, I gazed fiercely
upon Hahhum!”
This is a hard-fought assault on the city of Hahhum on the
Upper Euphrates. It took the Hittite army of Hattusili I three
days of vicious fighting in the streets of the city to secure its
capture. Then it was burnt. In this war Hattusili I conquered
the Amorite Kingdom of Yamkhad, ruled from Aleppo, and
established the Hittite kingdom of Hatti as a power to be
feared. Hahhum was a city state allied to Yamkhad.
The Hittite kingdom was founded in central Anatolia at a
time when the two-horse chariot with two spoked wheels and
two crew was being introduced into the region. Anitta, king
of the city state of Kanesh records encountering chariotry in
battle at the river Khulannu. His foe, the king of Shalatiwara
had “gathered into the city 1,400 infantry and 40 teams of
horse chariotry.” Although Anitta sacked and cursed the city
of Hattusas, his descendants chose it as the capital of the
expanding kingdom of Hatti. The two greatest conquerors of
the Old Hittite Kingdom were Hattusili I and his son Mursili
I. Hattusili vanquished the Amorite kingdoms of Syria, of
which Yamkhad (Aleppo) was the most powerful. Mursili I
then marched down the Euphrates valley and sacked Babylon
which was allied to Aleppo. This brought down the Old
Babylonia Empire founded by Hammurabi and struck dread
of the Hittites in all lands.
During his Syrian war Hattusili stormed two mighty cities on
the upper Euphrates, Urshu and Hahhum. The siege of Urshu
proved difficult. During the siege work the Hittite assault team
“broke the battering ram. The king was angry and his face was
grim. ‘They keep bringing me bad news,’ he said.” Hattusili
issued new orders: “Make a battering ram in the Hurrian
manner and let it be brought into position. Hew a great
battering ram from the mountains of Hassu. Begin to heap up
earth into a siege ramp. When you have finished, everyone take
up position!” Meanwhile the siege dragged on and the king
asked his commander, “Why have you not given battle? You
stand on chariots of water, you are almost turned into water
yourself?” The Hittite records tell us, “But while they did
nothing to the city, many of the king’s troops were wounded so
that many died. The king was angry and said, ‘Watch the road,
observe who enters and leaves the city; no one is to go out from
the city to the enemy.’” This proved ineffective. “A fugitive came
out of the city and reported that men of Aleppo, Zuppa, Zaruar
and Hurrians were getting in and out; the king was furious!”
When Ursu eventually fell, Hattusili turned his attention to
the city of Hahhum which was allied and reinforced by
Yarimlim III of Aleppo. The records reveal that the
reinforcements included Umman Manda mercenary chariot
warriors. These were either Hurrians or more likely, the new
overlords of the Hurrians incoming from regions beyond.
The texts tell us that “Zaludis the commander of the Manda
57
troops and Zukrasis commander of the heavily armed troops
of the King of Aleppo came down from Aleppo with his
infantry and chariotry.” Hattusili also made plans and told
his ally commanders, “There will be two attacks against him:
I from here and you from there.” This resulted in a battle in
which Hattusili “shattered the army of the city of Hahhum
and destroyed Zippasna.” Then the Hittite army “marched
against Hahhum and three times made battle within the
gates. I destroyed Hahhum and took possession of its treasure
and carried it off to Hattusa. Two pairs of baggage wagons
were loaded with silver!”
Hattusili’s royal annals tell us more about the humiliation
heaped on the defeated enemy. “I the Great King destroyed
Hassuwa and Hahhum and burned them down with fire so
that the storm god in heaven could see the smoke. Then I
harnessed the king of Hassuwa and the king of Hahhum to a
wagon loaded with booty.” The defeated kings were made to
drag the plunder back to the Hittite capital. Hattusili
considered the hard fought conquest of Hahhum worth
boasting about. “No Hittite king had crossed the river
Euphrates before, but I the Great King crossed it on foot and
my army crossed after me on foot. Sargon of Akkad had also
once crossed it, but although he defeated the army of
Hahhum, he did not burn it down.”
Hattusili I was not the last Hittite king to have trouble with
this city. Centuries later, his namesake Hattusili III of the
Hittite New Kingdom reported that “During the years that
my brother Muwatalli was in Hatti, all the Kaska lands
turned hostile towards us and my brother gave me infantry
and chariotry in small numbers and I also took auxiliaries in
small numbers and went against the enemy at the city of
Hahhum and fought him. My lady (Hattusili’s patron war
goddess) marched ahead of me (her image on a battle-
standard) and I defeated him and set up a war memorial.”
The bATTle
The city of Hahhum has not been located with absolute
certainty but may be the modern site at Lidar Huyuk. Here
the archaeologists excavating the city discovered that it had
been violently stormed and put to the torch. Skeletons were
found under collapsed walls and arrowheads were found
embedded in the walls. This fits with the record of three
attempts to storm the city even after breaching the gates,
indicating vicious street fighting against a diehard foe. For
this scenario we might imagine the city to be like some other
cities at this time, notably Hazor in Canaan, in having an
upper and lower city. The lower city might be stormed leaving
the upper city still to be taken. The purpose of the lower city
might be to create a defended enclosure for chariotry stables
(and chariotry training) as at Hazor. Therefore if the Hittite
assault troops succeed in breaking through the outer gates
they would find themselves in an open area and vulnerable to
the chariotry known to be assisting the defence of Hahhum.
Alternatively, the chariots might be deployed outside the city
and retreat into it if beaten by the Hittites. The crews could
then dismount to join the defenders.
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from
the Hail Caesar book of Army Lists: Biblical
& Classical using the Hittite and Amorite
Babylonia army lists as a guide. Hahhum
and her ally Yamkhad (Aleppo) were
Amorite kingdoms organised on the
Hammurabic Amorite Babylonian
model. The Hittite army dates to the
Old Hittite kingdom long before the
use of three man chariots, but when the
hefty battle-axe was favoured.
Hittite medium infantry
The order of battle for each army is below.

THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of bATTlE

OLD HITTITE ARMY HAHHUM ARMY

Hittite Assault Division
• Hattusili I, King of Hatti, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Hittite medium infantry guard axemen
• 3 units of Hittite medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of Hittite javelin skirmishers
• 1 small Hittite assault unit medium infantry mixed
axemen/archers with a battering ram
Tikunani Ally Division
• Tuniya, Tikunani Commander (Ld 8)
• 3 Anatolian highlander medium infantry warbands
armed with spears/axes/javelins
• 1 small unit of Anatolian highlander archers
• 1 small unit of Anatolian skirmishers with slings
Chariot Division
• Mursili, Chariot Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of chariots
• 1 small unit of chariot runners
with javelins
• 2 small units of light infantry archers
Hahhum Division
• King of Hahhum General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Guard – medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
• 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen with javelins
• 1 unit of medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows
Yamkhad-Aleppo Ally Division
• Yarimlim, Aleppo Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Guard – medium infantry axemen with throwsticks
• 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen with javelins
• 1 unit of light infantry with spears or javelins
and throwsticks
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Umman Manda Mercenary Division
• Zaludis, Umman Manda Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Umman Manda chariotry
• 1 small unit of Hurrian chariot runners
• 2 small units of Hurrian light infantry archers

Optional Variations
The third ‘chariot’ divisions do not have to feature in the scenario unless you want to fight the open battle before the city
gates which the Hittites won. They probably wiped out the enemy chariot force and went on to assault the city which was
defended tenaciously by the surviving infantry forces of Hahhum. The Hittite chariot warriors might have to dismount to
fight in the city or could be sent to cut off reinforcements and escaping fugitives. If you want three divisions for the assault
on the city, then replace the chariot units with dismounted chariot troops. In later times Hittites often dismounted their
chariot troops to attack foes hiding up steep mountains. If you want to try your luck with chariots in the street fighting you
might like to split them into tiny units, but remember the advice found in the Amarna letters “Do not send chariots to
assault the city, they don’t have the strength.” Hattusili I actually did besiege a city using chariots. He deployed them in tiny
units all around the city to completely cut it off from anyone going in or out. Chariots were ideal for chasing off and
hunting down small groups of reinforcements, fugitives, messengers and defenders sallying out to forage or do mischief.
Note: Apart from Hattusili and Zuladis and a few others, the names of other commanders are not yet known so I have
picked out some likely suspects to give personality to the commander figures.

58
SCeneRY And
HITTITE DEPLOYMENT ZONE
dePlOYMenT
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The forces deploy
in their respective deployment
zones. The scenery is as follows:

hittite
deployment Zone
This is the open ground in front
of the ramparts of the lower city.
This is a new rampart which
does not take the form of the
usual wall, but is instead an
earthwork with an outer glacis. HAHHUM DEPLOYMENT ZONE
This is an obstacle to all but light
infantry and skirmishers. It can
be defended by troops on top of
the rampart, behind a low wall.
The outer gateway into the lower
city is wide and straight so as to permit chariotry to enter and with a palace building. The buildings have flat roofs on
leave. It has gates but not very strong flanking towers if any. which defenders can be deployed and a small temple can be
The Hittites deploy in this zone ready to assault. The Hittite included. The rest of the defenders of Hahhum deploy here,
assault team with a battering ram can attack the gate by but can move out to engage foes in the lower city.
charging it. On a dice roll of 5 or 6 the gate gives way. If not
they recoil, rally back and can try again in a subsequent turn.
ObJeCTIveS
Middle Zone The objective of the Hittite army is to capture the palace or
This is the open interior of the lower city containing only the the upper city. When the Hittites take the palace they can set
chariot stables (or maybe the chariotry just camp in tents). The fire to it and on seeing this all further resistance in the city
chariot division of Hahhum deploys in this zone ready to will cease. I am leaving the temple out of this victory
charge whatever comes through the gate or over the rampart. condition out of respect for the city gods, but the Hittite
Supporting troops can deploy here as well. Between the Middle troops can sack it and carry off the idols to Hatti land if their
Zone and the Hahhum Deployment Zone are the main city king so desires. The objective of the defending army is to
walls of Hahhum. To make things a bit easier and tense we shall hold the city and clear Hittite forces out of it in the hope that
assume that the old walls of the upper city and its gateway are the Hittites will give up the attempt to take it. In other words
ruinous and in the process of rebuilding, so the gateway (which they try to break the Hittite army.
is being remodelled to be an angled passageway) is unfinished
and lacking gates. The walls and flanking towers can be
manned by defenders, counting as occupied ruined buildings. SPeCIAl RUleS
Any unit of the defending army occupying (and thus
hahhum deployment Zone defending) the palace or temple will count as Stubborn while
This is the upper city within the old walls. Part of the zone is so doing. Any Hittite units within the walls of the city
houses and narrow streets but in the centre is an open area become Eager, because they are seeking plunder.

If the enemy attack with chariots, we will be safer within the walls!

59
 OLD HITTITE ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hittite medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Hittite medium infantry Guard axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Anatolian highlander
6 5 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry warband with javelins
Anatolian light chariots with 2 crew
7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
with spears, javelins and bows
Anatolian chariot runners –
3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of Chariots, Small unit
light infantry javelinmen
Anatolian skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Anatolian skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Hittite assault medium infantry
5 4 1/0 0 5+ 4 Stubborn, Small unit
axemen with battering ram
Dismounted chariotry – heavy infantry
5 5 2 1 4+ 4 Tough Fighters, Small unit
spearmen with javelins and bows

Notes. Old Hittite troops were much like later Hittites, but we are far too early for three crew chariots. At this time the Hittites are
just beginning to learn chariot warfare which they will become adept at. Dismounted chariotry values are used if you swap a chariot
unit for dismounted figures during the battle. In such a backs-to-the wall situation, the chariots run off loose (remove models) and
the crews cannot re-mount. If you intend smashing through city gates of cedar bound in bronze as well as palace and temple doors,
axemen will be handy. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“My campaign is ready and the man of Hahhum has prepared his forces.”

HAHHUM ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Royal Guard medium infantry
7 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
axemen with throwsticks
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Sabum Kabitum medium infantry 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
with long spears and throwsticks
Sabum Quallatum light infantry spearmen 5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
or javelinmen with throwsticks
Umman Manda light chariots with bows 7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
Hurrian chariot runners – 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of Chariots, Small unit
light infantry javelinmen
Hurrian light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Dismounted chariotry – heavy infantry with bows 5 5 2 1 4+ 4 Tough Fighters, Small unit

Notes. Use early horsed chariots for Umman Manda, as depicted on Anatolian cylinder seals of this period. Dismounted chariotry
values are used if you swap a chariot unit for dismounted figures during the battle. In such a backs-to-the wall situation, the chariots
run off loose (remove models) and the crews cannot re-mount. Units from the Amorite city states and Kingdom of Yamkhad
(Aleppo) were like Amorite Babylonian troops. The slingers would be augmented by the desperate city dwellers, no doubt occupying
the rooftops of their houses. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

60
 “Kush came forth, aroused along
his length, having stirred up the
tribes of Nubia, the land of Punt
and the Medja.”
This battle is a clash between the Egyptians and the Kushites.
Such clashes happened frequently throughout Ancient
Egyptian history, but this battle has only recently been
discovered when a previously unknown inscription was found
in the tomb of Sobeknakht. On many occasions the Kushites
invaded Egypt itself and were victorious. Egyptian Pharaohs
wisely took the threat posed by the warlike and fierce
Kushites very seriously and endeavoured to conquer and
colonise the upper Nile (modern Sudan) during the Middle
and New Kingdoms.
Whenever a powerful chieftain arose in Kush who could
unite the tribes and create a Kingdom of Kush, he was able to
draw on reinforcements from deep into the interior of the
61
African continent. Indeed early Egyptian explorers such as
Harkhuf of the 6th Dynasty record a Kushite chief of Yam
making war on the Tjemehu Libyans of the Sahara desert,
activities quite unknown to the Pharaoh in Egypt. The King
of Kush ruled from a massive stronghold at Kerma. The
Middle Kingdom fortresses were either stormed by his forces
during the 13th Dynasty or their isolated garrisons went over
to him. Certainly many Egyptian local commanders recorded
in inscriptions that they served the King of Kush. This would
have provided the Kushite King with additional military and
administrative expertise.
Sobekhnakht was governor of the province of Nekheb (El Kab)
in Upper Egypt, not far downstream on the Nile from the
frontier with Nubia at the first cataract at Aswan. The vulture
goddess Nekhebet was the totem of this region and her temple
was at Nekheb. He lived during the 16th Dynasty, probably
during the reign of Sekhemre Shedwaset (the last title means
‘Saviour of Thebes’) who ruled Upper Egypt at about the same
time as the Hyksos takeover in Lower Egypt. Sebekhnakht’s
inscription records that “The Kushite came, aroused along his
entire length (of the Nile), having stirred up the tribes of Wawat
(Nubia) the land of Punt and the Medja.” The Kushite king had
gathered forces from far flung regions and invaded Egypt.
The bATTle
Sebekhnakht commanded the forces of Upper Egypt to
oppose the Kushites at Nekheb, probably with support from
his Pharaoh. The Kushite onslaught was repulsed after hard
fighting. “The might of the great Nekhebet, strong of heart
against the Nubians, who were burnt through fire.” Victory
was attributed to the vulture goddess and no doubt her
totem was the defenders’ battle standard and her temple was
a strongpoint in the battle, perhaps securing one flank of the
defenders’ battle line. The king claimed the titles ‘Saviour of
Thebes’ and later ‘Saviour of Egypt’ indicating his part in the
battle and the serious threat to the existence of Egypt.
While the Kushites were rampaging in the province of
Nekheb, they seem to have looted the local tombs and
possibly the temple, since various items found during
excavations of their capital at Kerma had come from here.
This included items intended for Sebekhnakht’s own tomb,
probably taken when the town workshops were plundered.
Fire may have played a part in defeating the Kushites and
their repulse was followed up by a counter-attack, chasing
them back into Nubia.
The Kushite attack may have been co-ordinated with
Hyksos allies in Lower Egypt to make a two front attack on
Upper Egypt. The next Pharaoh, Dudimose, was
traditionally reigning when the Hyksos struck Egypt. This
may record the arrival of the Greater Hyksos chariot
warlords who, having established themselves as overlords of
the Canaanite and Amorite Lesser Hyksos, made a push
southwards towards Thebes. Somehow Upper Egypt
survived and the region of Nekheb and some of the elite
troops and commanders who would later overthrow the
Hyksos, such as Ahmose Sa-Bana and Ahmose Pen-Nekheb,
came from the province of Nekheb.
The ARMIeS
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Old and
Middle Kingdom Egyptian and the Nubian army lists as a
guide. Below is the order of battle for each army.
SCeneRY And dePlOYMenT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Egyptian and Kushite forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective deployment zones. I have
assumed that the invading Kushites advance on the eastern
side of the Nile so that they could gather the Medja and

The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle

EGYPTIAN ARMY KUSHITE ARMY

Right Division Kushite Division
• Sobeknakht, General (Ld 9) • Nedjeh, King of Kush, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian Ahauty medium infantry axemen • 1 unit of Kushite Guard light infantry
• 1 unit of Egyptian Ahauty medium infantry spearmen • 2 Kushite light infantry warbands
• 3 units of Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry archers • 1 unit of Kushite light infantry
• 1 unit of Egyptian Henu Nefru medium infantry spearmen • 1 unit of Kushite skirmishers with bows
• 1 small unit of Egyptian light infantry javelinmen
Nubian Division
Left Division • Itjaw, Commander (Ld 8)
• Sekhemre Shedwaset, Commander (Ld 8) • 1 unit of Nubian Guard light infantry
• 1 unit of Egyptian Shemsu medium • 1 Nubian light infantry warband
infantry axemen • 1 unit of Nubian light infantry
• 1 unit of Egyptian Ahauty medium • 2 units of Nubian skirmishers with bows
infantry spearmen
• 3 units of Egyptian Ahauty Medja-Punt Division
infantry archers • Tjeghedju, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian Henu Nefru medium • 1 Puntite light infantry warband
infantry spearmen • 1 unit of Punt or Medja Nubian light infantry
• 1 small unit of Egyptian light • 1 small unit of Puntite skirmishers with javelins
infantry javelinmen • 3 small units of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows

Note: Sobeknakht held command in this battle for which he was decorated, and the Pharaoh Sekhemre, who called himself
‘Saviour of Thebes’ probably had something to do with this event or defence against the Hyksos or both. Nedjeh was ruling
as king of Kush at the time of the Hyksos war. I have picked out some real names of Medja Nubian warlords from the earlier
13th Dynasty records to stand for the other commanders. Some Egyptians, such as Sepedhor, the fortress commander of
Buhen, served the king of Kush after the Egyptian forts in Nubia were taken over by the Kushites, probably providing their
new master with expertise in military organisation. Some Kushite chieftains were female, such as Satjyt, an earlier chief of
Yamnas (far south Sudan).

62
Puntite tribes on their
northward march. Some troops EGYPTIAN
would also have come up the
Nile in big reed boats or huge
DEPLOYMENT ZONE
dugouts but I assume these have
disembarked further south. It is
even possible that the Puntites
and Medja, being eastern desert
or Red Sea coast tribes advanced
by this route and joined forces
with the main Kushite-Nubian
army in Upper Egypt. They may
even have attacked Nekheb from
two directions.

egyptian
deployment Zone
The Egyptians deploy their battle KUSHITE DEPLOYMENT ZONE
line facing south, between the
Nile cultivation on their right
flank and the high ground of the
eastern desert cliffs on their left.
There are fields, palm groves and mud brick buildings on Middle Zone
their right, but the cultivated area is narrow here. On their This is open desert, with a few fields and palm groves on the
left is the small temple of the Vulture Goddess tucked into Nile edge of the table. The eastern hills open up here so no
the hillside. This is a steeply sloping and rugged rocky hill. more than one low barren hill on the opposite edge.
The temple has an enclosure wall and can be occupied by a
unit which can shoot over the wall. A Middle Kingdom ‘wavy Kushite deployment Zone
wall’ would be most appropriate. In front of the enclosure the This is open desert, like the middle zone, with only a few
Egyptians have positioned a zariba of thorn bushes and fields and palm groves on the Nile edge and no more than
brushwood (a hedge). one low barren hill on the opposite edge.

Will the Egyptians hold their ground against the onslaught of the fierce Kushite warriors?

63
ObJeCTIveS
The objective of the Kushite general is to break the entire
Egyptian army as defined in the Hail Caesar rulebook. The
objective of the Egyptian general is to break the King of Kush’s
division. He is the one who has roused the rest. If so the Nubian
army will begin to retreat back to Nubia, looting as they go.
SPeCIAl RUleS
The inscription from the tomb of the governor of Nekheb (El
Kab) Sobeknakht II says that the Nubians were “burnt
through fire” and that the Nubian chief “fell through the blast
of her (the vulture Goddess Nekhebet’s) flame.” This may be
metaphor, but taking it more literally, perhaps fire played a
part in the repulse of the Kushite invasion. To represent this,
the Egyptians have laid a zariba (thorn bush obstacle) around
“The mighty great one Nekhebet,
strong hearted against the Nubians …
The enemy chief fell through the blast of
her flame!”
the temple of the Vulture Goddess. This can be ignited at a
suitable moment by flaming arrows shot by Egyptian archers
equipped with them who are occupying the temple. The
obstacle then becomes an impassable barrier of flame and any
enemy unit crossing it is burnt up and routed.

EGYPTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Shemsu Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Brave
Steady. Designate one unit
Ahauty Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6
armed with flaming arrows.
Henu Nefru Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Levy
Egyptian light infantry javelinmen 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Small unit

Notes. The Upper Egyptians, hard pressed as they are between the Hyksos kingdom to the north and the Kushite kingdom to the
south are finding it difficult to gather enough troops, but those they have are determined. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar
army lists apply only to this scenario.

KUSHITE NUBIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Kushite chieftain’s bodyguard light infantry Eager, Wild Fighters,
7 5 2 1 6+ 6
warband with clubs, javelins and bows Frenzied Charge
Kushite light infantry warband
7 5 2 1 6+ 6 Wild Charge
with javelins and bows
Nubian light infantry warband
7 5 2 1 6+ 6 Eager
with javelins and bows
Puntite light infantry javelinmen 5 4 3 0 0 6 Eager
Puntite skirmishers with short bows (12" range) 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows 4 4 3 3 0 6 Marksmen, Small unit

Notes. The Kingdom of Kush was very powerful and expanding at this time having overwhelmed the Middle Kingdom fort garrisons
during the 13th Dynasty, many Egyptians having ‘gone native’ to serve the King of Kush. His power extended even as far as the
fabled land of Punt (Eritrea or further south on the Horn of Africa). At this time the Medja tribe of the Eastern Nubian Desert
were allied to Kush, later they were recruited as mercenaries again by the Egyptians, as of old tradition. Egyptian artists carefully
represented tribal differences. Nubians and Medja come from Wawat (Lower Nubia) and have wavy hair like Egyptians, Kushites
from Upper Nubia and beyond have short hair like Central Africans. Puntites seem to be like Ethiopians. Note that variations from
the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

64
 THE HYKSOS WAR
The Egyptian war against the Hyksos invaders is well
documented by inscriptions and tomb biographies of soldiers
who fought in it. The period has been further illuminated by the
discovery and excavation of the Hyksos capital and stronghold
of Avaris. The Hyksos are so called because the name by which
the Egyptians called them and which they used themselves was
‘Heka Khasut’ which means ‘Foreign Rulers’ or ‘Desert Kings’
or something like this (formerly translated as ‘shepherd kings’.)
This is a clue to the origins of the first wave of Hyksos invaders
to get a grip on Lower Egypt, who were desert tribal chieftains
from Canaan. Some of these entered as tribal chiefs by
agreement with the Middle Kingdom Egyptian Pharaohs, others
were probably mercenaries. When the Egyptian regime became
unstable, these chieftains seized power as the ‘Lesser Hyksos’
and one among them became Pharaoh of Lower Egypt, ruling
from Avaris. Soon afterwards a new wave of invaders turned up.
These were chariot warriors of those who had already taken over
in the city states of Canaan. Again they probably first arrived as
chariot mercenaries, but soon established themselves as
overlords of the lesser Hyksos and Egyptians to found the
Greater Hyksos dynasty. Notable among them was Salatis who
turned Avaris into a massive stronghold and chariot base for
dominating Egypt and Canaan.
The Hyksos pushed south, took Memphis and threatened Thebes.
At the same time the Kushites attacked Egypt from the south. The
Upper Egyptians beat off these attacks and survived with their
remnant kingdom wedged between enemies. This situation
prevailed until “King Sekenenra was ruler over only the South
while Apophis was ruler in Avaris and the whole land paid him
tribute.” When Pharaoh Sekenenra began building a fortress
palace on his northern front, Apophis sent him a humiliating
ultimatum, that the hippopotami in the Pharaoh’s lake were
keeping him awake! This may be a reference to the gathering of a
big Egyptian army and was a declaration of war. Sekenenra, later
known as ‘The Brave’, went into battle against the Hyksos.
Sekenenra’s mummy bears fatal axe wounds made by a Hyksos axe
and it is likely that he fell in battle. He may have been severely
wounded in a battle and then directed the campaign for a while
until slain in a later action. In this desperate time, his Queen
Ahhotep rallied the Egyptian troops and defended her realm until
her sons were old enough to continue the war. For this she was
awarded the ‘golden flies’ of valour, which were found in her
tomb. It is possible that she was a Minoan princess.
The war was resumed under the leadership of Pharaoh Kamose
who overruled his council of nobles: “Your council is wrong and
I will fight the Hyksos! Men shall say of me in Thebes, Kamose,
‘Saviour of Egypt!’” The story of Kamose’s campaign which
recaptured Memphis and reached Avaris is told in the ‘Cutting
off Avaris’ battle scenario. An important action was the despatch
of a task force to seize the desert oases and sever the link between
the Hyksos and their Kushite allies. We do not know what
happened to Kamose and he may have succumbed to wounds or
fallen in a later battle. There was a lull in the fighting until the
youthful Pharaoh Ahmose initiated the final campaign to oust
the Hyksos and recapture Avaris. This would lead ultimately to
the establishment of the Egyptian Empire in the Levant.
The story of the victory over the Hyksos is brought to life in the
tomb inscriptions of two Egyptian soldiers, Ahmose Sa-Ebana
65
and Ahmose Pen-Nekheb, who fought in the campaign and went
on to serve in later campaigns in the Levant. Ahmose Sa-Ebana
tells us, “I spent my youth in the town of Nekheb (El Kab), my
father being an officer of the king Sekenenra. Then I served as
an officer in his stead in the ship ‘The Offering’ in the time of
Ahmose, while I was young, not yet having taken a wife and
while I slept in a hammock of net. Then after I founded a
household I was transferred to the northern fleet because of my
valour.” He distinguished himself in many actions and won
several awards for bravery: “When we besieged Avaris I displayed
valour on foot before His Majesty and was appointed to the ship
‘Shining in Memphis’.” There was much fighting as Avaris was
surrounded: “We fought on the canal of Padjedku at Avaris and
there I fought hand-to-hand and I brought away a ‘hand’ which
was reported to the royal herald and they gave me the ‘gold of
valour’.” This is a reference to cutting off the hands of slain
enemies which the soldiers brought in as trophies to be swapped
for rewards. In another action, “we fought within Egypt to the
south of that city, where I brought away a living captive, a man. I
dived into the water to take him.” Ahmose had now served as a
marine, as the Pharaoh’s chariot runner and in his bodyguard.
Then “we captured Avaris and I took captives which they gave to
me as slaves” and the army followed up the retreating Hyksos
into Canaan where “we besieged Sharuhen for six years and
took it. Then they gave me the gold of bravery as well as slaves.”
With the Hyksos defeated, Ahmose had to deal with Kush and
also rebel provincial nobles and supporters of the Hyksos: “Now
after His Majesty had defeated the Hyksos he went upriver to
Khenthennefer to destroy the Nubians and made great slaughter
among them.” Then “there came an enemy of the South, his fate
and doom approached, the gods of the South seized him and
His Majesty found him in Tynt-Ta-Amu and carried him off as a
prisoner and all his tribe. I carried away archers captured aboard
an enemy ship and they gave to me five slaves and a grant of
land in my city. It was done for all the other sailors as well.”
Next “came that defeated one named Tety-An. He had gathered
to himself rebels, but His Majesty slew him and his followers,
annihilating them!” Ahmose, now a tough veteran, continued
to serve later Pharaohs and reached the furthest extent of
Egyptian arms: “In Naharin, I was at the head of our troops and
His Majesty saw my bravery when I brought away a chariot, its
horses, and he who was upon it.”
His comrade in arms, Ahmose Pen-Nekheb, tells us: “I followed
the kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, the gods, and I was with
them when they went to the south and north country in every
place where they went, Ahmose, Amunhotep I, Thutmose I and
Thutmose II, until I gained a good old age having had a life of
royal favour in the time of Thutmose III.” He was also there at
the furthest reach of the new empire: “I served Thutmose I in
Naharin, where I captured 21 hands, one horse and one
chariot.” Later “I followed Thutmose II there
and carried off Shasu, very many living
prisoners, I did not even count them!” The
blitzkrieg success of the Egyptian conquests
following the victory over the Hyksos must be
due in part to the numerous battle-hardened
veterans making up the Egyptian army. In this
war, the Egyptian regular army of the New
Kingdom was created.
 “I shall take over the chariotry.”
This is a desert skirmish action during the Hyksos war in
Egypt. Hard pressed by the resurgent Egyptian kingdom led
by Pharaoh Kamose, the Hyksos king of Lower Egypt
attempted to get a message through to his ally the King of
Kush. Kamose had taken the fight up to the very walls of
Avaris, the Hyksos stronghold, and the Hyksos Pharaoh
Apophis was urging the Kushites to make a sudden surprise
attack on Egypt from the south, another stab in the back.
The messengers were intercepted when Kamose sent forces to
take the western desert oases and cut off the desert route
between Avaris and Kush.
The Hyksos (a name of uncertain meaning which the Hyksos
Pharaohs themselves used as a title) took over Lower Egypt in
two waves. The first were the Lesser Hyksos, notably Shesai
and Nehesy, the former made himself ruler of Lower Egypt by
seizing the capital of the region which was Hutwaret, better
known as Avaris. He probably owed his rise to a following of
Amorite or Canaanite mercenaries. At Avaris, he established
the temple of the god Sutekh. Egyptian Pharaohs continued
to rule in the south. At some point, possibly in the aftermath
of famines, plagues and repercussions from the eruption of
Santorini which destroyed the Minoan island of Thera and
devastated Minoan Crete, the Greater Hyksos turned up and
seized their opportunity to make themselves overlords of the
Lesser Hyksos. These were chariot warriors of even more
Egyptian cavalry scout (author’s collection)
66
obscure origins than the previous wave. Their first two
leaders who ruled as Pharaohs were Salatis and Khyan. Salatis
began refortifying Avaris with massive mud brick ramparts
and turned it into a chariotry base. From here the Hyksos
dominated Lower Egypt and southern Canaan, creating an
empire. The Ptolemaic Egyptian historian Manetho put these
events in the time of Pharaoh “Dudimose, in his reign, for
what reason I know not, unexpectedly, from regions of the
east, invaders of obscure race marched, confident of victory,
against our land. They easily seized it.” This may actually have
been the moment when the Hyksos took Memphis, the
capital of all Egypt. The Pharaohs of Upper Egypt were now
confined between the Hyksos to the north and hostile Kush
to the south. The Hyksos quickly secured the western oases
so as to communicate with their Kushite allies.
After initial raids into Upper Egypt, the situation settled
down and a new dynasty ruled in Thebes as recorded in the
Papyrus Sallier: “… and king Sekenenra was at that time only
ruler of the southern city and Apophis was in Avaris and the
whole land paid tribute to him.” Ultimately the Hyksos
intended to dominate or even conquer the South, perhaps
because the Egyptians were already making preparations to
reconquer the North. Apophis’s demands and threats
provoked Sekenenra (nicknamed ‘The Brave’) to fight the
Hyksos and he fell in battle, his mummy showing the brutal
axe wounds of the typical Hyksos weapon. His brother
Kamose, decided to take up the fight.
Kamose called a council of war as recorded in his Karnak
stele inscriptions: “His Majesty spoke thus in his palace to the
council of the great, I should like to know to what
purpose serves my strength. One ruler sits in
Avaris and another in Nubia and there sit I
between a Hyksos and a Kushite, each possesses his
slice of Egypt!” Overruling the cautious advice of
his courtiers, Kamose declared, “Your council is
wrong and I will fight the Hyksos. Men shall say of
me in Thebes, Kamose protector of Egypt!”
Kamose now made a campaign northwards down
the Nile towards Memphis and Avaris, pushing
back the Hyksos forces and mopping up any of
their Egyptian supporters among the local
provincial nobility. Kamose’s inscription gives
tactical details: “I sent a strong contingent of the
Medja ahead and I remained as rearguard in order
to surround Teti son of Pepi in the town of
Nefruisi. I did not let him escape and held off the
Hyksos.” Next he arrived at Pershak, catching the
enemy in a state of panic so that their chariotry
fled inside the town. Kamose taunted them: “Now
we have seen you turn your back, you wretches,
and my army is coming after you!” Kamose was
leading an amphibious campaign, with the
Egyptian army aboard warships from which they
landed to attack and capture key points. It would
be difficult for the Hyksos chariotry to oppose
such an advance. Kamose goes on to describe the
naval tactics: “I formed the
fleet arrayed one after
another. I put the prow of “I followed the
A New Kingdom
one at the rudder of another, king on foot pharaoh riding in
while with my bodyguard, a chariot.
flying upon the river as if a when he rode in
falcon. My own ship was at
the head.” The Hyksos ships
his chariot.”
at Memphis were captured,
then at last Kamose’s
warfleet appeared before
Avaris, which was surrounded by canals: “I sent the valiant During this action, Kamose’s task force “captured a
ship ‘The Brave’, probing towards the desert edge, the ship messenger of his (Apophis) above the oasis going south to
‘The Heron’ following it as if it were a kite ravaging the Kush with a papyrus despatch. On it were written these
papyrus marshes around Avaris. I saw his women upon his words of the ruler of Avaris, Apophis: ‘Do you see what Egypt
roof and peering from their windows towards the shore, like has done to me! Kamose is attacking me on my own ground
young animals from their holes, while I shouted out, ‘This is even though I had not attacked him, just like everything he
the attack! Here I am! I shall succeed! Your wish has failed has done to you. He picks out these two lands to persecute,
miserable Hyksos; behold I shall drink the wine of your my land and yours. Come north, do not falter! Behold, he
vineyard which my captives shall press out for me. I shall take his here in my land and there is no one waiting for you in
over the chariotry!’” Egypt. Behold, I will not let him go until you get here, then
we shall divide the towns of this Egypt between us!” Kamose’s
soldiers “captured it on the way and did not let it arrive.”
The bATTle
This scenario represents a very important sideshow to the
main campaign. This was Kamose’s action to seize the The ARMIeS
western desert oases and cut the route between Avaris and The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar book
Kush, thereby isolating the Hyksos from their allies to the of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Canaanite (for the
south. As Kamose tells us, “I despatched a strong brigade Hyksos) and New Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide.
which went overland to lay waste the oasis of Bahariyah while
I was in Sako, so as not to permit any rebel to be behind me.” The order of battle for each army is below.

The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle

EGYPTIAN BRIGADE HYKSOS BRIGADE

Intercept Division
• Harsekher, Egyptian General (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of Egyptian chariots with bows
• 1 small unit of Egyptian chariot runners with javelins
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian light infantry archers
Greater Hyksos Division
• Khyan, Hyksos General (Ld 8)
• 5 tiny units of Hyksos chariots with bows
• 1 small unit of chariot runners, with javelins
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers

Oasis Division Lesser Hyksos Division

• Nakht, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of Egyptian chariots with bows
• 1 small unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows
• Yakebim, Hyksos Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of Hyksos chariots with bows
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows
• 1 small unit of Tjehenu/Tjemehu Libyan skirmishers

Scout Division Scout Division

• Ameny, Egyptian Commander (Ld 8) • Kareh, Hyksos Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of scout cavalry • 1 tiny unit of scout cavalry with bows

Note: The names of the commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some real names from the records of the
Hyksos period to stand in for them and give personality to the commander figures.

67
SCeneRY And HYKSOS DEPLOYMENT ZONE
dePlOYMenT
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Egyptian
and Hyksos forces deploy
opposite each other in their
respective deployment zones.
The desert route from Avaris
via the oasis to Kush goes
diagonally across the table
from the Hyksos left hand
corner to the Egyptian left
hand corner.

The scenery is as follows:

hyksos EGYPTIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE

deployment Zone
This is open desert with sand
dunes and low hills.
Who Occupies the Oasis?
Middle Zone Before deployment both players roll a dice. If the Hyksos
This is open desert with sand dunes and low hills. In the player scores higher, he can deploy his Lesser Hyksos
middle of the zone is the oasis surrounded by palm groves, a Division occupying the oasis.
few mud brick houses, and the odd tiny field.
If the Egyptian player scores higher, he can deploy his Oasis
egyptian deployment Zone Division occupying the oasis. If the scores are equal, no one
This is open desert with sand dunes and low hills. occupies the oasis yet.

68
ObJeCTIveS
The Hyksos objective is to get a Hyksos charioteer carrying a
copy of Apophis’s papyrus letter through the Egyptians and
off the table via the road to Kush. If this message gets
through then there is a good chance that the King of Kush
will make a lightning raid on Upper Egypt while Pharaoh
Kamose and his army are engaged in fighting around Avaris.
This will force the Egyptians to retreat. Each of the Hyksos
chariots has a copy of the message or knows its content.
The Egyptian objective is to prevent any Hyksos chariots
leaving the table by this route and to hold and deny the oasis
to the enemy. Although at the outset the Egyptians do not
know about the message, they do know that the route is used
by messengers between Avaris and Kush. This line of
communication must be cut!
SPeCIAl RUleS
Egyptian chariotry and cavalry are subject to the Freshly
Raised rule because they really are novices in the use of
horses and chariots and quite probably using those recently
captured from the Hyksos enemy. During this very campaign
Kamose stormed towns along the Nile loyal to the Hyksos
king and captured horses and chariots and doubtless much
weaponry including composite bows. Egyptian Runners are
very eager to capture chariots for which they will be rewarded
in gold by the Pharaoh.

EGYPTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian light chariots with bows 4 4 2 2 4+ 4 Eager, Freshly Raised, Small unit
Egyptian light chariots with bows as tiny units 1 1 1 1 4+ 1 Eager, Freshly Raised, Tiny unit
Egyptian chariot runners – Sub unit of chariots,
3 3 2 0 6+ 4
light infantry javelinmen Eager, Small unit
Medja Nubian light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 Marauders, Marksmen
Medja Nubian skirmisher scouts with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Small unit
Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Egyptian cavalry with bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Freshly Raised, Marauders, Tiny unit

Notes. You can use Middle Kingdom or New Kingdom Egyptians or both. The Egyptian army is in transition from its Middle Kingdom
incarnation to its New Kingdom reincarnation. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

HYKSOS ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hyksos light chariots with bows 4 4 2 2 4+ 4 Marauders, Tough Fighters, Marksmen
Marauders, Tough Fighters,
Hyksos light chariots with bows as tiny units 1 1 1 1 4+ 1
Marksmen, Tiny unit
Hyksos chariot runners – Sub unit of chariots,
3 3 2 0 6+ 4
light infantry javelinmen Tough Fighters
Hyksos light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Hyksos light infantry javelinmen 5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
Hyksos skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Tjehenu/Tjemehu Libyan skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Hyksos scout cavalry, bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Marauders, Small unit

Notes. Apophis has sent his hardest, toughest and best chariot warriors on this important mission. Chariots can be a mix of early
horse types and Canaanite or Mitanni types. A lot of Hyksos infantry were like Amorites, Canaanites and Shasu and some even
like Aegean light troops. Chariots can be a mix or early horse types and Canaanite or Mitanni types. Note that variations from
the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

69
“Lo, the king of Hatti has already arrived, together with the many countries who are
supporting him … They are armed with their infantry and their chariots. They have their
weapons of war at the ready. They are more numerous than the grains of sand on the
beach. Behold, they stand equipped and ready for battle behind the old city of Kadesh.”
Interrogation of spies of the King of Hatti by Pharaoh Ramesses II

Egyptian regulars with standardised equipment are easily recognised amid their variously armed Canaanite and Syrian foes.

70
 CHARIOT EMPIRES
While the Hyksos, Hittites and Kassites were
establishing their kingdoms, the Hurrian chariot warrior
nobility were taking over in cities and kingdoms
throughout Upper Mesopotamia and the Hurrian lands
in the mountains to the north. The elite chariot
warriors were known as Maryannu, a word of Indo-
European origin meaning ‘young hero’. Chariotry were
the principle element in their armies. They were
haughty, arrogant and spent all their time training for
war. The local peasants and tribesmen provided their
infantry support. Eventually mixed Hurrian and Indo-
European chariot nobles formed the aristocracy from
Aleppo, Alalakh, Kadesh and Hazor in the west through
to Arrapkha (Nuzi) in the east. These regions joined
together in an empire under the rule of the kings of
Mitanni. The kingdom of Ashur, later to rise as Assyria,
was surrounded and became a vassal state of the
Mitannian king. As Mitannian territory expanded,
regions of eastern and southern Anatolia were
conquered from the Hittite kingdom or became vassal
states of Mitanni as did parts of Phoenicia. This created
a long standing hostility and rivalry between the Hittites
and Mitanni.
In Egypt, the Pharaohs hanging on to Upper Egypt
began to fight back against the Hyksos, eventually
driving them out and re-uniting the country under
Pharaoh Ahmose I. During the war, the Egyptians
learned chariot warfare, re-armed their infantry with
composite bows and organised a strong and effective
army based on good organisation and well trained
infantry. With this army the Pharaohs of the New
Kingdom, notably Thutmose III, conquered a vast
empire stretching from deep in Africa to the River
Euphrates. The Canaanite city states were vanquished
and became vassal kingdoms. Approaching the
Euphrates the Pharaohs engage in battle with the forces
of Mitanni and initially defeated them. Eventually,
reaching a stalemate in the region between the
Euphrates and Orontes, the Pharaoh and the King of
Mitanni made peace and entered into an alliance.
Meanwhile the Hittite kingdom had been hard pressed
from all sides, fighting off the Hurrians, the Kaska tribes
and west Anatolian kingdoms such as Arzawa. Here they
encountered Achaean adventurers coming from far off
Greece, where chariot nobles ruled in many small
kingdoms which sometimes acted together under an
overking. Through hard fighting the Hittites won back
territory and their armed forces became stronger,
especially in chariotry and tough infantry. When the
great conqueror Suppiluliuma I gained the throne of
Hatti, he was ready to take on Tushratta, king of
71
Mitanni. Initially Mitanni seemed to be able to defend
itself, but the Hittite king invaded the empire from the
north and sacked the Mitannian capital. Then he
marched out to the west, straight through the kingdom
of Kadesh, which the Egyptians regarded as in their
sphere of influence. As Egypt was in the midst of
religious revolution under Pharaoh Akhenaten, little
help was forthcoming for their allies, whether Mitanni
or Canaanite city states menaced by Habiru bandits
from the hills. In another two campaigns the Hittites
broke the power of Mitanni, backed their own
Mitannian pretender to the throne and eventually
annexed the region of Carchemish which was placed
under the rule of a Hittite viceroy. The Assyrians seized
the opportunity to shake off Mitannian rule and went
on to conquer and annex the eastern half of Mitanni.
This soon brought them into direct confrontation with
the Hittites and Kassites.
A new dynasty of Pharaohs in Egypt, men from an army
background, determined to regain Egyptian prestige and
territory lost to the Hittites. Initial attempts to form an
alliance had gone wrong and a state of hostilities
prevailed between the two empires. The main area of
contested ground was the city state of Kadesh. Here the
mighty armies of Ramesses II of Egypt and Muwatalli of
Hatti clashed in the greatest chariot battle of the Bronze
Age. Egypt was rebuffed and after further fighting both
sides made a firm and long lasting peace pact. This was
wise because new enemies loomed on every horizon for
both empires. The Hittites were increasingly being
drawn into the conflicts in western Anatolia involving
the Achaeans, the Kaska and Lukka pirates. At one time
the Hittites made an alliance with the Kingdom of Troy.
In the east, the Hittites were under pressure from
Assyria leading to the battle of Nihriya, a chariot battle
fought in the border highlands. To the south, the
Kassite kingdom was encountering Assyria incursions
and intervention. The scene was set for the final act in
the drama of the Bronze Age.
 “Shall our advance guard be fighting
while our rearguard is yet standing
yonder in Aruna not having fought?”
the countries of the Kharu (Hurrians) and the Kedu (Cilicia)
with their chariotry and their infantry to fight His Majesty at
Megiddo.” The various approaches to Megiddo were
discussed, then the Pharaoh put forward his own daring
plan: to go straight over the hills by the Aruna pass and
appear where the enemy would not be expecting them.

The officers reacted with dismay: “How can we go along this

This is a big chariot clash between the Egyptian army of
Thutmose III, regarded as Egypt’s greatest general and the
mighty coalition of Canaanite city states led by the Prince of
Kadesh, planning to resurrect the Hyksos Empire with
Mitannian help. Pharaoh Ahmose I had vanquished the
Hyksos, captured Avaris, reunited Egypt and founded the
18th Dynasty, the New Kingdom and the Egyptian Empire.
His army pursued the Hyksos into Canaan and captured
their stronghold of Sharuhen. These victories had been
followed up by conquests in Nubia. Amunhotep I and
Thutmose I extended the conquests and the latter pushed on
until his army had crossed the Euphrates and battled against
the Mitanni in their own land. With Egypt secure and
respected, his daughter Queen Hatshepsut was able to focus
her attentions on rebuilding within Egypt.
When Thutmose III succeeded to the throne in his own
right, he was faced with a new and menacing situation in
Canaan as his Karnak Annals tell us: “Now it happened that
the people from Sharuhen to Yeraza and even to the marshes
of the Euphrates had begun to rebel.” This is rather an
understatement since all the Canaanite city states tributary to
Egypt had joined forces in a confederation under the
leadership of the King of Kadesh. They had been encouraged
and assisted by the King of Mitanni. Their plan was not only
to throw off Egyptian rule but even to attack Egypt and
restore the Hyksos Empire. Thutmose III led his army into
Canaan to deal with the gathering forces of the rebels.
road which threatens to be narrow, while they report that the
enemy is there waiting, holding the way against a multitude.
Will not horse come behind horse and man behind man?
Shall our advance guard be fighting while our rearguard is yet
standing yonder in Aruna not having fought? There are yet
two other roads: one road comes forth at Taanach, the other
will bring us upon the way north of Zefty. Let our victorious
lord proceed upon either road of his choice but let us not go
by a difficult road.” Thutmose replied that they could go by
the other roads if they liked, but his division was going by the
narrow road. Reluctantly they agreed to follow. Then the
Pharaoh “commanded the entire army to march upon that
narrow road, saying ‘no one shall go forth ahead of me.’ He
went forth showing the way by his own footsteps, horse
behind horse, His Majesty being at the head of the army.”
Although the pass was guarded, the enemy detachment was
swept aside in a skirmish. As the head of the long column of
Egyptian troops reached the exit of the pass into the valley, the
officers advised the Pharaoh to pause to let the rearguard catch
up: “Let our victorious lord listen to us this time! Let him
protect the rear of his army. Let the rear come forth to us in
support then they shall also fight against these foes and we
shall not have to worry about the rear of our army. His Majesty
halted and waited there guarding, the rear of his army.”
Having started early in the morning, “behold, when the front
had reached the opening upon this road it was past midday

The Canaanites intended to rely on their massed force of

chariots. These were crewed by the chariot warrior aristocracy
known as the Maryannu. Many of these were of Hurrian or
Indo-European origin and any nomadic tribes in their
domains. They were arrogant, well armed and equipped with
armoured chariots and spent all their time training for war
and honing their expertise in chariot warfare. By contrast,
the Egyptian army was still mainly reliant on massed infantry
supported by smaller numbers of lighter, faster chariots. The
Egyptians however were well trained, a unified force and
highly motivated. The Canaanite army gathered at the city of
Megiddo in the Plain of Esdraelon. Here the massed
chariotry could be unleashed against the Egyptian army as it
marched around the hills into the plain.

Appreciating the difficulty of approaching the enemy at

Megiddo, Thutmose III “ordered a council of war” and told
his assembled officers “that wretched enemy the Chief of
Kadesh has come and entered into Megiddo. He is there
now and he has gathered the chiefs of all the countries
subject to Egypt as far as Naharin (Mitanni), consisting of

72
and when His Majesty arrived south of Megiddo on the
banks of the Kina brook the seventh hour [1pm] was turning
by sundial.” The Egyptian army made camp and “command
was given to the entire army equip yourselves prepare your
weapons, for we advance to fight with that wretched foe in
the morning!” Apparently the enemy were still unaware of
the Egyptian approach but the pickets were on guard, “the
watch of the army went about saying steady of heart, steady of
heart, be watchful, watchful.”
The bATTle
The next day “command was given to the entire army to
advance.” The Egyptian army was organised into three
divisions: the North, the South and the Centre
commanded by Thutmose himself. “The southern wing of
this army was on a hill south of the Kina brook, the
northern wing was northwest of Megiddo while His Majesty
was in the centre.” The Canaanite army had been deployed
facing the expected approach of the Egyptian army from the
south east around the hills and probably also had forces
facing a possible approach from the other end of the valley.
This meant that the Egyptians were about to advance
against the junction of the two enemy divisions, which were
probably hastily trying to redeploy and getting confused.
Ahead of the Egyptians was the enemy camp before the
walls of Megiddo.
The Egyptian army attacked along its entire front, with
Pharaoh leading the charge. After a brisk engagement the
enemy “fled headlong to Megiddo in fear, abandoning their
horses and their chariots.” The Jebel Barkal stele inscription
gives another description of the battle: “Mounted on their
chariots were 330 chiefs, each with his own army. Behold
they were in the Kina valley, ready at the narrow pass, but
good fortune was with me where they were concerned, for
Maryanna chariot warriors have speed, mobility and can shoot on all sides, but don’t get too close to those Egyptian archers!
73
when my majesty charged them they fled at once, falling over
one another in their haste to enter Megiddo.”
The gates of the city were shut and barred and the
inhabitants were watching from the walls as their troops fled
back to the city with the Egyptians in pursuit. Then the
people on the walls tied their own clothes together into
makeshift ropes to rescue their men. They “hauled them up,
pulling them by their clothing into the city, the people
having closed the gates. Now if only the army of His Majesty
had not given up their hearts to plundering the things of the
enemy they would have captured Megiddo at this very
moment when the wretched foes of Kadesh and Megiddo
were being hauled up in haste into the city!”
Yes, the Egyptian army was busy plundering the enemy
camp instead of capturing the fugitive chariot lords! As the
annals tell us, “then were captured their horses and
chariots. Their champions lay stretched out like fish on the
ground.” (The scale armour of the slain looked like fish
scales.) Pharaoh rebuked his soldiers: “Had you captured
this city I would have give even greater rewards this day,
because every chief of every rebel country is within it and
thus it is the capture of a thousand cities!” With the great
number of enemy leaders cooped up in Megiddo, the
Egyptian army settled down for a long siege. “Now all that
His Majesty did to that city and to that foe and his wretched
army was recorded each day upon a roll of leather which is
kept in the temple of Amun to this day.” Among the booty
captured at the battle and listed in the Egyptian records
were 340 prisoners of war, 2041 mares (chariot horses) a
total of 924 chariots including “a beautiful chariot wrought
with gold belonging to the chief of Megiddo,” 200 hauberks
of bronze scale armour, 502 bows as well as 1929 cattle,
2,000 sheep and 20,500 goats which were the food supply
of the enemy army.
 FURTHER CAMPAIGNS OF THUTMOSE III
The subsequent capture of Megiddo was the crowning
victory of Thutmose III’s first campaign. There were
many more campaigns (one every year) to follow. They
are recorded in the Pharaoh’s annals at the temple of
Karnak, on stelae and in the tomb biographies of his
commanders, such as Amenemhab. Not every campaign
required hard fighting; sometimes the Pharaoh just
received submission and tribute.
On the second campaign, Thutmose received the tribute
of far off Assyria and Babylon, diplomatic gifts
acknowledging the pharaoh’s great victory and the
appearance of Egypt as a great power. On the third
campaign, the Pharaoh began collecting plants and
animals of Syria to bring back to Thebes for his
botanical gardens and menagerie at Karnak. The record
of the fourth campaign is missing. On the fifth
campaign Thutmose pushed north into Phoenicia and
captured the Phoenician port cities. Phoenician ships
were captured and the Pharaoh returned to Egypt by sea.
On the sixth campaign the Egyptian army went by sea
and landed at Simyra, which would become the
Egyptian base on the coast and marched inland to reach
Kadesh, which was captured. On the seventh campaign,
further cities in Phoenicia were taken. These campaigns
were preparation for the Pharaoh’s intended push to the
Euphrates to confront the kingdom of Mitanni.
On the eighth campaign the soldier Amenemhab was
the Pharaoh’s personal chariot runner “he desired that I
should be the companion of his feet while he was upon
the battlefield.” Amenemhab records three battles
against the main Mitannian army on the advance to the
Euphrates: the Battle of Naharin, the Battle of the
Heights of Wan – fought to the west of Aleppo – and
the Battle of Carchemish. Amenemhab captured enemy
warriors in all three battles (13 at the Heights of Wan).
The Jebel Barkal stela describes how the Egyptian army
crossed the Euphrates to invade Mitanni: “Now when
my Majesty crossed over to the marshes of Asia, I had
many ships constructed of cedar upon the mountains …
in the vicinity of the lady [goddess] of Byblos and placed
74
upon wagons with oxen drawing them. They travelled in
the van to ferry my army across that great river which
flows between this country and Naharin.” At this point
in the inscription the scribe was overcome with patriotic
pride and inserted this comment: “A king indeed to be
boasted of for the prowess of his arms in battle, one who
crosses the great bender in pursuit of him who attacked
him at the head of his army, seeking that vile doomed
one throughout the lands of Mitanni but he fled before
His Majesty to another land, a distant place, through
fear!” Thutmose III’s annals are quite restrained by
Pharaonic standards but here is a clear indication that
the Mitannian king was utterly vanquished in his own
land. There followed more tribute from Naharin
(Mitanni), Babylon and also from the Hittites, who were
pleased to see Mitanni being humbled but no doubt
also alarmed at the Egyptian successes. The Pharaoh
went on to hunt elephants which roamed in the
“Wilderness of Niy.”
On the ninth campaign to secure Phoenicia, the island
of Cyprus offered tribute. Meanwhile the region of
Naharin rebelled, gathered a huge army led by the
Mitannian king and prepared to resist Egypt. On the
tenth campaign, the Pharaoh advanced to meet them
resulting in the battle of Senzar near Hamath on the
Orontes, ending in another Egyptian victory and the
capture of chariots and armour. The eleventh and
twelfth campaign records are missing. The objective of
the thirteenth campaign was to further secure Phoenicia
and the tribute of Alalakh, an important ally of Mitanni
was received. The fourteenth campaign was again
directed to Phoenicia with a detour to defeat the Shasu
nomads along the eastern margins of the Egyptian
empire in the Levant. Details of the fifteenth and
sixteenth campaigns are sketchy but involved further
efforts to secure Phoenician inland cities.
On his seventeenth and last campaign, Thutmose was
confronted by the rebellion of his main enemies the
King of Kadesh, supported by his Mitannian ally. At the
battle before the city of Kadesh, Amenemhab
distinguished himself when the enemy released a mare
to disrupt the Egyptian chariotry (drawn by stallions).
Amenemhab rushed out and slew the mare, thwarting
the enemy’s cunning plan. The battle was followed by
the assault on Kadesh in which Thutmose “sent forth
every valiant man to pierce the wall for the first time. I
was the one who pierced it being first of all the valiant.”
The ‘valiant’ refers to the Kenyt-Nesu or ‘King’s Braves’
an elite unit of Royal bodyguard infantry. Amenemhab
captured two Maryannu in this action. Amenemhab
was decorated with the “Gold of Valour.”
The ARMIeS
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Canaanite,
Mitanni and New Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide.
The Egyptians referred to the entire Levant as ‘Retennu’ and
although it is usual now to refer to the city states as
Canaanites this term seems to have been used by the
Egyptians for the coastal cities. Naharin refers to the western
parts of the Mitannian Empire and her ‘Syrian’ ally city states
(not yet called Syria at this time). The Hurrians are the Kharu
who were a significant element of the population and the
ruling chariot nobility in most of the city states of the region
and the Kingdom of Mitanni. The order of battle for each
army is below.

The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle

EGYPTIAN ARMY CANAANITE (RETENNU) ARMY

Centre Division
• Pharaoh Thutmose III, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Egyptian light chariots
• 1 unit of Egyptian light infantry chariot runners
• 1 unit of Egyptian Royal Guard medium infantry
axemen/swordsmen (Kenyt-Nesu ‘King’s Braves’)
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows
Right Wing (Vanguard) Division
• Thuti, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian light chariots
• 1 unit of Egyptian light infantry chariot runners
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows
King of Kadesh’s Naharin Division
• King of Kadesh, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Hurrian Maryannu light chariots
• 2 units of Canaanite light chariots
• 3 small units of light infantry chariot runners
• 1 unit Hupshu light infantry
• 1 unit of Hurrian light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Megiddo/Taanach Canaanite Division
• King of Megiddo, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Canaanite Maryannu light chariots
• 2 units of Canaanite light chariots
• 3 small units of light infantry chariot runners
• 1 unit of Canaanite Guard medium infantry
• 1 unit of Canaanite medium infantry
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• Combined baggage camp.

Left Wing (Rearguard) Division Aruna Force

• Nebamun, Commander (Ld 8) (guarding the pass)
• 1 unit of Egyptian light chariots • Chief of Aruna,
• 1 unit of Egyptian light infantry chariot runners Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry axemen • 1 small unit of
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen Canaanite light
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows • 1 small unit of
Canaanite skirmishers
Scouting Force with javelins
• Intef, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of cavalry scouts

Optional Variations
The divisional structure is as it was at the battle. The three Egyptian divisions give the probably smaller Egyptian army
flexibility compared to the two divisions of the probably bigger Canaanite army. This was a significant factor in the
Egyptian victory and the reason for the surprise approach. You could increase the size of the Canaanite army, especially
with more chariots, but retain the two big divisions. The scenario begins with the Egyptians safely through the pass so
the skirmish at Aruna is over, but the Aruna force is listed should you want to include the approach march or assume
that some of them got away to make themselves useful in the main battle.
Note: The Egyptian commanders named were at the battle or probably there. Thuti was the commander credited with
the taking of Joppa by hiding a ‘commando’ detachment in sacks on a supply wagon going into the town, whereupon
they emerged to overpower the guards and open the gates. Nebamun was actually commander of the fleet, so had much
to do in later campaigns. Intef was a Royal ‘herald’ whose task was to proceed ahead of the army. These two may not
have been the division commanders at the battle, but were probably present in the army. Egyptian records do not name
the enemy leaders.

75
SCeneRY And CANAANITE
dePlOYMenT DEPLOYMENT ZONE
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Egyptian and
Canaanite forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective
deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Canaanite
deployment Zone
This is open level ground,
pasture with a few fields here
and there. Directly behind the
Canaanite deployment zone is
the ‘Tell’ (hill) on which the EGYPTIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
walled city of Megiddo stands.
The gateway is behind the
centre of the deployment zone
and directly in front is the Canaanite baggage camp. ObJeCTIveS
The Canaanite divisions are deployed to either side of the The objective of each army is to break the other.
camp, so that the two commands meet in front of the
camp. At least one chariot unit in each division is
deployed as if expecting the enemy to arrive from the SPeCIAl RUleS
immediate flank. Any Egyptian troops reaching the Canaanite baggage camp
will forget their orders and start looting and plundering. As
Middle Zone far as they are concerned the battle is won!
This is open level pasture with a few fields. Between this
zone and the Egyptian deployment zone runs the Kina brook
which is entirely fordable.

egyptian deployment Zone “They fled headlong to Megiddo

The Egyptian battle line deploys on low hills. Behind the in fear, abandoning their horses and
centre of the zone is the entrance to the Aruna pass.
their chariots.”

Egyptians pursue fleeing Canaanites back to Megiddo.

76
 EGYPTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian medium infantry Guard Brave, Valiant,
7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6
(Braves of the King) with swords Tough Fighters
Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Egyptian light chariots with bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Eager
Egyptian chariot runners – Sub unit of chariots,
3 2 2 0 6+ 4
light infantry javelinmen Small unit, Eager
Nubian Medja skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Egyptian cavalry with bows 4 2 1 1 6+ 4 Marauders, Tiny unit

Notes. We are still too early to include many of the auxiliary troops available to the Egyptians later, after they won their empire.
Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

CANAANITE ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Canaanite medium infantry Guard spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Canaanite medium infantry
6 6 3 3 5+ 6 –
with javelins and bows
Canaanite Maryannu light chariots
8 6 2 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
with spears and bows
Canaanite light chariots with javelins and bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 –
Hurrian Maryannu light chariots
7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
with spears, javelins and bows
Chariot runners – light infantry javelinmen 3 2 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Hupshu light infantry with javelins and bows 4 4 2 2 0 4 Levy
Hurrian or Syrian light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

MYTHS OF ARMAGEDDON

Although the first Battle of Megiddo does not appear in
the Old Testament, the second battle does. This was
fought in 610 BC between the Egyptian army of Necho
II and the Judean army of Josiah, who was attempting
to block the Egyptians who were on their way to
support the remnants of the Assyrian army at Harran.
Josiah was slain with an arrow and his army was
defeated. Megiddo became legendary as the site of
decisive battles and passed into folklore as the
apocryphal Armageddon. There is a tale that in World
War One, T.E. Lawrence (’Lawrence of Arabia’) who
had been an archaeologist in this region before the war,
gave General Allenby a copy of Breasted’s Ancient
Records of Egypt (one of the main sources for this book)
and referred him to Pharaoh Thutmose’s strategy at
Megiddo. Soon afterwards, Allenby, commanding
British Imperial forces, defeated the Ottoman Turkish
forces at Megiddo in 1917.

77
 “His Majesty raised his hand to
shield his eyes from the sun’s glare
and spotted a band of Asiatic
horsemen galloping towards him…”
This is an encounter between two opposing mainly chariot
vanguards, the vanguard of the Egyptian army of
Amunhotep II pushing across the River Orontes and the
vanguard of the Mitannian army, contesting the Egyptian
advance to the Euphrates. Amunhotep was the son and
successor of the great conqueror Thutmose III and his
father’s achievement was a tough act to follow. The new
Pharaoh was confronted with a rebellion in Upper Retennu
which he crushed and when the Pharaoh’s warship returned
to Egypt and sailed up the Nile in triumph the executed
rebel princes were hanging upside down from the prow. The
resurgent kingdom of Mitanni was to prove much harder to
deal with. Saushtatar, king of Mitanni, had extended his
power in the region. Assyria was now a subject kingdom
rendering tribute, as was the kingdom of Kizzuwatna (Kedy)
in Anatolia. The frontiers of the Hittite kingdom had been
thrown back and their earlier conquests had fallen to the
Hurrians. King Idrimi had regained his throne in Alalakh,
having previously fled a palace coup with only his chariot
and joined the Habiru bandits. With their help he
recaptured Alalakh, became an ally of the king of Mitanni
and went on to make deep raids into Hittite territory.
Egyptian claims to the region west of the Euphrates were
now to be contested by Mitanni.
On the eastern front of the Mitannian Empire was the city
of Arrapkha (Nuzi) where an archive of cuneiform clay
tablets was found which reveal much about all aspects of
chariot warfare, equipment and the military organisation of
Mitanni. The detailed inventories of chariot warriors’
armour, horse armour and other equipment complements
the detailed depictions of Hurrian Maryannu chariot
warriors on the decorated chariot cab from the tomb of
Pharaoh Thutmose IV. They were very well armoured
indeed: a scale hauberk was called a sariam and the full war
gear including helmet (girpisu) was called the Tarkamazi
New Kingdom Egyptian guards
78
(battle panoply.) There was almost continuous fighting
against the kingdom of Ashur (Assyria), especially chariot
skirmishes. Losses were sometimes heavy in these brisk and
violent encounters. At the Battle of Zizza, of 58 chariots of
the left wing of the Arrapkhan army, only 24 returned. The
other 34 were lost in battle. Scribes recorded all the
personnel and equipment left on the battlefield including
“101 infantry of the left wing who did not come back from
the town of Zizza.” Another roster lists the names of those
“who are not coming back, when the chariots did battle at
the town of Sillya.” Other records tell us that Kalteshub was
a commander of 50 chariots (Rab Khansha). This unit was
made up of five squadrons of ten chariots with two crewmen
to each. The chariots were supported by companies of 200
infantry. Kalteshub actually commanded about 1,000
warriors in total, raised from a military district of the
Kingdom of Arrapkha, a sub-kingdom of Mitanni.
The bATTle
When Amunhotep arrived with the vanguard of his army at
the Orontes on his second campaign, the region beyond – up
to the Euphrates – was hostile territory. Amunhotep’s Karnak
stele inscription reports what happened on the 26th day of
the 1st month of the 3rd season in regnal year 2: “His Majesty
crossed over the ford of the Orontes on this day. He raised his
hand to shield his eyes from the sun’s glare in order to scan
the horizon and spotted a few ‘Asiatics’ (Setjetjyu) on horses
coming on at the gallop. His Majesty was equipped with his
weapons of battle and conquered behind the might of Set.”
The Pharaoh led an impetuous charge against the enemy who
were observing the crossing of the river Orontes from the hills
on the far side and they made a hasty retreat. Amunhotep
managed to catch up with one of the Maryannu chariot
warriors and engage him in a close combat chariot duel. “His
Majesty himself overthrew their chief with his javelin; behold,
he captured the Asiatic, his horses, his chariot and all his
weapons of battle!” As diligently noted by the military scribe:
“Captured: two horses, chariot, coat of scale, two bows, quiver
full of arrows, scale hauberk.”
The ARMIeS
The opposing forces can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Mitanni and
New Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide. The following is
the order of battle for each vanguard.
“These are the names of the chariot
warriors who did not come back from
the battle…”
Nuzi archives
 The ARMIeS – ORdeRS Of bATTle

EGYPTIAN VANGUARD MITANNIAN VANGUARD

Vanguard Division Vanguard Division
• Amunhotep II, Pharaoh of Egypt, General (Ld 8) • Kelteshub, Mitanni General (Ld 8)
• 3 units of Egyptian light chariots • 1 unit of elite Maryannu light chariots (Arrapkhans)
• 3 small units of Egyptian chariot runners • 1 unit of Hurrian Maryannu light chariots
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry marines • 1 unit of Syrian light chariots
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows • 3 small units of chariot runners

Scouting Division Scout Cavalry Division

• Mahu, Egyptian Commander (Ld 8) • Kirta, Mitanni Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of Egyptian cavalry scouts • 1 tiny unit of Hurrian cavalry scouts

Optional Variations
You can split the vanguards into two smaller divisions to give greater tactical flexibility.
Note: I have imagined Kelteshub being summoned from the eastern front over to the west to deal with the Egyptian threat
and give personality to the Mitannian general. Other names are picked from contemporary records. There are plenty of
warriors named in the Nuzi archives.

SCeneRY And dePlOYMenT Mitannian deployment Zone

Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up the This is the same kind of ground as the middle zone and also
Scenario. The Egyptian and Mitannian vanguards deploy has several gently sloping low hills within it.
opposite each other in their respective deployment zones.
The Mitannian vanguard deploys on or among these,
The scenery is as follows: making use of dead ground and the ridges ahead to
conceal their presence from the Egyptians. Tiny units of
egyptian deployment Zone Mitannian cavalry scouts, commanders in chariots, and
The river Orontes divides the Egyptian deployment zone small units of chariot runners can be deployed up to 12"
from the middle zone. The river is fordable along its entire forward into the middle zone where they can observe the
length due to dry weather in summer and because the Egyptians. These are the scouts that the Pharaoh catches
Egyptian scouts have found a fordable stretch for their sight of.
vanguard to cross over. There are
patches of scrub along both
banks of the river.
EGYPTIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
The Egyptian vanguard deploys
on the level ground behind the
river ready to cross.

Middle Zone
This is open ground, rough
pasture and steppe with a ridge
of gently sloping low hills
stretching from one flank to the
other, overlooking the river.
There are a few small patches of
scrub and open woodland.

M ITANNIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE

79
ObJeCTIveS
The Egyptian objective is to get their entire vanguard across the
river Orontes and rout the Mitannians from the field. The
Mitannian objective is to rout all the Egyptians back across the
Orontes, destroying or capturing any who can’t make it back.
The Mitannians are under a directive from their king not to
pursue the enemy across the Orontes into Egyptian territory
(to avoid unnecessary loss of chariots, not out of respect for the
frontier!). In the actual battle, the Egyptians crossed the river
but thought better of pushing on to the Euphrates and instead
returned by way of the ‘Wilderness of Niy’.
SPeCIAl RUleS
One elite unit of Mitannian Maryannu chariotry has come
all the way from Arrapkha in the eastern region of Mitanni,
known as Hanigalbat. The chariot force of this province is
recorded in detail in the Nuzi archive. These records reveal
not only the amazing heavily armoured chariotry and the
staggering rate of attrition in actions against Assyria, but also
a chariot formation which the translators interpreted as a
kind of wedge. They are right, but it should not be regarded
as like the later cavalry wedge of classical times, but rather
like an open order arrowhead formation (as might be
adopted by armoured cars or light tanks). The main
advantage being that the formation maximises its shooting
arc and cannot be outflanked or enfiladed as it might be if in
line abreast. Clearly you need open terrain for such tactics.
Thus this unit can have a special rule of Wedge Formation if
you wish. It is clear from the records that all the chariot
WARRIOR PHARAOH
Pharaoh Amunhotep II was brought up by his father to
be a warrior pharaoh. He was also quite an athlete,
horseman and archer, who was buried with his bow in his
sarcophagus. His exploits were recorded on his Sphinx
Stela at Giza: “He knew all the arts of war and had no
equal on the battlefield. He knew horses and there was
not anyone like him in the entire army. Not one among
them could draw his bow and he could not be matched at
running!” It goes on to say that “he drew 300 strong
bows, to compare the workmanship of the craftsmen.”
Then it reports that he mounted his chariot for a training
exercise and “found set up for him four targets of Asiatic
copper of one palm in thickness with a distance of 20
cubits between one post and the next.” Amunhotep
“drew his bow while holding four arrows together in his
fist. Thus he rode forward, shooting at the targets, each
arrow coming out at the back of the target while he
attacked the next post! It was a feat never yet done or even
heard about! Shooting an arrow at a copper target so that
it went through and dropped to the ground!”
The stele tells us that when he was still a youth he
loved his horses and rejoiced in them. He was stout
80
warriors in the unit trained together (the officers are named)
and knew exactly where they would deploy in the formation,
which means that enemy or other units observing this tactic
cannot just suddenly copy it. The idea does not seem to have
been copied or survived, so perhaps it was effective enough to
enable the unit to break through in one battle but end up in
a tricky situation from which they could not disengage. The
Nuzi archive records a battle in which more than half the left
wing chariotry was wiped out and failed to return, all
personnel and expensive equipment being lost.
The clay tablet is known as JEN 612. Here is the order of battle
of the unit: one chariot of Sharteshup (leading, Rab Khansa
unit commander of 50), one chariot of Kelteshup (on flank of
leader), one chariot of Tarmitilla (on flank of leader), five
chariots of Shekiartilla, six chariots of Tulipapu, seven chariots
of Kurmishenni, eight chariots of Nanteshup, nine chariots of
Halpsharri, twelve chariots of Tarmiptashenni. Total 50
chariots. Thus the unit is in six successive lines with three
officers leading. Any enemy chariots meeting it head on and
interpenetrating would be engaged by successive waves of
chariot warriors! We should imagine successive lines of well
spaced out chariots and the formation is intended to push
through between enemy units, especially other chariots and
light troops, rather than break into solid blocks of infantry.
Although this is presented here as a one-off special tactic (to
spare the sanity of wargamers) for all we know this could be a
frequent and usual chariot tactic. Ultimately there were many
variations of chariot tactics in antiquity and lots of variant
designs of chariots (rather like tanks or for that matter, cavalry,
really!) Charioteering was the obsession of the chariot nobles!
hearted in working them, learning their natures and
skilled in training them and understanding their ways.
Observing this, his father, Thutmose III, had said, “Let
him be given the very best horses from my stable in
Memphis and tell him look after them, trot them and
manage them if they resist.” The young prince “raised
horses that were unequalled. They did not tire when
he held the reigns nor did they drip sweat in the
gallop. He would yoke them with the harness at
Memphis and would stop at the resting place at Giza,
where he spent time there leading them around and
viewing the resting places of kings Khufu and Khafra
(the Pyramids of Giza).
When Amunhotep succeeded to the throne he
remembered the heroic service rendered to his father by
Amenemhab, as he tells us in his tomb inscription:
“I was summoned to the palace so that I should stand
before the king. He said to me ‘I know your character.
I was a child while you were in the following of my
father. I hereby commission you with the office that you
shall be Deputy of the Army as I have said, and oversee
the elite troops of the king!’”
 In landscape that favours chariots, infantry are in real trouble.

EGYPTIAN VANGUARD TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian medium infantry marines
7 6 3 3 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
with mixed javelins, bows and axes
Egyptian light chariots with javelins and bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Eager
Egyptian chariot runners – Sub unit of chariots,
3 2 2 0 6+ 4
light infantry javelinmen Small unit
Nubian Medja skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Egyptian cavalry with bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Marauders, Tiny unit

Notes. With the Phoenician ports under Egyptian control, troops can arrive directly to the war zone by sea which makes Egyptian
Marines available to lead the offensive and use their skills in crossing the Orontes and Euphrates. Note that variations from the Hail
Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

MITANNIAN VANGUARD TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Retennu (Syrian) light chariots
6 6 3 3 4+ 6 –
with javelins and bows
Hurrian Maryannu light chariots
7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
with spears, javelins and bows
Maryannu of Arrapkha (Nuzi) Wedge Formation,
8 6 2 2 4+ 6
elite chariots with spears, javelins and bows Tough Fighters, Stubborn
Chariot runners – light infantry javelinmen 3 2 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Hurrian scout cavalry, bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Marauders, Tiny unit

Notes. Note that this Mitanni force is entirely chariots, horsemen and chariot runners. The Arrapkhans are an elite unit using their
own special tactic, not long after this time they probably ceased to exist, wiped out in battle against Assyria. You can only have one
such unit. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

81
 “Attarsiya the man of Ahhiya came
and sought to kill you, Madduwatta…”
This is one of the first clashes between the Hittite Empire
and the Achaeans of Bronze Age Greece. After years of
scholarly debate, it is now widely recognised that the land of
Akhiya or Akhiyawa mentioned in the Hittite archives refers
to the Achaeans of Bronze Age Greece. The various Achaean
kingdoms, although sometimes at odds with each other, also
combined under the leadership of an overlord; often this was
the king of Mycenae. The Achaeans had colonies and
outposts on the Aegean coast of Anatolia, such as
Millawanda (Miletus) and adventurous Achaean warlords
regarded Anatolia as a land of opportunity. This brought
them into conflict with both the Hittite Empire and with the
powerful kingdom of Wilusiya (Ilion/Troy) leading ultimately
to the Trojan War.
In the time of the Hittite king Tudhaliya I, several western
Anatolian kingdoms joined forces to oppose the Hittites
including Wilusiya and Taruisha (Ilion and Troy). They are
known as the league of Assuwa (possibly the origin of the
geographical name ‘Asia’). Tudaliya defeated them in a big
battle. “These lands with their warriors assembled and drew
up their army opposite me” – at which Tudhaliya “brought
up my forces at night and surrounded the army of the enemy
and I defeated the enemy army.” He goes on to say in his
annals, “Now when I had destroyed the land of Assuwa, I
came back to Hattusa and as booty 10,000 infantry and 600
chariots, together with their ‘Lords of the Bridle’, I brought
to Hattusa and I settled them in Hattusa.” The array of tiny
You’re supposed to be on our side Madduwatta!
82
kingdoms and city-states in western Anatolia would soon be
united into the Kingdom of Arzawa, which would sometimes
rival Hatti as the regional great power, leading to several wars
between them.
Into this confused aftermath of the break up of Assuwa came
the fleeing warlord Madduwatta with his household and
retinue of infantry and chariotry. The records relating to these
events have been recently redated to this time from the later
reign of Tudhaliya IV. Madduwatta was hotly pursued by a
force of 100 chariots led by Attarsiya, a ‘man of Akhiya’, who
was intent on catching up with him and killing him. As yet we
don’t know where Madduwatta was fleeing from, or why
Attasiya was so keen to finish him off. Madduwatta made it
across the frontier into Hittite territory and Attarsiya seems to
have halted at this point. Tudhaliya I (currently regarded as the
same as Tudhaliya III) king of the Hittites gave Madduwatta
refuge and thought he could make good use of his warband as
lord of the frontier region of Zippasla, under a strict a treaty as
a subordinate ally. Not long after this good fortune,
Madduwata started causing trouble in that region by invading
Arzawa. He was defeated and repulsed by the Arzawan king
who chased him back into Zippasla. The Hittites were still at
war with Arzawa and Tudhaliya sent Hittite forces to throw out
the enemy and restore Madduwatta to his land. This battle
scenario is based on what happened next.
THE BATTLE
Now Attarsiya of Ahhiya turned up again as Tudhaliya’s son
Arnuwanda tells us in his ‘Indictment of Madduwata’,
“Attarsiya the man of Akhiya came and sought to kill you
Madduwatta, but when my father heard this he sent Kisnapli,
with infantry and chariots to do battle against Attarsiya, but
you Madduwatta offered no resistance to him and fled before
him!” Madduwatta appears to have been a cunning,
treacherous and unreliable ally and troublemaker, seeking to
carve out a kingdom of his own. Attarsiya may have had a
real reason to deal with him from some earlier treachery.
After this battle, Madduwata’s behaviour did not improve at
all. For this battle scenario we shall assume that
Madduwatta’s contingent was facing off Attarsiya and
awaiting the arrival of the Hittite reinforcements. These may
have been delayed, causing Madduwatta to lose his nerve
when Attarsiya approached and so he fled, leaving the
Hittites to repel Attarsiya. The battle cost the Hittites one of
their commanders, Zidanza, who was killed.
Madduwata was saved but Tudhaliya ordered Kisnapli and
his troops to stay in Zippasla to control Madduwatta, who
of course plotted to get rid of them. His opportunity came
when two nearby towns, Dalawa and Hinduwa, rebelled
against the Hittites. Madduwatta suggested to general
Kisnapli that he would attack Dalawa while Kisnapli
attacked Hinduwa to prevent the rebels joining forces.
When Madduwatta got to Dalawa, instead of following the
agreed plan, he joined the rebels and ambushed the
Hittites. Kisnapli and his sub commander Partahulla were
THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE
HITTITE & ZIPPASLAN ARMY
Hittite Chariot Division
• Kisnapli, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Hittite light chariots
• 1 small unit of Hittite chariot runners –
light infantry javelinmen
• 1 unit of Hittite Guard medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
Hittite Infantry Division
• Zidanza, General (Ld 8)
• 3 units of Hittite medium infantry with long spears
• 1 Kaska highlander mercenary light infantry warband
Zippasla Division
• Madduwatta Commander (Ld 6 or more likely 5!)
• 1 unit of Anatolian light chariots
• 1 small unit of Anatolian chariot runners –
light infantry javelinmen
• 1 unit of Anatolian medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Anatolian light infantry with javelins and bows
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Optional Variations
You can reorganise the Hittite divisions or increase the number of units
on both sides if you wish.
Note: The names of the generals and most of the commanders are known.
83
slain. Strangely, the Hittite king took no reprisals on
Madduwata and probably didn’t know exactly what
happened until later. Madduwatta then made his own
alliance with Arzawa, reassuring the Hittite king that this
was really a plan to take control of Arzawa. When the land
of Khapalla attacked the Hittites, Madduwatta was directed
to deal with it, which he did, and went on to conquer part
of the Lukka lands. He refused to hand over all of these
gains to his Hittite overlord. Finally, having acquired Lukka
ships and made peace with Attarsiya, Madduwatta attacked
Alashiya, a kingdom of Cyprus in alliance with Attarsiya.
Perhaps the latter was won over by the offer of ships. This
was going too far for the new Hittite king Arnuwanda who
regarded Alashiya as under his protection and he
condemned Madduwatta. We do not know what eventually
happened to Madduwatta, the rogue warlord.
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Mycenaean
and Hittite army lists as a guide. The order of battle for each
army is below.
ACHAEAN ARMY
Ahhiyawa Division
• Attarsiya, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Eqeta light chariots, spears
• 1 unit of chariot runners, light infantry javelinmen
• 2 units of Mycenaean medium infantry with long spears
• 1 small unit of light infantry
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Anatolian Ally Division
• Kupantakurunta, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Trojan or Arzawan
medium infantry spearmen
• 1 small unit of Trojan or Arzawan
light infantry archers
• 1 Lukka mercenary medium infantry warband
• 1 small unit of skirmishers
SCENERY ANd
ACHAEAN
dEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT ZONE
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Achaean and
Hittite forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective
deployment zones. The scenery is
as follows:

Achaean
deployment Zone
This is rugged, hilly terrain with
several gently sloping low hills
and steeply sloping craggy,
forested hills.
HITTITE
Middle Zone DEPLOYMENT ZONE
This is also rugged, hilly terrain
as above but with enough open
ground for chariot action.
If Madduwatta runs away, the Achaeans will go after him and
Hittite deployment Zone attack any Hittites who are getting in their way.
This is the same kind of terrain as the other two sections.
Madduwatta’s division deploys in this zone, initially on his
own for the first turn, before the Hittites arrive. They deploy SPECIAL RULES
in this zone on their arrival in the second turn. Sorry about Madduwatta whom two Hittite kings found out
to be a total liability (and Attarsiya must have wanted to kill
him for a reason). The special rule is that the Hittite
OBJECTIVES divisions do not arrive until the second turn of the game,
The Achaean objective is to slay Madduwatta (not just rout but there is no need to roll a dice for it; they just deploy and
him). The Hittite objective is to rout the Achaean army. join in the battle.

84
 “Whoever is an enemy to the land
of Hatti is also to be regarded as an
enemy of you too, Madduwatta …
you and your troops must fight
resolutely against him!”

ACHAEAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Mycenaean medium infantry with long spears 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
Mycenaean medium infantry
6 6 3 1 5+ 6 –
with long spears and bows
Mycenaean light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 6+ 4 Small unit
Mycenaean light infantry javelinmen 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Small unit
Mycenaean Eqeta light chariots
8 6 2 0 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
with spears and javelins
Chariot runners – light infantry javelinmen 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Lukka medium infantry warband
8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Wild Fighters
with swords and javelins
Trojan/Arzawan medium infantry spearmen 8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Trojan/Arzawan light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Achaeans are Mycenaeans. At this time these are armed in the Early Mycenaean style with long spears and tower shields.
I have given Attarsiya some local Arzawan, or if you prefer Trojan, allies since his adversary has made so many enemies it would not be
difficult for Attarsiya to recruit some local assistance! Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

HITTITE ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hittite/Anatolian medium
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
infantry with long spears
Hittite Guard medium infantry with long spears 6 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Hittite light chariots with spears and javelins/bows 8 6 2 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
Anatolian light chariots with spears and javelins 8 6 2 0 4+ 6 –
Chariot runners – light infantry javelinmen 3 2 2 0 0 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Anatolian light infantry with javelins and bows 4 4 2 2 0 4 Levy
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Kaska highlander mercenary light infantry
7 6 2 1 6+ 5 Wild Fighters, Marauders
warband with mixed spears/javelins/bows

Notes. Zippaslans of Madduwatta’s own retinue and local tribesmen are described as Anatolian. We are too early for Hittite
three-man chariots. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

85
 “You report that you don’t know
where they went. So did the enemy
cast a magic spell to make
themselves invisible to you? From
now on you must be on high alert!”
In this encounter, the stealthy Kaska highlander tribal
raiders try to get through the Hittite frontier defences and
penetrate deep into the Hittite heartland. Since they first
appeared in the Hittite records around the mid Fifteenth
century BC, the Kaska tribes were a constant menace to the
Hittites. It seems probable that they were moving into
Anatolia along the Pontic coast from either the west or the
east, hence the constant pressure on the Hittite heartland.
If they came from the west, they were probably the
ancestors of the Phrygians and Mushki and had come from
Thrace via the Bosphorus, no doubt skirmishing with the
Trojans on the way. As yet they remain a mysterious people,
but they were a serious threat to the Hittite kingdom.
According to Hittite records, it was very rare for them to
A marauding warband stealthily invades enemy territory.
86
combine under the leadership of a single high chieftain, as
the Annals of Mursili II tell us: “Pihhuniyas did not rule in
the usual manner of the Kaska, because among the Kaska,
the rule of one man is not the custom, but he ruled over
them like a king.”
Apart from stealth, something else must explain their
military success. It might be knowledge of iron, allowing
more warriors to have metal weapons albeit inferior to
bronze, or horsemanship. They had chariots and were
recruited as chariot warriors by the Hittites, appearing as a
contingent at the Battle of Kadesh. Assyrian records indicate
that the Kaska were in on the final sack of the Hittite capital,
Hattusas, and the fall of the Hittite Empire. The Kaska
succeeded in sacking Hattusas on earlier occasions and even
captured and held the holy city of Nerik for a long time.
When Amunhotep III Pharaoh of Egypt heard about the
devastating Kaska raids on the Hittite homeland he thought
the Hittite Empire was finished and wrote to the King of
Arzawa proposing an alliance and even asked him to send
over some Kaska warriors! The Hittite northern frontier had
to be fortified with strongholds and watchtowers to guard
against the Kaska. In the time of Muwatalli, the Hittite king
even shifted the capital further south and appointed his
brother Hattusili (later Hattusili III) as vice-regent over the
northern marches, based at Hakpis, in order to deal with the
Kaska threat and retake territory.
THE BATTLE
At one of the frontier outpost strongholds at the site of
Masat Huyuk, despatches from the frontier garrison were “Behind my back
found, dating to the time of Tudhaliya III. One of these is the Kaska warriors took
this sarcastic reply from the king to Kashshu, the frontier
guard commander (Bel Madgalti): “Concerning your up arms, invaded the land
despatch that the enemy attacked Khabara on one side of you of Hatti and ravaged
and Kashepura on the other side, but passed through and
you report that you don’t know where they went; so did the the country.”
enemy cast a magic spell to make themselves invisible to you?
From now on you must be on high alert against the enemy!”

In this scenario, we imagine that Kashshu is stung by the

king’s scathing rebuke and anxious to retain his head or at
least not have to suffer the ritual indignity and dishonour of
having to give up his spear and shield and be handed a
mirror and distaff instead! He is determined to catch the
Kaska as they try to slip back into their own land with the
plundered herds and slaves from the Hittite country. This
will restore his prestige in the eyes of the king!
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Hittite
army list as a guide.
The order of battle for each army is below.

THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE

HITTITE FRONTIER GUARDS KASKA RAIDERS

Frontier Guard Division Chieftain’s Vanguard Division
• Kashshu, General (Ld 7) • Pihhuniyas, General (Ld 9)
• 1 small unit of Hittite medium infantry with long spears • 1 Kaska light infantry warband
• 1 tiny unit of Hittite watchtower lookouts • 1 small unit of Kaska light chariots
• 1 small unit of Hittite light chariots • 1 small unit of Kaska light infantry
• 1 small unit of Hittite light infantry javelinmen/runners • 1 small unit of Kaska skirmishers
• 1 small unit of Hittite skirmishers
Raider’s Rearguard Division
Frontier Patrol • Mita, Commander (Ld 8)
• Huzziya, Commander (Ld 8) • 2 Kaska light infantry warbands
• 1 tiny unit of Hittite light cavalry scouts • 1 small unit of Kaska light infantry
• 1 small unit of Kaska skirmishers
Reinforcement Division • Baggage with captured herds and slaves
• Hannutti, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Hittite chariots
• 1 small unit of Hittite chariot runners

Optional Variations
You could give the Kaska chariots a tiny sub unit of cavalry
with javelins, since they would have captured many horses and
may have had steppe culture aspects. Since their Pontic
homeland is exactly where the later Greeks believed the
legendary Amazons to have come from, you can include warrior
tribeswomen if you like.
Note: Apart from the Hittite general who was the frontier
commander told off by Tudhalia III, the others are gleaned from
the records and the name of the Kaska General is taken from a
later incident in the time of Mursili II when the Kaska tribes
combined under a single leader contrary to their usual custom. Hittite medium infantry with long spears

87
SCENERY ANd
dEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described
in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Hittite and Kaska
forces deploy opposite each other
in their respective zones. The
Kaska are now approaching from
behind the Hittite frontier and
are on their way back into their
own territory burdened with
plunder. The scenery is as follows:
Hittite Zone
This zone has gently sloping hills
and one or two steep, high hills
which are either forested or have
bare rocky crags. In the centre of
the zone stands the Hittite watch-
tower, built atop a craggy hill.
Middle Zone
This zone has several gently sloping low hills, one or two
steeply sloping hills surmounted by crags or forest and one or
two patches of forest. The zone is behind the Hittite frontier,
but has been depopulated by constant enemy depredations.
Kaska deployment Zone
This is hilly ground with gently sloping low hills, a ruined
village and a few recently abandoned fields.
IDRIMI REGAINS HIS THRONE (c. 1500 BC)
This story is recorded in an inscription on the statue of
Idrimi king of Alalakh. It tells of his rise to power,
having begun as a fugitive prince who joined a band of
Habiru and eventually won back his ancestral throne.
“There was a palace coup in Aleppo (Halab), our family
seat, we fled to Emar. My older brothers did not do
anything but none had the plans that I had. So I took
with me my horses, my chariot and my groom and left
for the desert and went into the land of the Sutu
nomads. Next day I moved on into the land of Canaan
and stayed in Ammia where there were people of
Halab, of Mukishkhi, of Niy, and warriors from Ama’e.
When they discovered that I was the son of their
overlord, they gathered around me. There I grew up
and stayed for a long time. For seven years I lived
among these Habiru people.
”Then I consulted omens and found that after seven
years the god Adad had become favourable to me at last.
So I built boats and had soldiers board them and went
to Mukish by sea and reached the shore below Mount
Kassu. When the locals heard, they brought provisions
there. As one man, the lands of Niy, Ama’e, Mukish and
HITTITE DEPLOYMENT ZONE
KASKA DEPLOYMENT ZONE
OBJECTIVES
The Kaska raiders’ objective is to get past
the Hittite frontier guards and get back
into their own land with their booty which
includes slaves, livestock, grain and even
sacred idols from a local temple. It would be
good for them if they could actually put the
Hittite force out of action so as to breach
the frontier for further raiding.
my city Alalakh turned to me. There my brothers joined
me. However for seven more years Parattarna, king of
the Hurrian warriors treated me as an enemy. In the
seventh year I sent Anuanda as messenger to Parattarna
and told him of the loyal service rendered by my
ancestors to the Hurrian kings and their oath of
allegiance. He read out the oath from the records to the
king. He accepted my message and I gave gifts and swore
an oath as his loyal vassal.
“And so I became king of Alalakh. I took soldiers and
went up against the Hittite land and destroyed seven
strongholds. The Hittites did not even mobilise their
troops and did not march against me; I could do what I
wanted! I took prisoners and plunder and distributed it
to soldiers, auxiliary troops, brothers, friends and I
myself took a share like theirs. Then I returned in
triumph to my land of Mukish and my city of Alalakh.”
I made a palace like other kings, guarded by my
guardsmen like their guardsmen. I made the Sutu in my
country settle in secure settlements and those that did
not want to settle, I made to do so! I placed my country
on a firm footing! I was king for 30 years. I wrote my
achievements on my statue.”
88
Thus the Kaska win if they can exit the table with their
baggage via the Hittite edge or if the Kaska force breaks the
Hittite force.

The Hittites win if the Kaska abandon their baggage with all
the plunder or they slay the Kaska general.

SPECIAL RULES
The Hittite general has despatched a swift messenger to a
chariot city further back behind the frontier zone asking for
reinforcements. Such chariot forces represent the Bronze Age
equivalent of the ‘field army’ units used by the later Romans to
back up their frontier troops. Such a request was actually sent
and the reply was brought back by the returning messenger
saying that chariots were on their way, look out for them!

In this scenario chariots are also on their way in the form of

the Reinforcements Division. It arrives on one or other side
edge or on the Kaska edge in the third turn on a roll of 6 or
in a subsequent turn on a roll of 4 or more. Sound the alarm! Raiders approaching.

HITTITE ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hittite frontier guard
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters OR Stubborn
medium infantry with long spears
Hittite light infantry
1 1 1 2 0 1 Marksmen, Tiny unit
watchtower lookouts with bows and javelins
Hittite light chariots – two crew
6 4 1 1 4+ 4 Tough Fighters, Small unit
with spears, javelins and bows
Sub unit of chariots or independent.
Hittite light infantry javelinmen/runners 3 3 2 0 6+ 4
Small unit
Hittite light cavalry scouts with bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Marauders, Tiny unit
Hittite skirmishers with slings or bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Hittite chariot values reflect their ‘guard’ status. We are still too early for Hittite 3 crew chariots. Note that variations from
the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

KASKA ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Kaska highlander light infantry
8 6 2 1 5+ 6 Eager, Wild Fighters
warband with spears and javelins
Kaska highlander light infantry
4 4 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
with mix of javelins/bows
Kaska light chariots with spears and javelins 4 3 1 0 4+ 4 Marauders, Small unit
Kaska highlander skirmisher pathfinders
3 2 2 1 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
with javelins and bows
Baggage with slaves, wagons, livestock,
1 1 1 1 0 6 –
with a few guards with spears

Notes. If you want Kaska horsemen, use the Hittite scout cavalry values and they are a sub unit of chariots. Note that variations
from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

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 “If a single lamb of my land is
plundered, I will cross over from
the east bank of the Euphrates…”
This is a mighty chariot clash between the Hittite army of
Suppiluliuma I and the Mitannian army of Tushratta. It is
the last victory of the Mitanni over their old enemy and
marks the Hittite conqueror’s first encounter with the
Mitannians whom he was destined ultimately to vanquish,
divide and rule, but only after much fighting.
Amunhotep III is on the throne of Egypt, sitting beside the
beautiful queen Tiye. The crown prince is deep in thought
contemplating religious matters. A royal scribe brings the latest
despatch to arrive at the palace and reads it out to the Pharaoh.
This letter, written in cuneiform script on a clay tablet, will one
day form part of the famous Tel El Amarna archive. It says:
“Say to Nibmuareya (Nebmaatra Amunhotep) the King of
Egypt my ‘brother’ thus says Tushratta the King of Mitanni,
your ‘brother’. For me all goes well and may all go well for
you, for your household, your wives, your sons, your lords,
your warriors, your horses, your chariots and in your
country, may all go very well! When I sat on the throne of
my father I was young and Udki had done evil to my country
having slain his lord and for this reason he would not permit
me friendship with anyone who loved me. I in turn was not
remiss about the evil deeds done in my land and so I
executed the slayers of Artasumara my (real) brother and
everyone belonging to them. Since you were friendly with my
father I have written and told you … my father gave you my
sister and who else stood with my father as you did? The very
next year … I was attacked by all the land of Hatti, but when
the enemy advanced against my country, Teshub my lord
gave him into my hand and I defeated him, there was not
one of them who returned to his own country! Herewith I
send you one chariot, two horses, one male attendant and
one female attendant from the booty of the land of Hatti. As
the greeting gift for my ‘brother’ I send you five chariots and
five teams of horses and as the greeting gift for Kelukheba my
Hurrian Maryannu
light chariots
90
sister, I send her a set of gold toggle pins, a set of gold
earrings and a scent container full of sweet oil.
P.S. I herewith send Keliya my chief minister and Tunipibri.
May my brother let them return promptly so they can report
back to me!”
What a nice polite letter from one ruler to another who are both
allies and related by marriage. What good news that the upstart
Hittites have been rebuffed! Time passes and Amunhotep joins
the gods and his son ascends the throne. He gets on with his
religious reforms and changes his name to Akhenaten. A letter
arrives from Tushratta. The Pharaoh may or may not have had it
read out to him. It says, “When my ‘brother’ Nimmureya went
to his fate it was reported here and I wept, but when they said
Napkhureya (Akhenaten) the oldest son of Nimmureya and Tiye
his principle wife, is ruling as king then I said, ‘Nimmureya is
not really dead; his eldest son is in his place and nothing
whatsoever is going to be changed from the way it was before…”
In another letter Tushratta hopes for and expects help from his
ally if needed: “There is peace in our lands. If only an enemy of
my brother did not exist, but if in the future an enemy invades
my ‘brother’s’ land, then write to me and the Hurri land,
armour, arms and everything will be at his disposal, but should
on the other hand there be an enemy for me (if only he did not
exist) I will write to my brother and he will dispatch from Egypt,
armour, arms and everything…” Poor Tushratta, didn’t the gods
tell you everything is going to be changed!
The new Hittite king Suppiluliuma I is a great warrior and
has the makings of a skilful and cunning general. Hittite
fortunes were at a very low ebb, but while still a prince
Suppiluliuma begged his father to be sent against the
Arzawan enemy, who he defeated. Then, although not really
in line for the throne, Suppilulu (as known to many) seized
it. Then he turned his attention to the Hittites’ eastern front
and intrigued with Artatama, renegade prince of the Hurri
land who was exiled following the Udki plot which placed
Tushratta on the Mitannian throne. Suppilulu now aims to
gain control of the copper producing land of Isuwa. In a later
treaty the Hittite king refers back to these events: “I
plundered the lands of the west bank of the Euphrates and
annexed the Mountains of Lebanon, but a second time
Tushratta was presumptuous to me and said, ‘If you plunder
the lands west of the Euphrates then so will I!” Suppilulu was
not about to back down despite Tushratta’s warning to him:
“If you plunder them what will I do? If a single lamb of my
land is plundered I will cross over from the east bank of the
Euphrates! I the great king of Hatti maintained my pride
before him!” While both sides prepare for all out war,
Suppilulu sends this reassuring letter to Akhenaten in Egypt:
“The great king of Hatti says to Khuriya the king of Egypt my
‘brother’ … now you have ascended the throne of your father
and just as your father and I desired peace between us, so
now too you and I should be friendly with one another…”
of Suppiluliuma’s first attack. The Hittite king’s own records
say little about it. Ultimately Suppiluliuma tried again and in
his first and second ‘Syrian’ wars and his ‘Hurrian’ war he
completely defeated Mitanni, sacked the capital,
Washukkanni, made all the kingdoms west of the Euphrates
allies of Hatti, put his own protégé on the Mitannian throne
and annexed Carchemish to the Hittite kingdom under his
son as viceroy. Suppilulu probably learned a lot from this first
encounter with the might of Mitanni and devised a more
cunning strategy than direct confrontation. In his Hurrian
war he marched into Mitanni from an unexpected direction
(the north) and ousted Tushratta from his capital.

THE BATTLE
This scenario is a straightforward clash of the two mighty
chariot armies in the land of Isuwa. It is only the letter from
Tushratta to Amunhotep accompanying gifts from the booty
captured from the Hittites that reveals the Mitannian repulse
THE ARMIES
The armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar book of Army
Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Mitanni and Hittite army
lists as a guide. The order of battle for each army is below.

THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE

MITANNI ARMY HITTITE ARMY

Right Wing Centre Division
• Tushratta, King of Mitanni, General (Ld 8) • Suppiluliuma I, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Hurrian Maryannu light chariots • 1 unit of Hittite Maryannu light chariots
• 1 unit of Hurrian light chariots • 1 small unit of Hittite light infantry chariot runners
• 2 small units of light infantry chariot runners • 3 units of Hittite medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of Hurrian Shukitukhlu
medium infantry with long spears Right Division
• Hannuti, Commander (Ld 9)
Left Wing • 1 unit of Hittite light chariots
• Keliya, Commander (Ld 8) • 1 small unit of Hittite light infantry chariot runners
• 1 unit of Hurrian Maryannu light chariots • 2 units of Hittite medium infantry with long spears
• 1 unit of Hurrian light chariots • 1 small unit of skirmishers
• 2 small units of light infantry chariot runners
• 1 unit of Hurrian Shukitukhlu Left Division
medium infantry with long spears • Himuili, Commander (Ld 7)
• 1 unit of Hittite/Anatolian
Hurri Land Centre Division light chariots
• Tunipibri, Commander (Ld 8) • 1 small unit of light infantry
• 1 unit of Hurrian Shukitukhlu chariot runners
medium infantry with long spears • 1 unit of Hittite medium infantry
• 2 small units of Hurrian light infantry archers with long spears
• 3 small units of Isuwan highlander light infantry • 2 units of Anatolian light infantry
• 1 small unit of skirmishers • 1 small unit of skirmishers

Optional Variations: You may re-arrange the composition of your divisions, but the organisation into a right wing, left
wing and centre with a mix of infantry and chariotry in each division is typical of the time. The Mitanni can choose
Hupshu light infantry with javelins/short spears instead of medium infantry spearmen (see the Mitanni list in the Hail
Caesar Army lists: Biblical & Classical supplement).
Note: I have assumed that both Suppiluliuma and Tushratta were the generals at this battle. Apart from the generals, the
names of other commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some real names from the records to stand in for them
and give personality to the commander figures. The Isuwa contingent represents those loyal to Mitanni who escaped from
the Hittite attack.

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 If your chariotry can overcome and rout the enemy chariotry, the rest of their army will be forced to retreat.

SCENERY ANd HITTITE

dEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ZONE
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Hittite and
Mitannian armies deploy
opposite each other in their
respective deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Hittite
deployment Zone
This is open ground with several
gently sloping low hills and odd
patches of woods. M ITANNI
DEPLOYMENT
Middle Zone
This is a landscape of rolling
ZONE
hills and rough pasture with
several gently sloping low hills
and a few patches of wood or scrub. SPECIAL RULES
The god Teshub is revered by both sides and especially by
Mitanni deployment Zone Hurrians. Tushratta has a standard of the god Teshub whom
This is the same landscape as the rest of the battlefield. Some he believes supports the justice of his cause. If however
distance behind the Mitannian deployment zone is the valley Tushratta retreats at all, Teshub withdraws his favour and
of the Upper Euphrates over which the Mitannian army has Tushratta’s Leadership rating drops to 7.
come to challenge the Hittites.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of each army is to “The enemy advanced against my country
break the other.
and Teshub, my lord gave him into my hand
and I defeated him.”

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 DISAPPOINTED HITTITES
Assyria at this time was a small kingdom and reluctant
ally of the King of Mitanni. The proud Assyrians seized
the opportunity of the Hittite conquest of Mitanni to
break free. Hittite records tell us that when
Suppiluliuma’s army was in Mitanni during his
Hurrian war there were rumours that the Assyrians
were about to intervene, “a messenger came from
Washsukanni saying the infantry and chariotry of
Assyria are coming for battle against the infantry and
chariotry of Hatti.” Bring ’em on! Said the Hittites,
“At Pakarippa word was brought to us the ‘Assyrian is
coming against you in battle formation.’ The area
around Pakarippa was desolate and hunger caught up
with the troops but the Assyrians were not to be seen
again and they did not come against us in battle, so we
went after the Assyrians as far as the city of Nilapsin
but the Assyrians didn’t come against us there either.”
Suppiluliuma began his return march through
Mitanni, recrossed the Euphrates and went through
the kingdom of Kadesh, which was allied to both
Mitanni and Egypt, brushing aside their resistance and
thereby picking a fight with Egypt (having thus broken
the Kurustama treaty between Egypt and Hatti made in
the time of Thutmose III).

HITTITE ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hittite medium infantry long spearmen 6 6 3/0 0+ 5+ 6 –
Anatolian light infantry
4 4 2 2 0 4 –
with a mix of javelins/bows
Hittite two-crew light chariots
7 6 3 2 4+ 6 –
with spears, javelins and bows
Hittite Maryannu light chariots
8 6 2 0 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
with spears and javelins
Hittite/Anatolian chariot runners with javelins 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings or bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. We are too early for Hittite three-crew chariotry, but these begin appearing as an innovation at the end of Suppiluliuma’s
reign. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

MITANNI ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hurrian medium infantry Shukitukhlu
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
with long spears
Hurrian light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Isuwan highlander light infantry
4 4 1 1 0 4 Small unit
with a mix of javelins/bows
Hurrian light chariots with spears and bows 7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
Hurrian Maryannu light chariots
7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
with spears and bows
Hurrian chariot runners with javelins 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings or bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. I have assumed that Arrapkhan units are too busy on the Mitannian eastern front to be available in this battle, but you could
upgrade one chariotry unit if you like. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

93
 CONQUESTS OF SUPPILULIUMA I
Suppiluliuma I was the greatest of the Hittite kings and
established the Hittite empire which overthrew Mitanni
and challenged Egypt, Assyria and the Achaeans. His
achievements were recorded in the ‘Deeds of
Suppiluliuma’ composed by his son and later successor
Mursili II.
Suppiluliuma’s military career began while he was still a
prince during the reign of his father, Tuthaliya III. At
this time Hittite fortunes were at a low ebb. Most of the
conquests of Hattusili I and Mursili I had been lost and
the Hittite homeland was itself under threat. The Kaska
tribes had invaded Hittite core territory and several other
kingdoms surrounding Hatti attacked at the same time.
Hattusas was burned and the king had to move his
capital to another stronghold. In Western Anatolia, the
kingdom of Arzawa was growing in power. When
Pharaoh Amunhotep III heard what had happened in
Hatti he wrote to the king of Arzawa offering an alliance
saying, “It looks like Hatti is finished!’’ Suppiluliuma
would soon prove him wrong.
Suppiluliuma campaigned beside his father to drive back
the Kaska and other enemies and regain territory. At the
battle of Kummaha, they defeated king Karanni of Azzi-
Hayasa, a mountain kingdom to the east. Then
Suppiluliuma said to his father, “Send me against
Arzawa”, which he did. The army of Arzawa was defeated
in battle, but the Arzawan leader Anzapahaddu would not
give up easily. He defeated a Hittite army led by general
Humuili and so Suppiluliuma took direct command. He
defeated the Arzawans again and placed the general
Hannutti as governor over the recaptured territory, with a
force of infantry and chariotry. From here, he attacked
the ally kingdoms of Arzawa in the west.
Then in 1345 BC Tudhaliya III died and was succeeded
by the designated crown prince, another Tudhaliya.
However, Suppiluliuma had been fighting and winning
battles and so when he opposed his brother, the generals
joined his faction. Tudhaliya was slain and
Suppiluliuma usurped the throne. This action would
later be regarded as bringing down on Hatti the curse of
the gods. In the meantime it meant that Hatti
continued to rise under strong leadership. Suppiluliuma
now moved against the eastern kingdom of Isuwa, which
involved crossing the upper Euphrates. This was bound
to provoke the king of Mitanni, but since the Hurrians
had been for a long time bitter foes of Hatti and taken
much territory, Suppiluliuma welcomed the prospect of
war with Mitanni.
Fate handed Suppiluliuma the opportunity he wanted.
In Mitanni, a coup led by the noble Udki deposed king
Artasumara and placed Tushratta on the throne.
94
His brother Artatama opposed his usurpation and
looked to the Hittites to support his claim. Mitanni was
riven by factions and so Suppiluliuma chose this
moment to make a probing attack on her defences. On
the Isuwa front the Hittite army crossed over the
Euphrates but was met and actually repulsed by the
Mitannian army of Tushratta. The elated Tushratta sent
a message to the Pharaoh telling of his victory,
accompanying the gift of a captured Hittite chariot.
Suppiluliuma began devising a rather more cunning plan
to vanquish Mitanni. First he prepared the way by
recognising Artatama as rightful king of Mitanni. Then
he wrote to the Pharaoh to reassure him that Hatti had
no intentions against Egypt. He sought to isolate Mitanni
from her Egyptian allies. He probably knew that Pharaoh
Akhenaten was preoccupied with his religious reforms.
Thus began Suppiluliuma’s ‘Syrian war’. A rebellion
against Hittite rule in Isuwa was supported by Tushratta,
who invaded Hittite territory. Suppiluliuma sent troops
to hold off the Mitannians, but this was a distraction.
The Hittite king led his main army across the Upper
Euphrates and directly into the heartland of Mitanni
from the north. He rapidly reached the capital,
Washshukanni, and took Tushratta totally by surprise
and he fled. The Mitannian capital was sacked. Then
Suppiluliuma headed west so as to return to Hatti by
marching through Mitanni and all her ally kingdoms
between the Euphrates and the sea. Aleppo, Mukish
(Alalakh), Niy, Qatna, Nukhash and Upi (Damascus)
were defeated. Although Suppiluliuma tried to avoid
Kadesh, which was regarded as an Egyptian ally, the king
of Kadesh, Suttarna decided to attack the Hittite army in
support of Mitanni. Suppiluliuma won the battle and
captured the king. Later he allowed the king’s son
Aitakkama to rule in Kadesh as a Hittite ally.
Suppiluliuma had thus risked war with Egypt.
Suppiluliuma said, “Because of the hostility of Tushratta,
I plundered all these lands in a single year.”
Suppiluliuma made an alliance with Niqmaddu of
Ugarit, a Phoenician city state on the Mediterranean
coast and when the other kingdoms attacked Ugarit for
siding with the Hittites, Suppiluliuma supported his ally
and territory captured from them was added to the
kingdom of Ugarit. The king of Nukhashe had recently
been attacked by the Mitannians and he now asked the
Hittite king to ‘rescue’ him. Suppiluliuma sent forces to
throw out the infantry and chariotry of Mitanni, but
Sarrupsi, the king was assassinated, so Suppiluliuma
conquered the kingdom on his way to the sea.
Meanwhile, within Egyptian territory, Abdi-Ashirta was
carving out the kingdom of Amurru in the highlands of
Lebanon and threatening Ribaddi of Byblos and other
Phoenician coastal cities as well as the Egyptian garrison
of Sumur. Little action was taken by the Pharaoh. Abdi-
Ashirta’s son Aziru continued taking territory and
eventually took Byblos. The Pharaoh summoned Aziru to
Egypt and held him there but decided to let him return
after he professed loyalty so that he could act as a buffer
kingdom between Egyptian territory and the newly
gained Hittite territory. On his return, the treacherous
and devious Aziru promptly changed sides and allied
with the Hittites.
Suppiluliuma now prepared for his ‘Hurrian’ war, the
knockout campaign against Mitanni. He appointed his
son Telepinu to be viceroy of Aleppo, binding the
kingdom to Hatti. Then, after repelling an attack by
Tushratta, Telepinu captured all the territory of
Carchemish except for the city itself. The Hittite army
then made a camp at Murmuriga for the winter. While
Telepinu was away in Hatti planning the next phase
with his father, Egypt under the new Pharaoh
Tutankhamun and Mitanni started to work together as
allies. Tushratta attacked the camp at Murmuriga while
Tutankhamun’s forces, perhaps led by Horemhab,
attempted to regain Kadesh. In the following spring
Suppiluliuma marched on Carchemish, sending ahead
a force under the commanders Arnuwanda and Zida.
Carchemish was besieged and a reprisal raid was made
into Egyptian territory.
At this moment Suppiluliuma received a strange message
from the Queen of Egypt. Tutankhamun had suddenly
died and the queen wrote to Suppiluliuma asking him to
send one of his many sons to Egypt to marry her and
become Pharaoh. Suppiluliuma was wary and made his
own investigations and the queen confirmed the request
which was apparently made with the support of the
ruling faction within Egypt. While this was going on
Suppiluliuma stormed Carchemish in a great battle.
Then the Hittite king set up his son Piyassilli as viceroy
of Carchemish, with the Hurrian name of
“While my father was in the country
of Karkamis he sent Lupakkish and
Teshub-Zalmash to the country of
Amqa. They left; they ravaged the
country of Amqa and brought back
to my father prisoners and cattle
large and small.”
Biography of Mursili II,
son of Suppiluliuma I
95
Sharrikushukh. Suppiluliuma sent his son Zannanza to
Egypt, but something went wrong and it appears that he
was ambushed and slain. Suppiluliuma was enraged and
blamed Egyptian treachery, especially the new Pharaoh
Ay, who had quickly assumed the throne. A state of war
now existed with Egypt, and Zannanza’s brother
Arnuwanda was sent on a raid into Egyptian Amka,
where he took thousands of prisoners. This may have
been directed against the forces thought responsible for
the ambush. However the Egyptian POW’s that were
deported into Hatti brought with them the plague that
had been prevalent in Egypt. The plague ravaged Hatti
for years and was later regarded as the curse brought
down by Suppiluliuma’s usurpation and his breaking of
the old treaty with Egypt.
Meanwhile Tushratta was now a fugitive somewhere in
Mitanni. Assyria, which was at this time really just the
city state of Ashur, had been a subordinate ally of
Mitanni, but now took the opportunity to break free. A
force of Mitannian chariotry had also tried to escape
from Mitanni by going into the land of Alshe to the
north. Here they were captured and impaled. Instead of
putting Artatama’s son Suttarna on the throne of what
was left of Mitanni, Suppiluliuma recognised Sattiwaza as
king of Mitanni. Suttarna and his followers therefore
deposed Sattiwaza, who fled to Hatti, while he allied
with Assyria and appeased the Assyrians by returning
treasures plundered by Mitanni from Ashur many years
before. Sattiwaza went to Carchemish with Hittite troops
and joined forces with Sharrikushukh, the viceroy to
launch a campaign into Mitanni to put him back on the
throne. The towns of Irrite and Harran were rapidly
taken, but the Assyrians did not intervene and Sattiwaza
regained the throne and was bound by a treaty of alliance
with Suppiluliuma. Thus Mitanni was partitioned, the
western half, known as Naharin, falling under Hittite
control and the eastern half, known as Hanigalbat, being
eventually conquered and annexed by Assyria.
Fast-moving chariots
enable long-range campaigns.
 “Let the king my lord send a caravan
even to Karduniyash and I will personally
conduct it under very heavy guard!”
This is a desert encounter between a heavily guarded
Kassite Babylonian caravan, laden with precious goods
destined for Akhenaten’s Egypt and nomadic Sutu bandits,
notorious robbers of merchants and slayers of messengers.
The Pharaohs Amunhotep III and Akhenaten enjoyed
good relations with the Kassite kings of Babylonia, then
known as Karduniyash and exchanged valuable diplomatic
gifts. Kassite princesses also went to Egypt to marry the
Pharaoh and join his extensive harem. The journey was
long and dangerous as Burraburiayash, king of Babylon
says in a letter to Akhenaten: “As I am told the journey is
difficult, water cut off, weather is hot.” In the same letter,
one of the Amarna Letters, he goes on to say “twice has a
caravan of Salmu my messenger been robbed, the first one
Biriyawaza robbed and his second caravan Pamakhu, a
vassal governor of yours, robbed. When is my ‘brother’
going to judge this case?”
Ambush and robbery of caravans carrying precious
merchandise was a constant peril since the caravan had to
journey such a long distance through ‘bandit’ country. In
another letter to Akhenaten, the Kassite king says, “Canaan
is your country and its kings are your servants. In your
country I have been plundered! Bring them to justice and
make compensation! Put to death the men who put my
servants to death and so avenge their blood! If you do not
put these men to death they are going to kill again, be it a
caravan of mine or your own messengers and so messengers
between us will be cut off.”
As to the treasure being carried on the pack mules of the
caravan, an inventory would be sent with the caravan.
Here are some items (especially those of military interest)
from a long inventory of valuables sent by Tushratta of
Mitanni to Egypt:
• Four beautiful horses that run swiftly!
• One chariot, its tulemus, its thongs, its covering all of
gold it is 320 shekels of gold that have been used on it!
• Good sharp arrows!
• A dagger, the blade of which is of iron! A bow of the
apisamush type! A mace of iron!
• A garment of blue-purple wool and one pair of Hurrian
style shirts.
• One plaque with winged discs and deluge monster of
ebony overlaid with gold.
• One hauberk of bronze; one helmet of bronze for a man.
• One hauberk of leather, one helmet of bronze for the
Sarku soldiers.
• One bard of leather for horses, set with rings of bronze
and two chamfrons of bronze for horses.
96
• Nine shields, their urukmannu of bronze.
• 100 bows of the apisamush type
• 1,000 sharp arrows, two javelins with iron tips, ten
javelins with bronze tips, 20 arrows to be shot flaming,
ten chariot poles, ten chariot frames.
It is all of these wedding gifts of every sort that Tushratta the
king of Mitanni gave to Nimmureya (Amunhotep III) the
king of Egypt, his ‘brother’ and son in law. He gave them at
the same time he gave Tadukhepa, his daughter to Egypt to
Nimmuraya to be his wife.” A bandit warlord might equip his
men very well from the plunder of a caravan and also have
hostages to hold to ransom.
Apart from precious gifts, war panoply and princesses,
another important item sometimes sent by caravan was a
sacred statue of a god or goddess, especially if it had healing
powers for the benefit of a sick fellow ruler. Tushratta of
Mitanni, who was overlord of Assyria at this time even sent
an Assyrian cult statue to Egypt as she requested through her
oracle: “Thus Shaushka of Nineveh, Mistress of all Lands
said: ‘I wish to go to Egypt a country that I love and then
return’, so now I, Tushratta, herewith send her and she is on
her way.”
Messengers were making their way to and fro along the
caravan routes even more frequently than caravans, carrying
despatches. These were usually clay tablets, written in
Akkadian cuneiform script, which was the diplomatic
language of the time, often enclosed within a clay ‘envelope’.
A passport issued to such a messenger reads: “To the kings of
Canaan, servants of my ‘brother’, I herewith send Akiya my
messenger to speed post-haste to the king of Egypt. No one is
to hold him up! Provide him with safe entry into Egypt and
hand him over to the fortress commander of Egypt. Let him
go on immediately and as far as his presents are concerned,
he is to owe nothing!”
Not only were the little kings of Canaan a dodgy bunch, but
the Habiru bandit chiefs were notorious for waylaying and
murdering envoys. Spurious reasons might be made to excuse
extortion from merchants. As the king of Alashiya on Cyprus
says to the Pharaoh, who in theory is overlord of Phoenician
ports “These men are my merchants. Let them go safely and
promptly; no one making a claim in your name is to
approach my merchants or my ship!” Fortunately, there were
local kings and chiefs trustworthy enough to protect a
caravan such as Mutbakhlu who said to Pharaoh, “Let the
king my lord send a caravan even to Karduniyash and I will
personally conduct it under very heavy guard!”
THE BATTLE
This scenario is based on a real caravan sent from Kassite
Babylonia to Egypt. The caravan was the escort of a Kassite
princess destined for the harem of the Pharaoh of Egypt.
One of the Amarna Letters discusses the planning for the
caravan: “But as to the one taking her to you, who is going to
take her to you? With Khaya there are only five chariots.
Should I in these circumstances, allow her to be brought to
you from my house? My neighbouring kings would say, ‘They
have transported the daughter of a Great King to Egypt in
only five chariots!” Now when my father allowed his daughter
to be brought to your father, 3,000 soldiers accompanied
your messenger!” The Kassite king goes on: “As to Khaya
your officer whom you sent to me, the chariots and soldiers
with him are too few! Send here many chariots and soldiers
so that Khaya is the one to take the princess to you. Send
them so they can take her immediately! If within this year
you intend to send here chariots and soldiers, a messenger
should be despatched to me immediately to inform me.”
King Burraburiash was not the only one concerned about the
perils of the journey. One of the Amarna Letters received in
Egypt was written by a princess in Babylonian. She wrote:
“Say to my lord, thus says the princess, for you, your chariots
and the men, may all go well and may the gods of
Burraburiash go with you! March in safety and push on so
that you will see your house again! Do not worry or you will
make me sad.” This intriguing letter has a postscript written
by the scribe taking the dictation in which he reveals his own
secret regard for the princess: “Your servant Kidinadad. I
would give my life for you!”
THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE
KASSITE CARAVAN ESCORT ARMY
Vanguard Division
• Khaya, General (Ld 9)
• 1 small unit of Egyptian light chariots
• 1 tiny unit of chariot runners – light infantry javelinmen
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian light infantry archers
Caravan Guard Division
• Mutbakhlu Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Kassite bodyguard medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Canaanite/Phoenician caravan guards
• Baggage wagon, pack mules, dignitaries, armed guards
Rearguard Division
• Salmu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Kassite light chariots
• 1 small unit of Kassite chariot runners – light infantry
• 1 small unit of Kassite medium infantry mixed
spearmen/archers
Scouting Division
• Kidinadad Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of cavalry scouts
Optional Variations. Remember, Burraburiash, king of Karduniyash, would very much like it if the
escort had more chariots to escort his daughter!
Note: The caravan commanders are characters from the Amarna archive who were involved in escorting
caravans. The bandit commanders have Aramaean names.
97
The caravan got through to Egypt, but we don’t know what
perils were encountered on the way, so this scenario
imagines a possible attempt to ambush it. The escort
contingent has arrived in Karduniyash, from Egypt and
together with the princess’s Kassite retinue, the caravan has
set off for Egypt. The route would perhaps go from Mari
across the desert to Tadmor (later Palmyra) and then on to
Damascus and Canaan, travelling through territory
prowled by the nomadic Sutu and Akhlamu tribes with a
reputation as bandits. They lurk and watch for a suitable
moment to ambush the caravan and plunder it. Water
supply is vital for the caravan, so they have to reach an
oasis at regular intervals. At one oasis the bandits prepare
the ambush.
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the New
Kingdom Egyptian, and Mitanni army lists (standing in for
Kassite Babylonians) and Early Arab Raiders army lists as
a guide.
The order of battle for each army is below.
SUTEAN BANDIT ARMY
Sutean Division
• Yadakku, General (Ld 8)
• 1 light infantry bodyguard warband
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Akhlamu Division
• Nabatu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings/bows
Habiru Division
• Rikhiku, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of light infantry archers
• 1 small unit light infantry –
mixed slingers/archers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers
with javelins
SCENERY ANd SUTU BANDIT
dEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described ZONE
in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Bandits and
Caravan escort deploy in their
respective deployment zones, but
not in the usual manner opposite
each other. The bandits are
deployed ready to ambush and
the caravan is deployed
approaching the ambush point.

The scenery is as follows:

Sutu Bandit
deployment Zone
This is rugged desert terrain KASSITE CARAVAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
with sand dunes and gently
sloping low hills. In one corner
of the zone is an oasis
surrounded by palm groves. The bandits deploy in this zone
as far as possible out of sight of the caravan, using dead OBJECTIVES
ground to hide from view. The Sutu objective is to capture and pillage the baggage.

Middle Zone
This is also rugged desert with sand dunes and gently sloping
low hills and scatters of rocks and scrub. There is a wide,
clear diagonal caravan route through the desert marked by
the bleached bones of pack animals.
Kassite caravan deployment Zone
This is the same kind of desert terrain as the rest of the table.
The caravan deploys in order of march in the opposite corner
of the table to the oasis. So this will be towards one edge of
their deployment zone.
The caravan escort’s objective is to repel the ambushers and
hold them off while the baggage safely leaves the battle zone
via the opposite table edge.
SPECIAL RULES
It has been a long day’s trek towards the oasis and all
horses and donkeys are thirsty. Therefore all mounted
units and the baggage are considered to be eager to get to
the oasis. They can smell the water and will veer towards it
in every move.

Bandits gather at the oasis. They know that caravans must come this way.

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 KASSITE CARAVAN ESCORT TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Kassite bodyguard medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 Valiant, Stubborn
Kassite medium infantry –
4 4 2 2 5+ 4 Small unit
mixed spearmen/archers
Canaanite/Phoenician medium infantry
6 6 3 3 5+ 6 Brave, Steady
caravan guards with a mix of javelins/bows
Egyptian light chariots with bows 4 4 2 2 4+ 4 Eager, Small unit
Kassite light chariots with spears and bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Eager, Tough Fighters
Kassite chariot runners –
3 3 2 2 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
light infantry with javelins and bows
Egyptian chariot runners –
1 1 1 0 6+ 1 Sub unit of chariots, Tiny unit
light infantry with javelins
Medja Nubian archer skirmishers/scouts 1 1 1 1 0 1 Marksmen, Tiny unit
Kassite cavalry scouts with bows 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Eager, Brave, Tiny unit
Baggage wagon, pack animals,
3 3 1 0 4+ 6 Eager, Stubborn
dignitaries, armed guards

“Avenge their blood! For if you do not put these men to death, they are going to kill
again, be it a caravan of mine or your own messengers…”

SUTEAN BANDIT TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Sutu bodyguard light infantry warband
7 5 2 0 6+ 6 Eager, Tough Fighters
with spears and javelins
Sutu or Akhlamu light infantry warband
6 5 2 0 6+ 6 Eager, Marauders
with spears and javelins
Habiru light infantry, with a mix of javelins/bows 4 4 2 2 0 4 Marauders, Small unit
Light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Light infantry with slings/bows 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings/bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Small unit

Notes. Kassite Babylonians were organised and equipped like Mitannians but with similarities to earlier Amorite Babylonians and
contemporary Early Assyrians. The Kassites were considered to have good and numerous chariotry. Egyptian troops in small numbers
were sent to escort caravans from Karduniyash to Egypt as were Canaanite caravan guards. Sutu and Akhlamu are tribes of early Arab
nomads and raiders inhabiting the Syrian Desert between Mesopotamia and Canaan at this time and were notorious robbers and
bandits. We are probably still too early for camel mounted warriors. Within a few generations they will start migrating en masse
towards the Euphrates and Hanigalbat to settle and establish Aramaean kingdoms much to the vexation of the early Assyrian kings.
These tribes are already a menace to the Kassites and occasional allies of Mitannian rebels. Habiru bandits are also active throughout
the region, usually making common cause with various nomadic tribes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only
to this scenario.

99
 “When my father Suppiluliuma
heard of the murder of Zannanza
he began to weep and cried out,
‘Oh gods I did no evil, yet the
people of Egypt did this to me and
they also attacked the frontier of
my country!’”
This is an encounter between a task force on a special secret
mission with the Hittite Prince Zannanza who is responding
to the request of the recently widowed Egyptian queen
Ankhesenamun, whose husband was Tutankhamun. The
Hittite prince is hoping to seal a marriage alliance with the
queen, thereby becoming Pharaoh and binding together
two mighty empires on the brink of war. Yet there are
factions who do not want this to happen and they prepare
an ambush.
The details of this remarkable incident which sparked off
the Egyptian-Hittite war are recorded in the Annals of the
Hittite king Mursili II who reported what happened during
the reign of his father Suppiluliuma I. At this time the
Hittite king was busy conquering and partitioning the
empire of Mitanni and had just forced the city state of
Kadesh (the kingdom of Kinza) to join him. Egypt was
allied to Mitanni and the Pharaoh regarded Kadesh as a
subject kingdom, while Kadesh up to now had been an ally
of Mitanni as well. Egypt and Hatti were therefore on the
brink of war. When hostilities began on the borders
Suppiluliuma said to the Egyptian envoy Hani, “I was
friendly but you attacked the man of Kadesh whom I had
taken away from the king of the Hurri land. When I heard
this I became angry and I sent forth my own infantry and
chariots and they attacked your territory, the land of
Amka.” Thus the Hittite king regarded Kadesh as a
Mitannian ally and disregarded older Egyptian claims on
the kingdom.
Mursili tells us what happened next: “And while my father
was down in the land of Carchemish, he dispatched the
generals Lupakkis and Teshubzalmas to attack the land of
Amka. However, when the Egyptians heard of the attack on

100
 WARS OF SUCCESSION
Many a war throughout history has been caused by the
candidate put forward for succession to the throne of a
mighty country. With the royal houses intermarrying to
make alliances, and the added complexity of multiple
wives and rival princes, there were plenty of potential
causes of war in the Bronze Age Near East. The Kassite
dynasty of Babylon was beset with such problems and the
quarrel with Elam which brought down the dynasty
began in this way. The great king Shutruk-Nahhunte of
Elam was incandescent with rage when passed over for
the succession in Babylon in favour of a Hittite
candidate. He wrote to the Babylonians thus: “The son
of a Hittite mother is an abomination for Babylon! A
Hittite whom you chose to the detriment of Babylon and
put on the throne of Babylon! Now you have
experienced his sins, his failure, his crime!” He rants on:
“Why not I who am a king, son of a king, who am king
Amka they became afraid, since their lord Tutankhamun
had just died. The widowed queen of Egypt
(Ankhesenamun) sent a messenger to my father saying, ‘My
husband has died and I have no son but they say you have
many sons. If you give me one of your sons he would
become my husband (and king of Egypt). I will never choose
a servant of mine and make him my husband and respect
him very much!’”
This was an amazing turn of events that might prevent war
and expand the power of the Hittite king. Mursili
continues: “And when my father heard this message, he
called the leaders to a conference and said ‘such a thing has
never happened to me before!’ Then my father sent a secret
agent into the land of Egypt saying ‘report back the truth to
me; perhaps they are deceiving me and perhaps they have a
prince?’ and before the agent returned from Egypt, my
father conquered the city of Carchemish!” The annals
report: “He besieged it for seven days and on the eighth day
he fought a battle against it for one day and took it in a
terrible assault!” Suppiluliuma was determined to take this
strategic Hurrian city on the Euphrates before any deal was
struck with Egypt. Suppiluliuma sent into Hatti for records
to consult while considering the request including the
Kurustema Treaty as Mursili tells us: “My father asked for
the tablet of the treaty.” This referred to a legend that the
gods had once made a treaty between Egypt and Hatti: “And
when they had read aloud the tablet, my father said,
‘Formerly Hatti and Egypt were friends with each other and
now this has happened, Hatti and Egypt will continuously
be friendly with each other.”
In the following spring the Egyptian envoy Hani, who was
trusted by the Hittites, returned with confirmation and an
irritated response from the haughty Egyptian queen
101
of the land of Elam, descendant of the eldest daughter of
mighty king Kurigalzu of Babylon! Why do I not sit on
the throne of Babylonia! I sent you a sincere proposal
but you granted no reply. You may climb up to heaven
but I shall pull you down. You may go down to hell but I
shall pull you up by your hair. I shall destroy your cities,
demolish your fortresses… [it continues in this way]. He
did exactly what he said he would do!
(Akhenaten’s daughter). She said, “Why did you say they
deceive me in that way? If I had a son, would I have
written about my own and my country’s shame to a
foreign land? You did not believe me and you even said so
to me! He who was my husband is dead. I have no son and
I shall not take a servant of mine and make him my
husband. I have written to no other country, only to you.
They say you have many sons, so give me one of yours. To
me he will be husband, in Egypt he will be king!” To the
queen’s words, Hani added this: “My lord, this is our
country’s shame. If we had a son of the king, would we
have come to a foreign country and asked for a lord for
ourselves? Niphururiya, who was our lord, is dead, he has
no son; our lord’s wife is on her own and we are seeking a
son of our lord for the kingship of Egypt and for our lady.
We seek him as her husband and furthermore we went to
no other country; only here did we come!” Mursili
reports, “Since my father was kind hearted he complied
with the word of the woman” and sent his fourth son, the
Prince Zannanza.
THE BATTLE
Zannanza set out for Egypt, but something went wrong and
he never reached Egypt, or if he did, he met his end there. As
yet, we do not know exactly what happened, but his father
Suppiluliuma believed that he was murdered. Mursili reports:
“When my father heard of the murder of Zannanza he began
to weep for Zannanza, and cried out to the gods thus: ‘Oh
you gods, I did no evil yet the people of Egypt did this to me!
They also attacked the frontier of my country!” The chief
ministers of Egypt under Tutankhamun were Ay, who had
also served Akhenaten, and the general Horemhab, who
seems to have been the Pharaoh’s deputy and possibly his
appointed successor. However it was Ay who succeeded as
Pharaoh, so it is not surprising that Suppiluliuma blamed Ay
for the murder of his son. Ay denied all responsibility and
warned Suppiluliuma not to act hastily against Egypt. This
was in the same letter brought by Hani to the Hittite king
reporting the death of Zannanza. So it appears that Zannanza
was treacherously slain, but not by the faction surrounding
the queen.
In this scenario we investigate the possibility of an ambush
on route to Egypt. This would be the ideal opportunity for an
opposing faction to thwart the plan and the border region
was dangerous and lawless, with bands of Habiru bandits and
maybe even renegade Hurrian and Egyptian troops. Zannanza
would certainly have a personal retinue of devoted Hittite
guards, so it would be difficult to slay him without fighting
unless it could be done by poison, but then he might have a
loyal food-taster. Since the Hittite prince even had an
Egyptian escort (Mursili says, “They took him off to Egypt.”)
an ambush seems a likely scenario. The precise moment
might be on the border where Zannanza was expecting to
rendezvous with his Egyptian escort, except that it is an
opposing faction, pretending to be the escort, which meets
him! Did Egyptian scouts lead him into a trap? Did an
Egyptian force attack the Prince’s retinue mistaking it for
hostile Hittite intruders?
As a reprisal for the treacherous slaying of his son, the Hittite
king sent Zannanza’s brother Arnuwanda to make a raid into
Egyptian territory where he killed Egyptian troops, both
infantry and chariotry, taking others prisoner. The report of
this incident in the Hittite records may well be a reference to
the destruction of the renegade faction that did the deed.
Suppiluliuma was still suspicious of Ay and blamed him,
although Ay denied any involvement. Maybe it was his son,
the general Nakhtmin, or Horemhab, or the Hittite king just
thought that Ay should have kept any opposing factions in
check. Later, in the reign of Pharaoh Horemhab, Mursili II,
Zannanza’s brother, was for a time on good terms with him
until an incident in which the Egyptian envoy was detained
leading to a reprisal detention of the Hittite envoy: “Then
Armaya (Horemhab) remained totally quiet and said nothing
at all! So we were not on good terms with one another, we
were not at all on good terms.” Another brother of Zannanza
became Hittite viceroy of Carchemish. His sister married
Shattiwaza whom the Hittites had put on the throne of
Mitanni under a strict treaty that stipulated she be the queen
of Mitanni. The Egyptian prisoners brought a plague into
Hatti which raged for generations. When Mursili enquired of
the gods why they were angry it was found to be because
Suppiluliuma had broken the old treaty with Egypt.
Horemhab had no son to succeed him and chose Ramesses I,
father of Seti I and grandfather of Ramesses II to succeed
him. Kadesh continued to be a cause for war between the
Hittites and Egypt.
THE ARMIES
The opposing forces can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Hittite and
New Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each force is below.

THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE

AMBUSHING FORCE HITTITE PRINCE’S RETINUE

Blocking Force Zannanza’s Division
• ‘Lion’, General (Ld 8) • Zannanza General (Ld 10)
• 2 small units of ‘Egyptian’ medium infantry spearmen • 1 small unit of Hittite light chariots
• 1 tiny unit of Hittite light infantry chariot runners
Flank Force • 1 small unit of Hittite medium infantry guards
• ‘Falcon’, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of ‘Egyptian’ medium infantry spearmen Egyptian Escort Division
• 1 small unit of ‘Egyptian’ light chariotry with bows • Hani, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 tiny unit of ‘Egyptian’ light infantry chariot runners • 1 tiny unit of Egyptian
medium infantry archers
Flank Force • 1 tiny unit of Shasu
• ‘Serpent’ Commander (Ld 8) skirmishers/scouts
• 1 small unit of ‘Kushite’ or ‘Libyan’ skirmishers
with javelins

Optional Variations
You can use Egyptian and Canaanite or Mitannian figures mixed up in the same units if you like. This would make it
difficult to identify who the ambushers really are, which is their intent.
Note: Apart from Zannanza, who I have made a dashing hero, the names of the commanders are not yet known so I have
given ‘codenames’ to the conspirators to give personality to the commanders. The ‘Egyptians’ and ‘African’ auxiliaries in
the ambushing force certainly include some Egyptian troops, but maybe not all of the ambushers are really Egyptians.
Recognition depends much on what shape of shield you carry.

102
SCENERY ANd AMBUSHERS’ DEPLOYMENT ZONE
dEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described
in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Hittites deploy in
their deployment zone. The
ambushers are deployed ready to
ambush in their deployment zone
and in the middle zone, along
either side edge of the zone.
The scenery is as follows:

Ambushers
deployment Zone
This is a ridge of steeply sloping
and gently sloping hills with HITTITE
patches of scrub. Ambushing DEPLOYMENT
units can be deployed on the
hills. The road that the Hittite
ZONE

retinue is following turns to pass

around one side of the hills.
Middle Zone
This is open and level ground with open fields and pasture.
Along the western edge runs a stream or field boundary with
continuous scrub. Along the eastern edge is a long, gently
sloping low hill. Ambushing units can be deployed occupying
the scrub and behind the low hill.
Hittite deployment Zone
This is level ground with open fields or pasture. The Hittite
retinue deploys in battle order as it is approaching the border
or actually inside Egyptian held territory. The Shasu scouts
go before the retinue to guide it and are apparently unarmed
as a token of a peaceful mission.
OBJECTIVES
The ambushers’ objective is to slay Zannanza and any other
result is a defeat for them. Zannanza’s objective is to break
through opposing forces and exit via the opposite table edge.
SPECIAL RULES
The ambush is sprung at daybreak, soon after the Hittite
force begins to march and as soon as it crosses into Egyptian
territory (or rather as soon as it moves out of Hittite
territory and into Amurrite or former Mitanni territory). It
is a disputed frontier zone and bandit country prowled by
Habiru insurgents. Egypt is barely in control and Mitanni
thinks it is really theirs and the rising kingdom of Amurru
seeks to take it.
We are probably not far from the Orontes, the hills of
Lebanon (already known as such at this time) or from the
forest of Robawy. At this time of day the rising sun has
raised up a dense morning mist obscuring the view and
limiting visibility to a bowshot for the first turn of the game.
Visibility is two bowshots in the next turn and clear
thereafter. You cannot shoot at, charge or react to what
you cannot see. I leave it to players to agree as to whether
any ambushing troops should not be deployed on table
until revealed.

Closing in to finish off the Hittite prince.

103
 Fight on heroically young prince! The king, your father, will avenge you!

HITTITE RETINUE TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hittite medium infantry Guard axemen 5 4 1/0 0 5+ 4 Tough Fighters, Valiant, Small unit
Hittite light chariots with spear/javelin/bow 8 6 2 1 4+ 6 Elite, Stubborn, Tough Fighters
Hittite chariot runners – javelinmen 1 1 1 0 6+ 1 Sub unit of chariots Tiny unit
Shasu scouts/skirmishers with slings 1 1 1 1 0 1 Levy, Tiny unit
Egyptian medium infantry archers 1 1 1 1 6+ 1 Tiny unit

Notes. Zannanza has good troops who may be able to get him out of the ambush. The Shasu can quickly arm themselves either by using
their slings (headbands) or by picking up the javelins thrown at them! Some Hittite chariots are already adapted for three crew at this
time although this mission would call for faster types. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“My father Suppiluliuma became hostile and invaded Egyptian territory. They killed the
infantry and chariotry of Egypt.”

AMBUSHERS’ TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian light chariots with bows 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 –
Chariot runners – javelinmen 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots, Small unit
’African’ tribal auxiliary skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit

Notes. The general of the ambushing faction probably only found out about the route and timing at short notice from his spies and
had to act quickly with whatever forces were at hand. These are probably local Egyptian garrison troops or maybe a mix of Egyptians
and local Syrian allies who have conspired together to thwart the peace plan. The forces available may not be the first choice of
ambushing types, but commanders on the spot seldom have much choice and the challenge of the scenario is to achieve the objective
with what you have got! The lack of archers speaks loudly for a clandestine force as arrows sticking out of the Hittite slain would be a
dead giveaway as to the identity of the ambushers. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

104
 THE ARZAWAN WAR OF MURSILI II
The Kingdom of Arzawa was a mighty rival to the
Hittites in Western Anatolia. Like the Hittite kingdom,
Arzawa had a core heartland surrounded by several
subordinate ally kingdoms. Not long before
Suppiluliuma I became king of Hatti, the Hittite
kingdom had been ravaged from all sides, it looked like
Arzawa would replace Hatti as the regional great power
in Anatolia and even the Pharaoh of Egypt was
considering making an alliance with Arzawa.
Suppiluliuma’s conquests changed all that and
established Hatti as the great imperial power. Although
Suppiluliuma had defeated Arzawa, she remained a
powerful threat. When the great conqueror died he was
succeeded by his son Arnuwanda, but he died soon
after leaving the throne to Suppiluliuma’s youngest son
Mursili. He had two older brothers who were viceroys
of Aleppo and Carchemish. Instead of challenging
Mursili for the throne, the Hittite brothers supported
each other.
However, Mursili was young and the foes of the Hittites
did not think he would match up to his formidable
father. They were to be proved wrong! First Mursili
secured his northern borders against the Kaska, and
then he began his decisive war against Arzawa.
Fortunately for Mursili, the Pharaohs Horemhab and
Seti had their hands full re-establishing Egyptian rule in
Canaan and Phoenicia, although Seti did eventually
manage to force Kadesh to change sides for the time
being. Meanwhile Uhhaziti, king of Arzawa had joined
in alliance with the king of Ahhiyawa. This was either
the overlord of many Achaean kingdoms or one
powerful Achaean king, or the king of an Achaean
kingdom located among the islands west of Anatolia –
possibly Rhodes. Uhhaziti was now trying to force ally
kingdoms of the Hittites to change sides and join him.
In Mursili’s third year, 1319 BC, the Hittite ally
kingdom of Millawanda, located in the far west on the
Aegean coast, changed sides and allied with the king of
Ahhiyawa. Mursili sent a task force to deal with it, led
by the generals Gulla and Mallaziti, with infantry and
chariotry. They defeated the forces of Millawanda,
Ahhiyawa and Uhhaziti and sacked Millawanda. Some
fugitives, probably a large number including troops,
had abandoned Hatti and joined forces with
Uhhaziti. Mursili demanded that
they be extradited. When
Uhhaziti refused, Mursili led
an army himself as far as
Sallapa where he joined
forces with the contingent of
the Viceroy of Carchemish, his
brother Sharre-Kushukh. These
would have been troops and
105
chariots from Naharin. Then the combined army
marched into Arzawa. At Mount Lawasa, the Storm
God signalled his approval of the Hittite cause in no
uncertain terms when a meteor streaked through the
sky in the direction of the Arzawan capital Apasa
(Ephesus). It hit Apasa and the psychological effect on
Uhhaziti reduced him to a nervous wreck and he could
not take the field against Mursili. Instead he sent out
his son Piyamakurunta. The two armies met at the
Battle of the River Astarpa in the region of Walma. The
Hittites won and the infantry and chariotry of Arzawa
fled. Mursili marched on to Apasa and Uhhaziti fled
over the sea into exile among the Aegean islands.
The fugitives also fled, some over the sea to the islands,
others to the city of Puranda and many up the slopes of
Mount Arinnanda. Mursili describes this promontory as
“very steep and extends out into the sea. It is very high,
hard to get at, rocky and impassable to horses. I led the
army on foot.” The enemy were besieged on the
mountains until hunger and thirst forced them to
surrender and they were taken back into captivity in
Hatti. Following this action, Mursili withdrew to a
winter camp on the Astarpa River. Next year he
advanced and besieged Puranda which was captured.
Meanwhile Uhhaziti had died and his son
Tapalazunawali made a bid to hold on to Arzawa. He
was defeated but managed to escape. Mursili now
turned on Uhhaziti’s ally Manapatarhunda of the Seha
River Land. He sent out his mother to plead for mercy
from the Hittite king. It worked and he got away with
being made a subordinate ally of the Hittites. As for
Arzawa, which Mursili had now decisively defeated, he
divided it up and handed territory to the surrounding
kingdoms. He deported 65,000 Arzawans into the land
of Hatti. Either these, or a remnant Arzawa, later
provided a contingent for the Hittite army at Kadesh.
While Mursili had been in the west, the Kaska had
seized the opportunity to attack Hatti. Here the Kaskan
leader Pihhuniya had managed to unite the Kaskans
under his leadership, contrary to the usual custom of
not joining forces under a single king. Undeterred by his
adversary’s overconfidence, he announced, “If you come
against me, I will meet you on your ground.” Mursili
returned to Hatti and vanquished him.
Canaanite infantry
 “A report came in – the vanquished
Shasu plan rebellion. Their tribal
chiefs are gathered together to rise
up against the Hurrians.”
In this mini campaign of three linked battles fought on the
same day, Pharaoh Seti I of Egypt mobilises his army of
occupation in Canaan rapidly to pre-empt a rebellion of
Shasu and Habiru tribes gathering to surround and
overwhelm the Egyptian garrison stronghold at Beth Shan.
For a long time these rebel tribes have been attempting to
reduce and overwhelm the Hurrian enclave in Northern
Canaan. Military intervention is part of the new Egyptian
regime’s policy of recovery in Canaan and restoration of the
empire following the neglect and loss of control during the
former regime of the heretical Pharaoh Akhenaten.
A fragment from the tomb of general Horemhab, dating to
the time before he became Pharaoh shows him before a
pharaoh, perhaps Akhenaten, Tutankhamun or Ay, which
was later altered to reflect the general’s new status as
Pharaoh. The accompanying inscription reports trouble in
The tribes join forces to expel the Egyptian garrisons from Canaan.
106
Canaan: “… others have settled where they live … they have
been destroyed and their town laid waste. They have come
to entreat the great in strength to send his mighty sword.
Their countries are starving, they live like goats of the
mountain.” It goes on to say that refugees “who knew not
how they might survive, have come begging for a home in
the domain of pharaoh after the manner of your fathers’
fathers since the beginning.” Could this refer to nomadic
tribes seeking refuge in Egypt or to Canaanites ousted by
invading tribes?
The next Pharaoh to take any serious military action in
Canaan was Seti I and his first priority was dealing with the
Shasu tribesmen in the Negev threatening the Egyptian route
into Canaan, and the establishment of a chain of fortified
wells through the Sinai desert. In Seti’s Karnak inscriptions
dated to ‘Year 1 of the New Era’, he says, “It was reported
that the Shasu plan rebellion. Their tribal chiefs are gathered
together, rising against the Kharu (Hurrians.) They have
taken to cursing and quarrelling, each of them slaying his
neighbour, and they disregard the laws of the palace.” These
inscriptions accompany battle scenes of Seti’s various
campaigns. The Shasu are usually regarded as Edomites, but
the Egyptians probably meant all the nomadic tribes of
Canaan (the campaign included the capture of a place called
Pakanan) and so these events may correspond to the record
in the Old Testament: “The Horites also lived in Seir,
formerly but the sons of Esau dispossessed them and
 Egyptian shieldbearers (author’s collection).
destroyed them from before them and settled in their stead.”
(Deuteronomy 2,12.) The sons of Esau were regarded as allies
by the Israelites, and their land was not to be taken, nor were
they to be fought against. So do we have nomadic tribes
joining forces to conquer areas of Canaan from the Hurrian
ruling elite of the city states? The Hebrew war leader Joshua
told his warriors, “The hill country is not enough for us, yet
all the Canaanites who dwell in the plain have chariots of
iron, both those in Beth Shan and its villages and those in
the valley of Jezreel.” (Joshua chapter 17.) The anachronistic
phrase ‘chariots of iron’ refers to armoured chariots or iron
tyres on the chariot wheels, a possibility from the 13th
century BC onwards.
THE BATTLE
So the city of Beth Shan was a target for the tribes intending
to conquer and settle in Canaan. Beth Shan was in fact the
headquarters of the Egyptian army in Canaan in the later
New Kingdom. It was the Egyptian base and many Egyptian
artefacts have been found there including inscribed stelae of
Seti and Ramesses II. Egyptian-style princely burials indicate
that local kings holding the region were important allies of
the Pharaoh. Seti’s Beth Shan stelae inscriptions tell us about
his efforts to rescue the city from an attempt to capture it:
“On this day it was reported that the wretched foe who is in
Hamath (in Galilee) is gathering to himself many people
intending to seize the city of Beth Shan. Then there will be
an alliance with those of Pahel. He does not let the prince of
Rehob to go outside.” The text goes on to say that Seti “sent
the First Army of Amon, Mighty of Bows, to the town of
107
Hamath, the First Army of Ra, Full of Valour, to the city of
Beth Shan and the First Army of Set, Strong of Bows, to the
town of Yanoam. When the space of the day had passed, they
were overthrown to the glory of His Majesty!” The second
stele adds some more details: “His Majesty ordered some of
his infantry and chariotry to go to the Highlands of Djahy.
After two days they returned safely from the Highland of
Yarmuti, with prisoners and booty.”
This battle scenario takes the form of a mini campaign of
three battles. The Egyptian army initially splits off divisions
to operate separately. The strategy is to prevent the enemy
joining forces and to relieve Beth Shan from the
encirclement. Two of the divisions move rapidly to engage
two enemy divisions while another division goes straight for
Beth Shan. Thus the divisions of Amun and Set fight
separate battles, while the Ra division engages enemy around
Beth Shan. If the Egyptian Amun and Set divisions win their
battles, they can join up with the Ra division for the last
battle. If either or both are defeated, then it will be enemy
divisions which turn up at Beth Shan to gang up on Ra
division. All the Egyptian divisions are described as the ‘first
army’ implying that they are actually brigades or ‘battle-
groups’ detached from the main armies. Note also that the
actions take place on the same day, which means that the
Hamath mentioned is the local Hamath and not the big city
far to the north.
After the battle, later Pharaohs settled Peleset mercenaries in
Beth Shan and their burials have been found with the
sarcophagi displaying their distinctive helmets.
 “Thereupon His Majesty sent the First Army
of Amun, Mighty of Bows, to the town of
Hamath, the First Army of Ra, Full of
Valour, to the town of Beth Shan, and
the First Army of Set, Strong of Bows, to
the town of Yanoam. In a single day they
were defeated.”
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the New
THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE
EGYPTIAN ARMY
1st Division of Amun Mighty of Bows
• Pharaoh Seti I, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry axemen
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of light chariots
• 1 small unit of chariot runners
1st Division of Ra Full of Valour
• Nebwa, Commander (Ld 8)
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of light chariots
• 1 small unit of chariot runners
1st Division of Set Strong of Bows
• Setau, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of light chariots
• 1 small unit of chariot runners
Kharu Division
• Prince of Rehob, sub-commander of Kharu (Ld 7)
• 1 unit of Kharu (Hurrian) Maryannu light chariots
• 1 small unit of Kharu light infantry chariot runners
• 2 small units of Kharu light infantry archers
Habiru light
infantry bodyguards
108
Egyptians called their close-combat
infantry “strong arms” for good reasons!
Kingdom Egyptian and Early Arab Raider, Canaanite and
Israelite army lists as a guide. The order of battle for each
army is below.
SHASU/HABIRU ARMY
Hamath Division
• Ayyab, General (Ld 9)
• 1 Shasu light infantry bodyguard warband
• 2 light infantry warbands
• 2 small units of Shasu light infantry with javelins
• 2 small units of skirmishers with javelins
Pahel Division
• Shasu Chief, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Shasu light infantry bodyguard warband
• 2 light infantry warbands
• 3 Habiru light infantry warbands
• 2 small units of light infantry with javelins
• 2 small units of skirmishers with javelins
Yenoam Division
• Habiru Chief, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 Habiru light infantry bodyguard warband
• 2 Habiru light infantry warbands
• 2 small units of light infantry with javelins
• 2 small units of Habiru skirmishers
Optional Variations
The Egyptian divisions are under-strength assuming
that they are detachments of larger formations. The
Shasu-Habiru forces might be expanded as far as your
figure collection permits – make them a real threat!
Note: Apart from the Pharaoh, the names of the
commanders are not yet known so I have picked out
some names from the records to give personality to
the commanders.
SCENERY ANd dEPLOYMENT other in their respective deployment zones. The Shasu-
Set up the battlefield for each of the three battles as described Habiru have come out of the desert highlands to the east of
in the section Setting up the Scenario. In the first two battles Canaan and invaded the relatively greener lands of the
the Egyptian and Shasu-Habiru forces deploy opposite each settled peoples. The scenery is as follows:

EGYPTIAN
BATTLE AT HAMATH
DEPLOYMENT Egyptian
ZONE deployment Zone
There are gently sloping low hills
and steeply sloping high hills
with patches of woods.

Middle Zone
This is a valley between the hills
through which flows a fordable
stream with patches of woods and
scrub along its length. The stream
can join up any two table edges.

Shasu-Habiru
SHASU-HABIRU deployment Zone
DEPLOYMENT In this zone are gently sloping
ZONE low hills, fields and a village of
mud brick houses.

BATTLE AT YANAOM EGYPTIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE

Egyptian
deployment Zone
In this zone there are gently
sloping low hills and steeply
sloping high hills with patches of
scrub and rocks.

Middle Zone
This is open ground with a
few fields and a village of mud
brick houses.

Shasu-Habiru
deployment Zone
Gently sloping low hills and
steeply sloping high hills with
rocky crags. SHASU-HABIRU DEPLOYMENT ZONE

New Kingdom
Egyptian light chariots

109
 Egyptian infantry – spearmen, axemen, archers – act in mutual support.

BATTLE AT EGYPTIAN
BETH SHAN DEPLOYMENT
ZONE
Egyptian
deployment Zone
This is open ground with a few
gently sloping low hills. The
Egyptian army deploys here as if it
has just arrived on the battlefield.
Behind the Egyptian position is
the stronghold of Beth Shan, the
gathering point for the Egyptian
army and the strategic base which
they are endeavouring to save
from encirclement.
SHASU-HABIRU
Middle Zone DEPLOYMENT
In the middle of this zone is the ZONE
settlement of Rehob. This is
occupied by the Kharu units of
the Ra Division. The area
around is open fields. SPECIAL RULES
At Hamath the Amun division engages the rebel Hamath
Shasu-Habiru deployment Zone division. The winning division goes on to fight in the battle
This is open ground with a few gently sloping low hills and at Beth Shan, but the losing division does not. At Yenoam
patches of scrub. The Shasu-Habiru army deploys here and the Set division engages the rebel Yenoam division. The
may deploy any units in either or both of the other zones as if winning division goes on to fight in the battle at Beth Shan,
they are surrounding Beth Shan. but the losing division does not. At Beth Shan the Ra
division engages the rebel Pahel division, each side supported
by whatever divisions arrive from the other battles. This
OBJECTIVES could mean that one side is greatly outnumbered. Divisions
The objective of each army in each battle is to break the other that win their battles and turn up at Beth Shan do so without
as defined in the Hail Caesar rulebook. any units that were destroyed in the previous battle, but with
the rest intact. Note that a division that just retreats from the
battlefield straight away does not preserve itself for the last
battle; it has in fact lost it by not fighting!

110
 EGYPTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian medium infantry spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Egyptian light chariots with bows and javelins 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 –
Egyptian chariot runners – Sub unit of chariots
3 3 2 0 6+ 4
light infantry javelinmen Small unit
Hurrian Maryannu light chariots
7 6 3 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters
with bows and spears
Kharu chariot runners – Sub unit of chariots
3 3 2 0 6+ 4
light infantry javelinmen Small unit
Kharu (Hurrian) light infantry archers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Small unit

Notes. Hurrians were called ‘Kharu’ by the Egyptians and ‘Horites’ in the Old Testament. A study of names shows that the warrior
nobility, the Maryannu, of Canaanite cities were often Hurrians. The Egyptians are now belatedly supporting these people against
Habiru incursions. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“There is no one that can approach him on the day of drawing up the line of battle! He
extends the boundaries of Egypt as far as the heavens on every side! The rebels know not
where they can flee!”
From Seti I inscriptions at Karnak, relating to his war against the Shasu

SHASU-HABIRU ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Shasu/Habiru light infantry
7 5 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters, Eager
bodyguard warband with spears and javelins
Habiru light infantry warband
6 5 2 2 6+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
with a mix of javelins/bows
Shasu light infantry warband
6 5 2 0 6+ 6 Marauders, Eager
with spears and javelins
Habiru light infantry with a mix of javelins/bows 4 4 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Light infantry javelinmen 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Marauders, Small unit
Habiru skirmishers with slings/bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit

Notes. The Shasu, often regarded as ‘Edomites’, and the Habiru seem to have been very similar tribes infiltrating Canaan from the
east, especially the wilderness hill country. The Habiru take their name from the term used to describe any nomadic tribe or renegades
who up stakes and leave the kingdom to which they are subject to service in return for grazing rights, as well as fugitives and
freebooters. Enslaved tribes escaping Egypt, Idrimi, deposed chariot lord of Alalakh, and David in his early career as a mercenary,
would all be said to have ‘gone Habiru’ by Canaanite kings. The Egyptians seem to have called all nomadic or bandit tribesmen in the
region, ‘Shasu’ which means ‘wanderers’ or ‘bandits’ and are rarely specific about tribes. The famous ‘Israel’ stele of Merenptah is a
rare occasion when a tribal group was important enough to be given special mention. Some of the light infantry might be city-state
peasant rebels who have joined the Habiru. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

111
 “But the two Shasu who said these
words to His Majesty spoke them
falsely, the wretched King of Hatti
had sent them to spy out where His
Majesty was to prevent his army
being ready to fight…”
The Hittite plan to ambush the Egyptian army of Ramesses II
advancing on Kadesh, which nearly succeeded in wiping out
the Pharaoh’s army, depended on the audacity and bravery of
Hittite agents and scouts. This is a skirmish encounter
between Egyptian and Hittite scouting forces. As the Egyptian
army approached Kadesh expecting the Hittites to be there
already, a pair of Hittite agents pretending to be Shasu nomad
deserters from the Hittite army turned up and told the
Pharaoh that the Hittite army was still a long way off at
Aleppo. Ramesses took the bait and rushed forward to
Kadesh with just the Amun division, crossing over the river
Orontes at the ford of Shabtuna and starting to make camp
before the city. The rest of the Egyptian army was strung out
in column of march trying to catch up. Meanwhile the Hittite
army was much closer than the Egyptians had been led to
112
believe, hidden from view behind the tel of Kadesh as it
manoeuvred into position. At this point Egyptian scouts
brought in some captured Hittite scouts who were
interrogated before Pharaoh. They revealed that the Hittites
were at hand and that the Egyptian army was marching into a
trap. Ramesses called an emergency council of war saying, “I
have heard within this hour, from these two scouts of the
wretched King of Hatti, that he has come with the many ally
contingents who are with him, being infantry and chariotry,
as many as the sand and behold, they stand concealed behind
Old Kadesh.” By this time, the brave Hittites having gritted
their teeth under the beating to delay revealing anything for as
long as possible, the Hittite chariotry was surging across the
Orontes at several fording points and smashing through the
Ra division. What followed was to be an epic battle in which
mounted messengers would continue to play a crucial role.
The Egyptian scenes of the Battle of Kadesh are full of
depictions of mounted scouts of both sides, rushing about
scouting and carrying desperate messages, accompanied by
hieroglyphic texts explaining what they are doing.
THE BATTLE
The Egyptian reconnaissance group has gone ahead of the
army to scout the route and look for a suitable campsite near
Kadesh. Not far away is a Hittite reconnaissance group
attempting to observe the approach of the Egyptian army
undetected and scout for suitable fording points for chariots
along the River Orontes. The Egyptians come down to the
 What are they doing here? Take one alive for interrogation!

river to water the horses and spot the unexpected Hittites
stealthily lurking among the thickets along the opposite
bank. Contact has been made with the enemy! The Egyptian
commander uses his initiative. Finding suitable fording
points was vital to the Hittite plan of a surprise attack with
massed chariots. Later when Hittite chariots were recoiling
from Egyptian counter-attacks, many were unable to reach
the fording points and “plunged into the Orontes one upon
the other like crocodiles” where many Hittites drowned, as
the Egyptian inscriptions gleefully record.
SPECIAL RULES: SKIRMISH
This is a skirmish scenario using the skirmish rules guidelines
in the Setting up the Scenario section.
THE fORCES
The opposing forces (reconnaissance groups) can be chosen
from the Hail Caesar book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical
using the Hittite and New Kingdom Egyptian army list as a
guide. The following is the order of battle for each force.

THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE

HITTITE RECCE GROUP EGYPTIAN RECCE GROUP

Command Squad Command Squad
• Kherpeser, dispatch writer, in chariot (Ld 8) • Horhiwenemef, in chariot (Ld 8)
• 1 light infantry chariot runner model/ • 4 light infantry chariot runner models
dismounted crewman
Cavalry Scout Squad
Cavalry Scout Squad • Leader on horse (Ld 8)
• Leader on horse (Ld 8) • 4 cavalry scouts
• 4 cavalry scouts

Skirmisher/Scout Squad
• Leader on foot (Ld 8)
• 4 Shasus skirmishers/scouts

Note: The names of the commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some real names from the records to stand in
for them and give personality to the commander figures. Kherpeser may not have been the officer in this incident, but his
role is similar and he was listed among the slain at Kadesh. He would have been a military scribe equipped with wax
wooden writing tablets on which to write despatches in cuneiform (exactly like Vindolanda tablets of the Roman period,
indeed one of this period was found on the Ulun Burun shipwreck dating to 1300 BC). Similarly Horhiwenemef may not
have been the Egyptian officer, but he was one of Ramesses II’s many sons who were at the battle recorded as having taken
Hittite prisoners.

113
SCENERY ANd dEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up EGYPTIAN
the Scenario. You could use a smaller table than usual for a DEPLOYMENT
standard game (4' square perhaps). The Egyptian and ZONE
Hittite forces deploy opposite each other in their respective
deployment zones. The scenery is as follows:

Egyptian deployment Zone

This is open level ground, rather dusty pasture and patches
of scrub. At the back of the zone is the mud brick village of
Shabtuna, strangely deserted as if the peasants know
something is going to happen.

Middle Zone
This is mainly open level ground through which runs the
river Orontes. The river joins one short table edge to the
other but meanders. It is summer and so the river is low
and fordable for the entire length represented on the HITTITE
battlefield. Indeed, the Hittite scouts have located a DEPLOYMENT
possible fording point. Their main concern is not so ZONE
much the depth of water but the steepness of the bank,
since they are looking for stretches easily and quickly
fordable for chariots. On this stretch the banks are no
obstacle. Either side of the river are patches of scrub and back to Pharaoh for interrogation. The Hittite objective is to
marshy ground with reeds. avoid capture and silence any Egyptians who spot them
before they can make a report.
Hittite deployment Zone
This is open level ground, rather dusty pasture and open
fields, with a few gently sloping low hills and patches of scrub. SPECIAL RULES
The reconnaissance groups reach the vicinity at roughly
the same time in the early morning, after their armies
OBJECTIVES have broken camp and are on the march. An early
On spotting the Hittites, the Egyptians make their priority morning mist hangs in the Orontes valley limiting
objective to capture alive some prisoners and bring them visibility to a bowshot (18").

Ramesses II holding a council of war at Kadesh (author’s collection).

114
 NEW KINGDOM EGYPTIAN TROOPS (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH MODEL VALUES)
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Commander in chariot (Ld 9) 2 2 1 1 4+ 3 Marksman, Tough Fighter
Light chariot, with two crew,
2 2 1 1 4+ 3 Eager, Tough Fighter
with javelins and bows
Leader on horse as scout (Ld 8) 1 1 1 1 5+ 2 –
Chariot runner with javelin 1 1 1 0 6 1 Can form team with chariot
Cavalry scout with bow 1 1 1 1 6 1 Marauders

Notes. The Egyptians might all be Eager following the example of their rash Commander-in-Chief. Note that variations from the
Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

Shasu mercenary
skirmisher scouts

HITTITE TROOPS (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH MODEL VALUES)

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Tough Fighter,
Commander in chariot (Ld 9) 3 2 1 0 4+ 3
Stubborn (with 3 crew)
Leader on foot 1 1 1 0 5+ 2 –
Leader on horse as scout (Ld 8) 1 1 1 1 5+ 2 –
Chariot runner
1 1 1 0 6 1 Can form team with chariot
(dismounted third crewman) with javelins
Shasu mercenary skirmisher scout 1 1 1 0 6 1 Levy, Wavering
Cavalry scout with bow 1 1 1 1 6 1 Marauders

Notes. If you like, the Shasu might be Hittite spies merely disguised as Shasu nomads and so, untypical of Shasu, might be Brave
and Stubborn! The Hittite chariot can have a chariot runner/third crewman that jumps on and off the chariot as required at no
movement penalty as long as the chariot is next to him for him to mount or dismount (the chariot reverts to two crew if the runner
is on foot.) Note that variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

“The coming of Pharaoh’s scouts

bringing two scouts of the wretched
King of Hatti into Pharaoh’s presence.
They beat them to make them reveal
where the wretched King of Hatti is.”

115
 “He scattered them like straw
before the wind so that they
forsook their city.”
This is an Egyptian assault on a Hittite stronghold. It is five
years after the Battle of Kadesh and Pharaoh Ramesses II is
back, this time even further north and deeper into Hittite
territory than Kadesh! It seems that he is not lacking any of
the bluster, bravado and reckless derring-do of his last
campaign up here on the Orontes. After suppressing
widespread revolts that broke out throughout Canaan
following the Egyptian retreat from Kadesh, Ramesses tried a
different strategy for pushing back the Hittite frontier and
regaining territory. The Egyptian army landed at the
Phoenician ports and headed inland to try and capture two
Hittite strongholds in the Orontes valley. These were Dapur
and Tunip, important fortified cities in the lands of Amurru
and Naharin, located further north than Kadesh.
THE ARMIES – ORdERS Of BATTLE
EGYPTIAN ARMY
Amun Division
• Pharaoh Ramesses II, General (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian chariotry
• 1 small unit of Egyptian chariot runners
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
Ra Assault Division
• Crown Prince Khamwese Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry axemen
• 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry marines
• 3 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 unit of Sherden medium infantry swordsmen
Optional Variations
These forces represent the
minimum. You might like to
have more units on each side
depending on the size of the
fortress you are using.
Note: The names of some of the
commanders are not yet known so
I have picked out some real
names from the records to
stand in for them and
give personality to the
commander figures.
116
THE BATTLE
The battle scenes depicted on the Egyptian temples of the
Ramasseum and Karnak show the Egyptian army besieging
and making an assault on the city of Dapur. The Egyptians
used huge pavises or perhaps tent-like mantlets to protect
their archers as they suppressed the Hittite defenders on the
battlements. Then assault troops rushed forward to attack the
gates with fire and axes and assault the walls with scaling
ladders. Sherden mercenaries were among the shock troops
chosen for the assault. However the Egyptians did not have it
all their own way; the defenders repulsed some assaults, made
sallies and a Hittite relief force attempted to break the siege.
On two occasions the Pharaoh had to leap into action to take
personal command so quickly that he didn’t have time to put
on his coat of scales.
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Hittite and
New Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each army is below.
HITTITE ARMY
Relief Division
• Sahuranuwa, Viceroy of Carchemish, General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Hittite chariotry
• 1 small unit of Hittite light infantry javelinmen
• 1 unit of Hittite medium infantry with long spears
Dapur Garrison Division
• Tiliteshub, Commander (Ld 8)
• 2 units of Hittite medium infantry with long spears
• 2 small units of Hurrian light infantry archers
• 1 small unit of Hupshu light infantry.
Hittite three-crew chariots.
 Hittite defenders are determined to repel the Egyptian attacks.

SCENERY ANd HITTITE

dEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ZONE
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The forces deploy
in their respective deployment
zones. The scenery is as follows:

Hittite
deployment Zone
This is hilly ground with one big
gently sloping low hill. This is
the tel on top of which is the
stronghold of Dapur. This is
interpreted as a big ‘Migdol’ type
fortress. It is rectangular, with EGYPTIAN
towers at the corner. There is no DEPLOYMENT
ditch or moat around it, just the
sloping hillside. The Hittite
ZONE
garrison deploys occupying this
feature. The stronghold has been
undermined and part of the walls, maybe a tower, has OBJECTIVES
collapsed so there are breaches counting as linear obstacles. The Hittite objective is to hold Dapur and if possible break
Also the gates have been attacked repeatedly and are the siege by breaking the Egyptian army. The Egyptian
smashed and burnt. The gateway is passable, but barricaded objective is to take Dapur by storm and repel the Hittite
so presenting an obstacle. Intact sections can be assaulted by attempt to relieve the stronghold.
units equipped with scaling ladders and so the battlement
on top of the wall is a linear obstacle. New Kingdom
Egyptian marines
Middle Zone
This is open ground with little cover for the attackers. The
Hittite relief force deploys in the Hittite third turn, on the
short edge of this zone, on the right flank of the Egyptians.

Egyptian deployment Zone

This is open ground with patches of wood and scrub. The
Egyptian assault division deploys far forward on the edge of
the zone or even up to 12" into the middle zone.

117
SPECIAL RULES
Players might like to refer to the siege rules in the Rome’s
Dacian Wars supplement by Craig Woodfield to represent the
Egyptian assault on the ramparts of Dapur. Building on these
and adapting for Bronze Age methods are the guidelines
summarised below:
• Assaulting units attack the defenders holding a
battlement by ‘charging’ the wall and suffer a -1 penalty
to hit against the defenders.
• Defenders count as ‘uphill’ and in fortifications.
• ‘Give ground in good order’ results can be interpreted
by the defender as ‘hold ground’, but ‘give ground
disordered’ still counts.
• If a defending unit is destroyed or falls back, the
attacking unit moves onto the rampart but does
nothing in the following move while the attackers
strengthen their hold.
• Defenders sometimes dropped rocks or firebrands onto
an assaulting unit. If so the attacking unit takes D3 hits
(no morale save).
• A unit holding a rampart can fight enemy also on the
rampart as if it was a flank attack. A unit holding a
rampart that is attacked by defenders from inside the
fortification counts as uphill.
Once more into the breach! Fierce Sherden lead the assault.
118
• The ‘Stamina’ value of a Bronze Age city gate of massive
cedar beams bound with bronze is 8 and that of a
massive, thick mud brick wall is 15. Types of stone wall
would be 20 to 30, and cyclopean walls are off the scale.
• An assaulting unit using a battering ram can re-roll half
its attacks against the gate or wall.
• A unit can attack a wall or gate by moving into contact
with it. Defenders are not engaged but can use short
range attacks against the attackers.
• Troops providing missile support to those assaulting the
walls can shoot over them at the defenders who are
higher up.
• A unit on a section of wall that collapses suffers D3 hits
and is disordered.
• Ruined walls and battered down gates become
linear obstacles.
• Treat huge pavises and mantlets as very big shields each
providing cover for two or three models from enemy
missiles. A unit equipped with these is -1 to hit and has
+1 to its ‘morale’. The protected models can of course
shoot from behind their pavises and can even move
forward slowly while sheltering behind their pavises,
which are discarded on contact with enemy troops, walls,
gates or obstacles.
 The ‘Gold of Valour’ for he who is first through the enemy wall!

EGYPTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian medium infantry axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 –
Egyptian medium infantry marines 7 7 3 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Pavise (see above)
Sherden medium infantry 7 7 3 0 5+ 6 Elite, Stubborn
Egyptian light chariots with bows and javelins 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 –
Egyptian chariot runners with javelins 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots

Notes. Egyptian medium infantry archers and assault troops can have pavises. Infantry assault units are equipped with scaling
ladders. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

HITTITE ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Hittite or ally medium infantry
6 6 3/0 0 5+ 6 –
with long spears (Tehuyeru)
Hupshu light infantry with a mix of javelins/bows 4 4 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Hurrian light infantry archers 3 3 3 3 0 4 Small unit
Hittite Maryannu/three- crew light chariots
8 6 2 0 6+ 4 Tough Fighters
with spears, javelins and bows
Hittite chariot runners/
3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots
dismounted crewman with javelins

Notes. If or when Hittite chariot third crewmen are operating dismounted as a chariot runner sub unit, then the Hittite chariots are
operating with two crew and have a clash value of 7. Defending infantry units in the fortress are equipped with firebrands. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

119
The New Kingdom Egyptians were among the first to organise a regular army with regiments and distinctive uniforms, assisting recognition on the battlefield.

120
 THE FALL OF EMPIRES
After the Egyptians and the Hittites had made peace, both
empires concentrated on guarding their other frontiers.
A new menace had arisen in the west. Sea Raiders from
Mediterranean islands, the Balkans and coastal regions of
Anatolia were making raids on the coasts of Egypt, Cyprus
and Phoenicia. Sometimes raiders were captured and
recruited as mercenaries. Many were well armed with long
bronze slashing swords and sheet bronze armour. These foot
warriors had an aggressive style of fighting with swords,
bucklers and javelins and were not scared of taking on
chariot warriors at all. Since the raiders usually appeared
from over the horizon in ships, they were known as the Sea
Peoples (or more literally ‘from the midst of the sea’.) In
Canaan, the bands of Habiru bandits, often made up of
renegade peasants and various nomadic tribes often joined
forces to defend themselves against the chariot warriors of the
Canaanite city states or even to try and capture cities and
territory. They relied on cunning plans, inspired leadership
and the stealth of nomadic tribal warfare to catch their
chariot foes at a disadvantage.
On the Hittites’ western front, the Acheans were becoming
ever more aggressive and had established a foothold from
where their warlords supported rebels against the Hittite
Empire. Although an effective frontier had been established
to the north to curb the raids of the Kaska by Hattusili III,
these remained a constant threat. At some point, either
towards the end of the Hittite empire or just afterwards, a
coalition of Achaean kingdoms led by Agamemnon of
Mycenae, vanquished the city and kingdom of Troy. It
appears that this time the Hittites were unable to support
their ally as they had done before. The fall of this powerful
kingdom opened the way for invaders from Europe to move
into Anatolia.
Along the long frontier of Egypt facing the western desert,
the Egyptians began building forts and oasis outposts against
the increasing menace of Libyan tribal raiders. One of these
has been found at El Alamein. The Sea Peoples had
established trading colonies on the North African coast
where they traded with the locals and supplied them with the
latest pattern of bronze swords and chariots. The first great
onslaught of Libyan tribes allied with Sea Peoples was made
against Egypt in the reign of Merenptah, Ramesses II’s son
and successor. It was repulsed, but civil war in Egypt
distracted the Egyptians from the threat and when Ramesses
III secured the throne he had to mobilise the country against
three successive onslaughts. The first came from Libya, the
next, an onslaught of Sea Peoples, came by land through
Canaan and also by sea directly against the Nile Delta. The
third came again from Libya. Egypt was victorious, but other
lands had not been so lucky.
121
The horde of Sea Peoples, described by the Egyptians as a
‘conspiracy’, had swept along the coastal regions of Anatolia,
smashing the armies of the Hittites and their allies from
Ugarit. This left Ugarit, Phoenicia and Cyprus virtually
undefended from attack.
Ramesses III had moved north to engage the enemy
somewhere in Canaan. Whatever happened there, one result
seems to have been the settlement of the Peleset along the
Canaanite coast, perhaps initially as a defeated subject people
of the Pharaoh. This area became known as Philistia and the
Philistines soon clashed with the Habiru of the highlands
following the end of Egyptian rule in the region. The Sea
Peoples were not the main culprits for the overthrow of the
Hittite kingdom. The Kaska and mysterious Mushki or
Phrygians overran the Hittite heartland and ended up
threatening the western borders of Assyria. It seems that the
Hittites abandoned or were thrown out of their capital at
Hattusas and many migrated into the Syrian regions of the
empire, founding the Neo-Hittite successor states.
Although Egypt had survived the Sea Peoples, she had lost
her empire in Asia and was soon to lose control of Nubia and
Kush. The New Kingdom regime was suffering economic
problems and decline. Meshwesh Libyan tribesmen were
continuing to raid the country and mercenary warlords
settled in Egypt were on the brink of taking over. When the
viceroy of Nubia intervened to restore order in Upper Egypt,
he was eventually turned into a foe and chased back into
Nubia, resulting in the loss of that region and the splitting of
Egypt into two lands. Far away in Babylonia, the Kassite
Babylonians had provoked trouble by making forays into
Elam. A resurgent Elam led by Shuthruk-Nahhunte invaded
Babylonia and inflicted a devastating defeat on the Kassites
leading to the fall of the dynasty. Eventually Babylonia, under
a new dynasty, would have revenge and defeat Elam in a great
chariot battle near Susa. Far to the west, the Achaean
triumph over Troy and the exhausting effort of the war led to
the fall of many Achaean kingdoms, some of which were
attacked by sea raiders. By this time iron was beginning to
appear as an alternative to bronze for weapons and armour,
and there was an increasing use of cavalry. Assyria and
Assyrian military innovations would dominate the early part
of the Iron Age.
 “If the sea rages and the wind drives
me to your land, surely you will
not let them slay me.”
Wenamun to the Queen of Alashiya
This is a skirmish between shipwrecked Phoenicians and Sea-
People pirates based on Cyprus. Two of the most important
Phoenician city states were Byblos and Ugarit. The former was
usually an ally of Egypt, while the latter was an ally first of
Mitanni, then the Hittites. Both city states had fleets of trading
ships and Ugarit was also powerful on land, having troops to
send as an ally contingent for the Hittite king. Ugarit was sacked
by Sea People raiders around the time that the Hittite Empire
fell, her troops had been sent to help the Hittites, but never
returned, leaving her defenceless. Byblos survived to become a
leading Phoenician city of the Iron Age. The Phoenician ships
were crewed by marines and were like the vessel discovered on
the seabed off the Anatolian coast known as the Ulun-Burun
shipwreck. Cyprus was known as Alashiya (or the most
important kingdom on Cyprus was known thus) and was
accused of harbouring pirates, although Alashiya was herself
more often the victim of pirate raids and Sea People settlement.
beaches further along the coast. The pirates head along
the beach for the stricken Phoenician ship and its crew.
Fortunately the crew include Phoenician marines from
Ugarit (Medergelem (guards), Tennem (hand-to-hand fighters)
or Sherden mercenaries.) Not only that, but the pirate ship
was spotted by a local Alashiyan maryannu chariot noble,
who hurries down to the beach with his followers, eager to
do battle with the pirates. He joins the Phoenicians. Each
ship has a crew of about 20 to 30 men, including sailors,
rowers, marines and warriors.
The ships’ captains are the ‘generals’, but the Phoenicians
can subordinate themselves to the command of the local
Maryannu lord if they like (and are wise).
SPECIAL RULES: SKIRMISH
This is a skirmish scenario using the skirmish rules guidelines
in the Setting up the Scenario section.
THE FORCES
The opposing forces can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Mitanni and
Sea Peoples’ army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each force is on the following page.

THE SKIRMISH
Attack by pirates, such as the Lukka, Tjekker or “Shikala SCENERY AND DEPLOYMENT
who live on ships” (Sheklesh) and shipwreck were frequent Set up the battlefield as described in the section
hazards. This scenario imagines a Phoenician ship with Setting up the Scenario. The forces deploy opposite each other
treasure and important dignitaries on board (who might in their respective deployment zones.
be ransomed) that is forced to beach on the shores of
Alashiya because of a storm. While beached and being The scenery is as follows:
repaired, a pirate ship appears round the headland and
Phoenician
Deployment Zone
This is open beach with the sea
behind and the beached
PHOENICIAN
DEPLOYMENT Phoenician ship in the middle.
ZONE
The ship can be occupied as if it
was a timber building.

Middle Zone
This is open sandy beach
with groups of rocks here and
there providing cover and
presenting obstacles.

Pirate
Deployment Zone
This is an area of sand dunes
with outcrops of rocky crags and
scrub. The Pirates deploy in this
PIRATE DEPLOYMENT ZONE area to begin their attack on the
shipwrecked Phoenicians.

122
OBJECTIVES
The objective of each army is to break the other as defined in
the Hail Caesar rulebook. “A storm broke while we were yet at
sea, before we had reached land. We
flew before the wind.”

Sea People pirates

THE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

PHOENICIAN CREW SEA PEOPLE’S CREW

Ugarit Marine Squad Tjekker Chief’s Henchmen Squad
• Niqmepa, Captain on foot • Tjekkerbaal, Captain on foot
• 4 medium infantry models • 4 medium infantry bodyguard models

Ugarit Marine Squad Tjekker Warrior Squad

• Ship’s captain on foot • Leader on foot
• 4 Sherden Mercenary medium infantry models • 4 medium infantry warrior models

Ugarit light infantry Squad Tjekker light infantry Warrior Squad

• Leader on foot • Leader on foot
• 4 light infantry archer models • 4 light infantry warrior models

Alashiyan Maryannu Squad Tjekker light infantry Warrior Squad

• Leader in chariot • Leader on foot
• 4 light infantry chariot runner models • 4 light infantry warrior models

Phoenician Sailors, Skirmisher Squad Rowers Skirmisher Squad

• Leader on foot • Leader on foot
• 4 skirmishers with javelins models • 4 skirmisher models
with javelins
Phoenician Sailors, Skirmisher Squad
• Leader on foot Rowers Skirmisher Squad
• 4 skirmisher slinger models • Leader on foot
• 4 skirmisher archer models
Baggage group
• Leader on foot
• 1 bodyguard model
• 3 dignitaries (priests and priestesses of Baal or Astarte)

Note: All commanders/leaders have Ld 8 except the Maryannu who has Ld 9. To give personality to the commander
figures I suggest giving Phoenician leaders names ending in ‘Baal’ and the pirate leaders’ names beginning with ‘Tjekker’.
A character called Tjekkerbaal was ruler of Byblos in the Egyptian tale of Wenamun, an Egyptian envoy that had a lot of
trouble with Tjekker pirates and Alashiya. Although I am calling the pirates Tjekker, they could be any of the Sea-Peoples.

123
 PHOENICIAN TROOPS (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH MODEL VALUES)
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Commander in chariot (Ld 9) 3 2 1 1 4+ 3 Marksman, Tough Fighter
Commander/Leader on foot (Ld 8) 2 2 1 0 5+ 2 –
Ugarit medium infantry marine
2 1 1 1 5+ 1 –
with javelin and bow
Ugarit light infantry archer 1 1 1 1 6 1 –
Sherden mercenary medium infantry swordsman 2 1 1 0 5+ 1 Tough Fighter
Chariot runner with javelin 1 1 1 0 6 1 Can form team with chariot
Skirmisher with javelin 1 1 1 0 6 1 Levy
Skirmisher slinger 1 1 1 1 6 1 Levy
Dignitary’s bodyguard 2 2 1 0 5+ 1 Stubborn

Notes. The values of models are based on the values of a tiny unit with modifications to reflect different warrior types. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

SEA PEOPLE PIRATE TROOPS (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH MODEL VALUES)

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Commander/Leader on foot (Ld 8) 2 2 1 0 5+ 2 Stubborn, Tough Fighter
Medium infantry Warrior Henchman 2 1 1 0 5+ 1 Tough Fighter
Medium infantry Warrior Swordsman 1 1 1 0 5+ 1 Wild Fighter
Light infantry Warrior Javelinman 1 1 1 0 6 1 –
Skirmisher Javelinman 1 1 1 0 6 1 –
Skirmisher Archer 1 1 1 1 6 1 –

Notes. The values of models are based on the values of a tiny unit with modifications to reflect different warrior types. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

Bronze Age seafarers in the Mediterranean risked attack from ‘Sea Peoples’ pirates.

124
 “He shall not see tomorrow, who
invades Pharaoh’s frontier!”
This is a mighty set-piece battle between the New Kingdom
Egyptian army of Pharaoh Merenptah and the Libyan and
Sea People alliance army led by the Meshwesh chieftain
Meryey. It was a decisive battle with the fate of Egypt at stake.
Years after the battle some trainee Egyptian scribes were
using an army surplus papyrus for their school exercises. This
survived and is now known as ‘Papyrus Anastasi III’. On the
reverse side are the original military records of the eastern
frontier fortress of Tjaru, recording every messenger passing
through the frontier post to and from the Pharaoh in Syria
with his army. One entry reads: “Year 3, 1st month of 3rd
season, day 21 there returned the stable master Pemerkhetem,
son of Ani, of the town of Merneptah in the district of Aram
who had with him for the place where the king was two
letters: for the captain of infantry Paramahab one letter, for
the deputy Paramahab one letter.” (One hopes each got the
right letter!) So we know that Merenptah was on the
northern frontier of the Egyptian Empire in the third year of
his reign. (Probably the campaign in which he chased off
some Israelites as recorded in the famous ‘Israel’ stele.) While
he was there, trouble was brewing up like a desert sandstorm
on the western frontier, coming out of the vast Sahara to
threaten the very existence of Egypt herself.
What happened next is recorded in inscriptions at the temple
of Karnak as well as the “Cairo Column,” the Athribis Stela
and the ‘Israel’ Stele. The scribes give us enough tactical
detail to gladden a wargamer’s heart, as well as speeches of
Pharaoh himself. The scribes, as was their habit, took chunks
of text directly from official military records and reports
including inventories of booty and prisoners of war.
By year 5 of his reign, Pharaoh Merenptah was back in
Egypt to organise the defence of the homeland itself.
Reports were coming in from the western outpost forts:
“The chief of Libya, Meryey, son of Deyed, has fallen upon
the country of Tjehenu with his bowmen, as well as
Sherden, Sheklesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh, allies. Taking
the best warriors and every runner of his country he has
brought his dependants and camp and has reached the
western frontier in the Fields of Peryeru.” The Libyan
tribesmen were stiffened with contingents of Sea People
adventurers from the Mediterranean islands and Balkans,
the most formidable and well armed shock troops the
Bronze Age had seen and they had traded long slashing
swords to their Libyan friends. Now, raiding parties were
coming out from this huge confederation encamped at the
gates of Egypt and poised to invade. “They have repeatedly
penetrated the fields of Egypt to the great river (Nile) …
they have reached the hills of the Fay’um oasis, and have
cut off the district of Toyeh.” Hunger had forced the tribes
125
to try and invade: “They come to Egypt to feed themselves.”
The cornfields and herds of cattle grazing on the pastures
along the Nile were their objective. Already the depot
assigned to despatch grain to relieve the famine in the
Hittite country had been put out of action.
The horde had approached the very neck of the Nile valley
between the Delta and Upper Egypt, dangerously close to the
capital at Memphis. The Pharaoh had to act fast “to protect
Heliopolis, Memphis and the approaches to Per Berset, as far
as the Shakana canal on the west of the Ety canal.”
Merenptah blamed earlier Pharaohs for being complacent
about Egypt’s 600 mile vulnerable flank “for lack of troops
they had not enough bowmen to answer against them.” How
do you defend such a frontier? The outer oases had small
garrisons and Merenptah’s father, Ramesses II, had even
chosen the natural defensive position of El Alamein to build
a fort there (now under WW2 minefields) to counter the Sea
People trading colony at Mersa-Matruh, but somehow the
Libyans had outflanked these outposts.
THE BATTLE
Egypt mobilised on the orders of Pharaoh: “The best of his
bowmen were mustered, his chariotry was brought up” and
scouts were out in the desert observing the foe. Then the
Egyptian army moved forward to take up a defensive
position. “His infantry marched out, heavily armed hand-to-
hand combat troops arrived, leading the archers against the
enemy lands.” According to Egyptian records, the “infantry
and chariotry in great number were deployed before them on
the desert edge in front of the district of Peryeru.”
Apparently only two divisions, the Amun division and the
Set division, were available; the other two divisions Ra and
Ptah being presumably deployed in Syria or Kush.
Now, whenever a Pharaoh was vexed by a great peril
threatening his realm he had a dream. Before battle,
Merenptah dreamt that the god Ptah of Memphis appeared
to him and handed him a khopesh sword. “Banish the fear
from your heart,” he said. It was a good omen! That night
the Libyans approached. “Behold, the chief of Libya came
in the night of the second day of the third month of the
third season, when the land grew light enough for
advancing with his army. He attacked on the third day…” In
response; “the infantry of His Majesty went forth, together
with his chariotry.”
Perhaps Meryey was hoping that a dawn attack with the rising
sun casting long shadows from the dunes would make his
troops obscure targets for the Egyptian archers. Dead ground
between dunes and jebels can give cover to stealthy advancing
foes, but the Egyptian archers were expertly deployed and
ready for the onrush: “The bowmen of His Majesty spent six
hours of destruction among them; then they were put to the
sword!” The Egyptian battle line was deployed on the desert
edge with the archers to the fore. Supporting them were the
hand-to-hand combat troops, ready to engage any enemy
determined enough to push on through the hail of arrows.
Behind them or on the flanks were the chariotry, supported
by runners and cavalry (a recent innovation) ready to pursue
the broken enemy far into the desert.
The bravest and best of the Libyan and Sea People warbands
rushed towards the Egyptian line brandishing their long
slashing swords, regardless of the volleys of arrows, to engage
with the Egyptian hand-to-hand fighters. The more reluctant
tribal contingents – the archers and the less well armed
tribesmen – did not follow up to support them. Instead,
“their foremost columns they left behind them and their feet
made no stand but fled. Their archers threw down their bows
… they loosed their water skins and threw them to the
ground.” Soon Meryey himself gave up the fight: “their chief
halted, and then withdrew, leaving his sandals, bow and
quiver in haste behind him.” The Libyans and Sea Peoples
had spent all day attacking the Egyptian battle line in vain
and as the sun set on the desert strewn with the fallen
tribesmen Meryey: “fled under cover of darkness alone with
no plume upon his head.” He threw off his chiefly insignia to
avoid recognition by the pursuing Egyptians.
As soon as the enemy began to flee, “the chariot warriors
(senenu) who were riding horses set themselves after them and
felled them with arrows.” The Pharaoh had converted some of
his chariot crews into cavalry so that the fleeing foe might be
pursued deep into the desert. Indeed, the Egyptians overran
the enemy encampments and began feasting on the herds of
cattle that evening amid burning tents. As the Egyptian texts
tell us, “we roasted their camp!” As for the enemy they were
“like locusts, for every road is strewed with their bodies.” The
fleeing foe were pursued as far as the “Horns of the Earth” –
rock formations deep in the Sahara. The Egyptian army was
victorious: “Then returned the captains of the archers, the
infantry (menfyt) and chariotry, whether recruits or veteran
hand-to-hand fighters, carrying off plunder.” Scribes began
counting the hands of the slain which were cut off by the
Egyptian soldiers, each soldier being rewarded with a gold
piece for every enemy hand brought in.
Soon after the battle “the commander of the fortress of the
west reported that the defeated Meryey has passed by in the
night. It is not known if he is alive or dead. If he lives he will
not again command; for he has become the enemy of his own
troops, for they have put another in his place from among his
brothers, another who will fight him when he sees him! All
the chiefs are bitter.” The Libyan and Sea People coalition
broke up in the aftermath of defeat and Meryey was deposed.
Egypt was safe for the time being. Years later Ramesses III
would have to mobilise Egypt to repel these foes again.
Victories would be won, but the Empire would be lost.
126
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar book
of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the New Kingdom
Egyptian, Libyan and Sea Peoples army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each army on the opposite page is
derived from the surviving records which are very helpful.
SCENERY AND DEPLOYMENT
The Libyan table edge represents the limitless Sahara desert
while the Egyptian table edge represents the beginning of the
cultivated fields of the Nile valley.
The Egyptian battle line drew up along the desert edge facing
the enemy approaching from the West at dawn.
Set up the battlefield as described in the section Setting up the
Scenario. The Libyan and Egyptian forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective deployment zones.
The scenery is as follows:
Libyan Deployment Zone
The Libyan table edge represents the limitless Sahara desert.
The Libyans might thus have an initial advantage of coming
over a low ridge or jebel or sand dunes (low hills), but they
would have to forgo any rising ground to attack the
Egyptians. This area therefore has several gently sloping low
hills or sand dunes.
Middle Zone
This is open level desert with one or two sand dunes.
Egyptian Deployment Zone
The Egyptian table edge represents the beginning of the
cultivated fields of the Nile valley. The Egyptian battle line
drew up along the desert edge facing the enemy approaching
from the West at dawn. This area can have several fields with
boundary ditches and palm groves.
The Sea Peoples and Set Division possibly deployed on the
northern side of the battlefield as this would be nearest their
own line of retreat to the sea or to the HQ of the Set
Division at Pi-Ramesses. Amun Division could thus retreat
south to defend Upper Egypt and its HQ at Thebes. The
Libyan third division represents a second wave of lesser tribes
cajoled into joining the alliance by the dominant Meshwesh
tribe. The Egyptian reserve division is made up of chariotry
drawn from the other divisions to be a pursuit force together
with the innovative cavalry force.
Libyan skirmishers
OBJECTIVES
The objective of each army is to LIBYAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
defeat the other as defined in the
Hail Caesar rulebook.

History shows the results of the

Egyptians breaking the Libyan
army. If the Egyptian army
breaks it might be as bad for
Egypt as when the Hyksos
invaded long before!

EGYPTIAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE

THE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

LIBYAN ARMY EGYPTIAN ARMY

Meryey’s Meshwesh Division Amun Division
• Meryey, General (Ld 8) • Merenptah, Pharaoh of Egypt, General (Ld 8)
• 3 Meshwesh warbands • 3 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 Libu warband • 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry spearmen
• 1 Kehek warband • 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry axemen
• 1 Libu chariotry unit
Set Division
Sea Peoples Allies Division • Sutekhmose, Egyptian Commander (Ld 8)
• Tyrsen, Sea Peoples’ Commander (Ld 8) • 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
• 1 Ekwesh warband • 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry levy spearmen
• 1 Teresh warband • 1 unit of Egyptian medium infantry axemen
• 1 Lukka warband
• 1 Sherden warband Chariotry & Cavalry Division
• 1 Sheklesh warband • Yenuwa, Egyptian Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of Sea Peoples skirmishers • 2 units of Egyptian chariotry
• 2 small units of
Libyan Tribal Allies Division Egyptian chariot runners
• Mabara, Libu Commander (Ld 7) • 2 small units of
• 6 units of Libu, Kehek, Tjemehu, Tjehenu, Seped and Egyptian cavalry
other tribal javelinmen or archer units • 1 small unit of Nubian
• 2 small units of Libu, and other tribal skirmishers skirmishers/scouts
• 1 unit of baggage with herds and tents

Optional Variations
From all the contingents and troop types actually mentioned in the records we can make up the two full armies listed
above. This represents the minimum present at the battle which you can expand upon. The list of slain, captives and
booty might hint at the strengths of particular contingents. There were probably several Meshwesh warbands and twice
as many Ekwesh (Achaeans) and Teresh as other Sea Peoples. These contingents might be represented by big units.
There were probably many regiments of Egyptian archers and close-combat troops and several chariot squadrons. You do
not have to stick rigidly to this order of battle or divisional organisation. Undoubtedly various other options were
debated at the councils of war held by Meryey and his chiefs and Pharaoh and his generals!
Note: Apart from the generals, the names of the commanders are not yet known so I have picked out some real names
from the records and despatches to stand in for them and give personality to the commander figures.

127
 EGYPTIAN ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian medium spearmen 6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Two units are levy
Egyptian medium axemen 7 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 One unit may be Stubborn
Egyptian medium archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 One unit may be Marksmen
Egyptian light chariots with bows and javelins 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 –
Egyptian chariot runners with javelins 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Small unit, Sub unit of chariots
Nubian skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Egyptian cavalry with bows 4 2 1 1 6+ 4 Small unit, Marauders

Notes. Since the best of the Libyan and Sea People warriors are described as “runners”, which to the Egyptians means troops who
are not a bit scared of chariots and likely to counter-charge them with success; it is probably a wise option to hold back the chariotry
and let the dense masses of Egyptian close combat infantry and archers do the main job. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar
army lists apply only to this scenario.

“Sit down happily and talk or walk far out upon the way.
For there is no more fear in the hearts of the people.
The forts can look after themselves, the wells are opened again.
The sentries patrol the battlements shaded from the sun; the soldiers lie sleeping.”
Merenptah’s Victory Poem

LIBYAN ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Meshwesh Libyan light infantry warband
7 5 2 1 6+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
– swordsmen
Libyan light infantry warband with
7 5 2 1 6+ 6 Wild Fighters
mixed bows/javelins
Libyan light infantry with javelins 7 5 2 0 6+ 6 –
Libyan light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 Wavering
Ekwesh (Achaean) medium infantry
6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Stubborn
with swords and javelins
Teresh light infantry warband
8 5 2 0 6+ 6 Tough Fighters
with swords and javelins
Lukka medium infantry warband
8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Wild Fighters
with swords and javelins
Sherden medium infantry warband – swordsmen 8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
Sheklesh medium infantry warband
8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Wild Fighters
with swords and javelins
Libyan skirmishers with bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Libyan/Sea People skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Small unit
Libyan two-horse light chariots with bows 6 5 3 3 4+ 6 Marauders
Baggage herds and guards 3 3 1 0 4+ 6 Stubborn

Notes. The Sea Peoples are Bronze Age sword and buckler men, a troop type that has hacked clean through serried ranks of
disciplined soldiers time and again throughout history! They are described in Egyptian records as “northerners from islands in the
midst of the sea.” Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

128
 “As I am a loyal servant of the king my
lord, I am indeed guarding Hazor
together with its villages for the king.”
Message of Abdi-Tirsi, the ruler of Hazor
This is the inevitable clash between the chariot forces of
the Canaanite city states, under the leadership of Hazor,
and the massed tribesmen of the Habiru and Israelites
from the hill country, intent on settling in the lowlands.
This is thus also a battle between a chariot army with its
main strength in chariots rather than infantry and an
infantry army lacking any chariots at all and relying entirely
on lightly armed tribal warriors. For most of the time the
Canaanites would have been able to ward off the nomadic
tribesmen and bandits from the highlands, but on rare
occasions and under inspired leadership the massed tribal
host was able to overcome and utterly defeat a superior
chariot army. This happened at least twice to the powerful
city state of Hazor. The first was at the Battle of the Waters
of Merom where Joshua defeated Jabin, king of Hazor, and
went on to burn Hazor. It was probably the lower city that
was burnt, which had been added in the Hyksos period as
a sector for the chariot stables. Later, Deborah and Barak
defeated Jabin again (or a later king Jabin) and his general
Sisera at the Battle of Mount Tabor.
Excavations at Hazor revealed a burnt stratum dated to circa
1200 BC. Archaeology also revealed that Hazor was a
mighty city organised as a base for chariots not only in
Bronze Age Canaanite times but again in the early Iron Age
as part of King Solomon’s network of chariot cities. Going
back to the days of the Egyptian empire, there are records
that refer to Hazor and the Habiru menace. One of the
Marshy ground, gullies and streams are the worst terrain for chariots.
129
Amarna Letters tells us that “the one who raids the king’s
land is the king of Sidon. The king of Hazor has abandoned
his house and joined with the Habiru. These are
treacherous guys; they have taken over the king’s land for
the Habiru. May the king ask his commissioner; he knows
Canaan.” When the Pharaoh investigated he received the
“message of the king of Hazor; I fall at the feet of my lord,
behold, I have the cities of the king my lord under guard
until my lord reaches me.” Again in another message he
says; “as I am a loyal servant of the king my lord I am
indeed guarding Hazor together with its villages for the
king. Another ally of Pharaoh, Ayyab, had this to say:
“Truly I have guarded very carefully the cities of the king.
Be aware that it is the ruler of Hazor who has taken three
cities from me. From the moment I heard this there has
been war waging against him.”
It seems likely that Joshua fought against Hazor towards the
end of the Egyptian empire if not later at a time when Hazor
had built up her power and led a coalition of Canaanite
cities including Taanach and Megiddo. The mighty chariot
army of Hazor went out to fight Joshua; “and they went out
… and all their hosts with them … even as the sand that is
upon the sea shore in multitude with horses and chariots
very many. And when all these kings were met together they
came and pitched camp together at the Waters of Merom to
fight against Israel.” (Joshua Chapter 11.) Joshua defeated
the army of Hazor and “took Hazor and smote the king
(Jabin) thereof with the sword for Hazor beforetime was the
head of all those kingdoms.” One theory is that Joshua’s
battle is somehow linked to Deborah and Barak’s battle and
there was only one King Jabin. Another suggests that Hazor
recovered her strength under a new king Jabin, or the same
man, who appointed the general Sisera as his ‘Master of
Chariots’. Who was this mysterious Sisera? Was it Sisera
who supplied or rebuilt the replacement chariot force? Was
Hazor being supported by another great power? Was Sisera
an Egyptian or Hurrian?
THE BATTLE
At the time of this battle the Old Testament says “Jabin king
of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor; the captain of whose host
was Sisera…” (Judges, 4) and that “…he had 900 chariots of
iron…” The number of chariots can be compared to the
similar number captured by the Egyptians at Megiddo and so
is not too many for a coalition of Canaanite city states. It
would amount to six typical regiments of the period; each
made up of six squadrons and thus could be the combined
force of from three to six powerful city states, such as Hazor,
Taanach and Megiddo. If this battle was fought at the end of
the Bronze Age then it might be possible for chariots to have
iron tyres or some iron scales on the horse bards, although
the Biblical expression may just mean ‘armoured’ chariots.
With this powerful force, Sisera was keeping the Israelite
tribes at bay and ‘oppressing’ them. They were restricted to
the barren highlands and came down into the valleys at their
peril. The Israelite leader, Barak went to consult with the
prophetess Deborah as to the best strategy to overcome
Sisera. She told him to gather ten thousand tribesmen on the
THE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE
HAZOR CANAANITE ARMY
Sisera’s Division
• Sisera, Maryannu General (Ld 9)
• 1 unit of Maryannu light chariots
• 1 unit of light chariots
• 2 small units of chariot runners
• 1 unit of Canaanite medium infantry with spears and bows
• 1 small unit of Canaanite light infantry archers
Hazor Division
• Jabin, King of Hazor, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Maryannu light chariots
• 1 unit of light chariots
• 2 small units of chariot runners
• 1 unit of Canaanite medium infantry with spears and bows
• 1 small unit of Canaanite light infantry archers
Ally Cities Division
• Abdi-Tirshi, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of Maryannu light chariots
• 1 unit of light chariots
• 2 small units of chariot runners
• 1 unit of Canaanite medium infantry with spears and bows
• 1 tiny unit of nomad (Kenite?) skirmisher scouts
Optional Variations
You can increase the strength of the Israelite-Habiru army to make
them a real threat, but if so add more of the most lightly armed troops.
Note: The names of the notable commanders are known from the Book
of Judges. Others are taken from contemporary records to give
personality to commander models.
Canaanite light
infantry archers
130
steep and rugged slopes of Mount Tabor where the Israelite
god had told her “I will draw unto thee, to the river Kishon,
Sisera the captain of Jabin’s army, with his chariots and his
multitudes and I will deliver him into thine hand.” Barak
asked Deborah to join him in commanding part of the tribal
army, so that the tribal warriors would be all the more
confident, and she agreed, but told him that this would
mean that she would claim the credit for defeating Sisera.
Indeed Deborah’s special skill as a prophetess would prove
decisive in choosing the right moment to attack.
Finding out that a huge horde of Israelite tribesmen were
massing on Mount Tabor, Sisera led out the Canaanite
chariot army to confront them. He would either overwhelm
them in the valley or cause them to stay on the high ground
through fear of the chariots. The Canaanite army drew up
along the Kishon brook facing the foe, who stayed up on the
high ground not daring to come down. Most of the
tribesmen were poorly armed with barely any bronze
weaponry among them. The chariots were by the water and
so could wait as long as it took while the tribesmen got
ISRAELITE
Barak’s Division
• Barak, General (Ld 9)
• 1 Chief’s retinue unit
• 2 warbands of Napthali or Zebulun light infantry
• 1 small unit of Habiru light infantry
• 1 small unit of light infantry slingers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
Deborah’s Division
• Deborah, Commander (Ld 10)
• 2 warbands of Napthali or Zebulun light infantry
• 1 small unit of Habiru light infantry
• 1 small unit of light infantry slingers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
Ephraimite Division
• Yashuya, Commander (Ld 8)
• 3 Habiru light infantry warbands
• 1 small unit of light infantry slingers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
thirsty and had to do something. Deborah was watching the
skies. She observed a cloudburst some distance away, but
knew that it was over the catchment area of the Kishon
brook. This meant that there would soon be a flash flood in
the normally dry and fordable river valley. In fact the rise in
the water would soon make the area very boggy.
from one short edge to the other, meandering a lot and
closer to the Canaanite deployment zone than the Habiru
deployment zone. It is fordable in the first turn of the game
and a linear obstacle thereafter. See ‘Special Rules’ below for
the sudden change to the stream and the addition of patches
of boggy ground.

Then Deborah gave the signal and the Israelite host suddenly
began descending the slopes of Mount Tabor and threatening
the Canaanites with slingshot. This was what Sisera had been
waiting for and he unleashed the massed chariots to ride
down the tribesmen and pursue them to destruction. The
chariots surged forward straight into the boggy ground
between them and the Israelites and got into difficulties,
unable to manoeuvre and turn about to get away.
Furthermore, the Kishon brook was now a torrent, sweeping
away chariots attempting to get back across it. The Israelites
had them at their mercy “and all the host of Sisera fell upon
the edge of the sword and there was not a man left.”
Sisera dismounted from his chariot and made a getaway. He
fled to the encampment of Kenite nomads whose chief,
Heber, he thought to be an ally. Indeed, finding the chief’s
tent, the chief’s wife Ja’el, gave him shelter and offered to hide
him from pursuing Israelites. However she sympathised with
his enemies and when he fell asleep, utterly exhausted, she
hammered a wooden tent peg through his head. Later the
Israelites sang a song of triumph for their victory at Mount
Tabor, called the ‘Song of Deborah’ in which there is the
verse, “The mother of Sisera looked out of a window and
cried through the lattice, why is his chariot so long in coming?
Why tarry the wheels of his chariots?” (Judges, Chapter 5.)
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Canaanite,
Israelite and Early Arab Raiders army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each army is on the previous page.
Israelite Deployment Zone
This has several big steeply sloping high hills
(or one huge one) with patches of boulders,
stony ground, woods and scrub.
OBJECTIVES
The Israelite objective is to destroy all the Canaanite
chariot units. The Canaanite objective is to break
the Israelite/Habiru army.
SPECIAL RULES
Treacherous ground for chariots. The Kishon torrent is a
stream meandering along the foot of the high ground
occupied by the Israelites. A recent cloudburst has caused the
stream to burst its banks in a sudden flash flood. This has
made the area around the stream into boggy ground.
Deborah knew this would happen, but it is not at all obvious
to Sisera. Although he knows that the Israelites are deployed
on rugged, stony high ground unsuitable for chariots, he does
not yet realise that the apparently fordable Kishon is turning
into a linear obstacle. By the time the Israelites begin to
descend the slopes and bring the Canaanites within range of
their slings, the stream has become a linear obstacle with
boggy ground either side, limiting the mobility of the
chariots. So the Kishon stream is fordable in the first turn of
the game, thereafter it is a linear obstacle.
Place a patch of boggy ground in the middle zone at the start
of each turn, beginning with the third. Roll to see who places
it. The Israelite player may place it right in front of (or
behind) an enemy chariot unit if he likes.

SCENERY AND
CANAANITE
DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as DEPLOYMENT
described in the section Setting ZONE
up the Scenario. The Canaanite
and Israelite/Habiru forces
deploy opposite each other in
their respective deployment
zones. The scenery is as follows:

Canaanite
Deployment Zone
This is open, level ground suitable
for the deployment of chariots.
There can be a few open fields.

Middle Zone ISRAELITE

This is open, level ground DEPLOYMENT
through which meanders the ZONE
Kishon brook. The stream runs

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 CANAANITE ARMY TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Maryannu light chariots
8 6 2 2 4+ 6 Tough Fighters, Eager
with spears, javelins and bows
Light chariots with javelins and bow 6 6 3 3 4+ 6 Eager
Chariot runners with javelins 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Sub unit of chariots Small unit
Canaanite medium infantry
6 6 3 1 5+ 6 –
with a mix of javelins and bows
Canaanite light infantry archers 4 4 3 3 0 6 –
Nomad (Kenite?) skirmishers/scouts with javelins 1 1 1 0 0 1 Wavering, Tiny unit

Notes. Canaanite chariot units in this battle are Eager because they are over-keen to trample the Habiru into the dust. Hazor’s allies
included Megiddo, Taanach and Dor. The Kenites were nomads like the Israelite tribes but wavering in their allegiance (like Shasu).
Their chief Heber had spied out the Israelites for Sisera which is why he thought he might be safe hiding in their tents (with tragic
results). Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“And all the host of

Sisera fell upon the edge
of the sword and there
was not a man left.”

Habiru chief’s retinue

ISRAELITE/HABIRU ARMY TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Chief’s retinue medium infantry warband
6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters, Stubborn
with spears and javelins
Napthali, Zebulun light infantry warband,
5 5 3 3 0 6 Tough Fighters
with a mix of spears and bows
Habiru light infantry warband
6 6 2 0 0 6 Wild Fighters
with spears and javelins
Habiru light infantry with a mix of javelins/bows 4 4 2 2 0 4 Small unit
Light infantry slingers 3 3 2 2 0 4 Marksmen, Marauders, Small unit
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Barak’s army is considered to be a Habiru army so as to distinguish it from later Israelite armies which
would have options not available in the time of the Judges. Habiru represent any other tribes or more of the tribes
mentioned in the Song of Deborah as being at the battle (some tribes are mentioned for not being at the battle,
to their shame!). The Canaanite opposition would probably refer to all of this lot as Habiru or Shasu. Debbie
has Ld 10 to represent divine inspiration or some other kind of charisma. Note that variations from the Hail
Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

132
 “Now you have in your army the
finest men in all Achaea. Is one of
these prepared to fight me? If so,
let him step forward…”
Hector’s challenge, Homer’s Iliad
This is a skirmish battle between chariot warriors, focussing
on the chariots themselves. Homer, author of the Iliad,
regarded the Trojan War as marking the end of the Bronze
Age. With it also ended the ‘heroic age’ of chariot warfare.
Hittite records that refer to Wilusia, Taruisha and Ahhiyawa,
that is Ilium, Troy and the Achaeans reveal that these events
probably occurred towards the end of the Hittite Empire.
The Iliad is full of heroic duels between rival charioteering
heroes. It was the custom that opposing chariot warriors
would challenge each other to personal combat before the
clash of armies or during a lull in the fighting. The
aristocratic chariot warriors of the Bronze Age can perhaps be
compared to the much later knights and indeed, the Bronze
Age Greek word for chariot lord was Eqeta, ancestral to the
Latin word Equites for a mounted soldier. In the Near East,
the word was Maryannu, meaning ‘Young Hero’ and is related
to the Sanskrit word Maher. The Canaanite word Ne’Arim has
a similar meaning. These warriors, who fought mainly with
composite bows, javelins and sometimes a thrusting spear
and wore the best armour and rode lightweight chariots
drawn by usually barded horses, can also perhaps be
compared to the flying aces of the First World War. Both had
flimsy war machines and cultivated the heroic ideal of
combat, although the aces were far more gentlemanly than
chariot warriors.
The odds against survival and chances of a short career
ending in heroic death were great for both and both passed
into legend. If is often asked, ‘How did anyone fight in a
chariot?’ Well, they did, and devised many and varied tactics
and decided the fate of kingdoms in this way. So the answer
SKIRMISH FORCES – ORdERS OF battlE
ACHAEANS
Choose Heroes From:
• Early Mycenaean Eqeta chariot model
• Later type Mycenaean chariot model
• ‘Achilles’ Myrmidion chariot model
• ‘Ajax’ warrior on foot.
• ‘Sea Peoples’ style chariot model
• ‘Urnfield’ style chariot model
• Chariot runner model (one as sub unit
of a chariot)
133
is, however you can fight in a chariot is what they did. Who
were the bravest warriors of antiquity? Was it the chariot
warriors because ‘they fought with the equipment that they
had!’? Experimental archaeology may answer more detailed
questions and various chariots have been reconstructed, often
with surprising results.
tHE battlE
The fighting around Troy has reached a prolonged
stalemate creating the opportunity for chariot warriors on
each side to come out into the plain before the city to
challenge each other. Champions from both sides fight in
duels aimed not only at winning renown, but boosting the
morale of their own side and knocking out enemy leaders
and commanders. The Achaeans have no shortage of
heroes, although they are getting fewer as the war drags on.
The same applies to the Trojans, but they are reinforced by
heroes from elsewhere in Anatolia, drawn to Troy as allies
and the chance to win fame in battle.
In this skirmish style battle, each player either plays a single
heroic chariot warrior or a small team of chariot warriors.
Each model is treated as a tiny unit in itself with enhanced
values rather as a champion would be in a ‘fantasy’ game.
Each player can also choose something from a list of special
abilities, weaponry or armour.
SPECIal RUlES: SKIRMISH
This is a skirmish scenario using the skirmish rules guidelines
in the Setting up the Scenario section.
tHE FORCES
The chariots can be chosen from the
Hail Caesar book of Army Lists: Biblical
& Classical using the Mycenaean and
Hittite army lists as a guide.
The order of battle for each side
is below.
TROJANS & ALLIES
Choose Heroes From:
• ‘Hector’ Trojan chariot model
• West Anatolian Maryannu chariot model
• East Anatolian Maryannu chariot model
• ‘Memnon’ Egyptian style chariot model
• ‘Amazon’ Thracian/Kaska style chariot model
• ‘Paris’ style chariot model
• ‘Sea Peoples’ style chariot model
• Chariot runner model (one as sub unit of a chariot)
• Chariot outrider model (one as sub unit of a chariot)
SCENERY AND
DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ACHAEAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. This game might
be suitable for a limited playing
area or small table (such as 4'x4'
or 4'x3'.) The Achaean and
Trojan forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective
deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Achaean
Deployment Zone TROJAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
Open level plain with a few
gently sloping low hills
representing dunes behind the
Achaean landing ground.

Middle Zone SPECIAL RULES

This is open level plain with one or two gently sloping low
hills and odd patches of scrub. The River Scamander, which
is fordable, marks one side edge of the table.
Trojan Deployment Zone
Open level plain with a few, now uncultivated fields and
burial mounds of former heroes, with the gates or walls of
Troy on the Trojan edge.
Although chariot runners (or outriders) can be used in heroic
chariot duels, honour requires that they must desist from
joining in the hero’s combat, but can take on opposing
runners/outriders. If his hero falls it is his duty and that of
the charioteer to rescue his fallen lord and speed him from
the battlefield to avoid being captured and possibly dragged
behind the victor’s chariot.

OBJECTIVES “…but when Paris saw that it was Menelaeus who

The objective of each side is to slay or defeat all the opposing had taken up his challenge, his heart failed him…”
chariot warriors.

Will speed, mobility and shooting arrows win against more crew, javelins and warriors who jump off to fight?

134
CHARIOT CHAMPIONS
Choose one of the following for each chariot model:
• Blessing of a god or goddess – re-roll any one die once
during the battle.
• Chariot runner as a team with chariot model, or chariot
outrider as a team with chariot model (Amazon only).
• Exceptionally crafted weapon – re-roll all misses in hand-
to-hand fighting.
• Hard to wound – Morale Save increased to 3+
(Achilles only)
• Highly skilled charioteer – move increased to 12".
• ‘Taxi’ chariot and charioteer for hero who fights on foot
(Ajax only).
• Well bred horses – chariot model is Eager.

ACHAEANS (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH CHARIOT DUEL MODEL VALUES)

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Early Mycenaean
4 1 1 0 4+ 3 Tough Fighter
Eqeta chariot model with spear (Ld 8)
Later type Mycenaean
3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Tough Fighter
chariot model with javelins (Ld 8)
‘Achilles’ Myrmidion
3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Wild Fighter
chariot model with spear (Ld 10)
‘Ajax’ warrior on foot with
2 1 1 0 5+ 2 Tough Fighter
double handed weapon and tower shield (Ld 8)
‘Sea Peoples’ style chariot model
3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Tough Fighter
with javelins and sword (Ld 8)
‘Urnfield’ style chariot model
3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Frenzied Charge
with spear and sword (Ld 8)
Chariot runner model
1 1 1 0 6 1 Can form team with chariot
(one as team with chariot) with javelins

Notes. The values of models are based on the values of a tiny unit with modifications to reflect different warrior types. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

TROJANS (1 TO 1 SKIRMISH CHARIOT DUEL MODEL VALUES)

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
‘Hector’ Trojan chariot model with spear (Ld 9) 4 1 1 0 4+ 3 Tough Fighter, Stubborn, Brave
West Anatolian Maryannu
3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Tough Fighter
chariot model with spear and javelins (Ld 8)
East Anatolian Maryannu
3 2 1 1 4+ 3 Tough Fighter
chariot model with spear and bow (Ld 8)
‘Memnon’ Egyptian style
3 2 1 1 4+ 3 Marksman
chariot model with bow and javelins (Ld 8)
‘Amazon’ Thracian/Kaska style
3 2 1 1 4+ 3 Parthian Shot, Feigned Fight
chariot model with bow (Ld 8)
‘Paris’ style chariot model
3 2 1 1 4+ 3 Stubborn
with bow and javelins (Ld 8)
‘Sea Peoples’ style chariot model
3 2 1 0 4+ 3 Tough Fighter
with javelins and sword (Ld 8)
Chariot runner model
1 1 1 0 6 1 Can form team with chariot
(one as team with chariot) with javelins
Chariot outrider model (one as team with
1 1 1 1 6 1 Can form team with chariot
a chariot) – light cavalry with bow

Notes. The values of models are based on the values of a tiny unit with modifications to reflect different warrior types. Note that
variations from the Hail Caesar Army Rules & Lists apply only to this scenario.

135
 “Behold! The northern tribes
which are from their islands are
armed and restless, they infest the
seaways and the river mouths (of
the Nile Delta.)”
This is a sea battle representing just a part of the great naval
battle between the invading armada of Sea Peoples intent on
securing a foothold in the Nile Delta and the naval and land
forces of Pharaoh Ramesses III, defending the vulnerable
branches of the River Nile, amid crocodile infested papyrus
swamps and half submerged sandbanks.
In Ramesses’ reign, Egypt was faced with three serious threats
in quick succession. In his fifth regnal year Ramesses and his
army repelled a Libyan invasion from the western desert.
Then in year eight came the onslaught of the Sea Peoples by
land and sea. They were defeated, but in year eleven came
another attempted Libyan invasion from the west which was
repulsed. The Libyans were supported by Sea Peoples. Battle
scenes depicting these battles with accompanying inscriptions
were carved on the walls of Ramesses III’s great temple at
Medinet Habu at Thebes in Upper Egypt. Here Ramesses
describes the ‘Sea Peoples conspiracy’: “The Northerners in
their isles were stirred up and on the warpath all at the same
time. No one stood before their hands, from Kheta (Hittites),
Kedy (Kizzuwatna), Carchemish, Arvad (Phoenician city), and
Alasa (Cyprus), they were wasted. They made a camp in one
place in Amor (Amurru). They desolated the people and the
land as if it did not exist. They came with fire prepared
before them onward to Egypt. Their main strength were the
Egyptians had specially trained marines to fight aboard ships or on land.
136
Peleset, Tjekkera, Shakalasha, Danyana, and Washasha.
These nations were united and they laid their hands upon
the lands as far as the circle of the earth; their hearts were
confident, full of their plans.”
The Sea Peoples had a land force and an armada of ships and
both forces advanced along the Levantine coast towards Egypt,
no doubt keeping in contact with each other as they went.
This presented a two-pronged threat to Egypt. Ramesses
mobilised all the forces of Egypt to enable him to counter
them on land and at sea. As well as warships, every available
merchant ship was fitted out for action. In Canaan, local
Maryannu joined forces with the Egyptians. The Sea Peoples’
land force was met in battle and defeated. This left their
armada to be dealt with. This was approaching the many
mouths of the river Nile in the Nile Delta, a very difficult
place to counter a seaborne invasion. Ramesses tells us that he
“was prepared and armed to trap them like a wild fowl.”
THE BATTLE
The battle scenes and battle report are among the most
exciting in Egyptian historical records. Ramesses “armed the
river mouths like a strong wall with warships, galleys and
barges. They were manned completely from bow to stern with
valiant warriors bearing their arms, soldiers all of the choicest
of Egypt.” The oncoming Sea Peoples in their ships met a wall
of Egyptian warships: “Those who entered the river mouths
were like wild fowl creeping into the net!” The Sea Peoples’
ships are depicted as reliant on sails while the Egyptian war
galleys had sails and oars and above waterline rams. It seems
likely that at least some Sea People ships had oars as well since
it says in the Egyptian records, “The countries which came
from their isles in the midst of the sea they advanced to Egypt
their hearts relying upon their arms rowing. The net was
made ready for them, to ensnare them entering stealthily into
the river mouths, and they fell into it.”
 Captives of Ramesses III (author’s collection).
The Egyptian tactics were to hurl grappling hooks into the
masts of the enemy ships and then back water to capsize
them. If rammed, the above waterline prow of the
Egyptian warships would roll the enemy vessel over,
capsizing it. If any enemy ships broke through, they would
encounter a hail of arrows from Egyptian archers on the
shore as they proceeded down the narrowing river
mouths. If any enemy tried to land or made it ashore after
being capsized, they met Egyptian infantry. “As for those
that had deployed before them on the sea, the full flame
was in their front before the river mouths and a wall of
metal upon the shore surrounded them. They were
dragged, overturned and laid low upon the beach, slain
and made heaps from stern to bow of their galleys.” A lot
of casualties were caused on the Sea Peoples by Egyptian
Marine archers as they approached the enemy: “His arrows
pierce whoever he will among them and he who is hit falls
into the water.”
THE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE
EGYPTIAN FLEET
Flotilla Division
• Khamtir, Egyptian General (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of Egyptian medium infantry marines
in ship
• 1 small unit of Egyptian medium infantry marines
in ship
• 1 small unit of Egyptian medium infantry marines
in ship
• 3 tiny units of Egyptian Slingers, one unit in each ship
Land Division
• Setau, Egyptian Commander (Ld 8)
• 2 units of Egyptian medium infantry archers
Note: The names of the commanders are not yet known so I have picked out real names from the
records of the time to stand in for them and give personality to the commander figures.
137
In Ramesses’ great scroll, known as Papyrus Harris, he says,
“I slew the Denyen in their isles, the Tjekker and the Peleset
were made ashes, the Sherden and the Weshesh of the sea
were wiped out, taken captive at one time and brought as
captives to Egypt like the sand of the shore. I settled them in
forts, branded in my name.” This last comment might be a
reference to settling the Peleset on the coast of southern
Canaan, where they were to be known as the Philistines.
Unusually for a Pharaoh, Ramesses praises his troops: “Ye
were well pleasing to my heart, for ye did excellently and were
zealous for my commands.”
THE ARMIES
The opposing forces can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the Sea Peoples
and New Kingdom Egyptian army lists as a guide. The
following is the order of battle for each force.
SEA PEOPLE’S FLEET
Peleset Flotilla Division
• Akish, General (Ld 9)
• 1 small unit of Peleset in ship
• 1 small unit of Peleset or Denyen in ship
• 1 tiny unit of Peleset archers in one ship
Sherden Flotilla Division
• Shardu, Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 small unit of Sherden in ship
• 1 small unit of Sherden or
Sheklesh or Tjekker in ship
• 1 tiny unit of Sherden archers in
one ship
SCENERY AND SEA PEOPLE
DEPLOYMENT DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as ZONE
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Sea People
and Egyptian forces deploy
opposite each other in their
respective deployment zones.
The scenery is as follows:

Sea People
Deployment Zone
This is open sea. The Sea
Peoples’ ships deploy here.

Middle Zone EGYPTIAN

This is the widest part of the river DEPLOYMENT
mouth. The estuary divides into ZONE
two narrower channels as you
move from the open sea deeper
into the Delta towards the
opposite table edge. This creates a peninsula of land protruding If the Egyptians win the combat it means that the opposing
into the middle of the middle zone. This is a sandbank ship has been capsized by whatever means, perhaps a
surrounded by papyrus marsh. There are also clumps of papyrus combination of ramming and grappling.
marsh and sandbanks on the side edges of the middle zone.
If the Sea Peoples win the combat, the attacking ship is either
Egyptian Deployment Zone ‘shattered’ (out of action as a unit and drifting covered in
The river channels beginning in the middle zone continue to wounded crew) or takes a break test using these results for a
the long table edge getting slightly narrower. The Egyptian ship’s contingent:
infantry deploy on the dry land between the channels. The
Egyptian ships deploy in the channels. There are a few clumps • 4 or less: break (the ship is out of action as a unit and
of papyrus and sandbanks along the edges of the land. drifting covered in wounded crew);

• 5 to 7: ship backs water to disengage then moves 6" away;

OBJECTIVES
The Sea Peoples’ objective is to get ships off the table via the
Egyptian table edge which means that they have penetrated
the Nile Delta and are able to land and wreak havoc in Egypt.
The Egyptian objective is to destroy all of the Sea Peoples’
ship’s contingents.
SPECIAL RULES
Treat a unit aboard a ship (the ship’s contingent and crew) as
a unit in Wedge Formation. The prow of the ship is thus the
point or head of the wedge. Three ships operating together
can be in the equivalent to ‘Pig’s Head Formation.’
Ramming, Grappling and Capsizing
Only the Egyptian ships are armed with a ram in the form of a
lion’s head gripping an enemy head in its jaws. To ram an
enemy vessel, the Egyptian galley charges it just as if a unit in
wedge charges an enemy unit. The shipboard units then fight.
“Capsized and perishing, their
weapons are cast into the sea.”
• 8 or more: ship stays grappled and in contact and crew
keep fighting.
If you want to include boarding and seizing ships, only the
Sea Peoples (being expert pirates) can do this to an ‘out of
action’ Egyptian vessel, but then can only use it as one of
their own without its ram and grapple capabilities.
Swimming Ashore
Being weighed down with armour, few Sea Peoples will make
it to shore if their ship is capsized. Roll a dice for such a crew
and on a score of 6 you can put a disordered ‘tiny unit’ on
the nearest shore to fend for themselves or surrender. Other
scores mean a feast for the crocodiles. Egyptian survivors in
the same predicament make their way off table to regroup
and are out of the battle.
Running Aground
Any Sea Peoples’ ship that contacts a papyrus clump or
sandbank has run aground and cannot move again. Egyptian
ships are shallow draft and so only run aground on a roll of 1
on the dice, otherwise they push off. They are equipped with
boarding pikes and poles for this purpose.
A crew of a ship that has run aground can stay aboard the
sitting duck to defend it or disembark to try their luck on land.

138
 EGYPTIAN TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian marines, medium infantry,
7 7 3 3 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
with javelins and bows
Egyptian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
Egyptian skirmishers with slings 1 1 1 1 0 1 Marksmen, Tiny unit

Notes. The Egyptian archers have been issued with armour and an array of hand-to-hand combat weapons including khopesh swords
since they are expected to engage and hold their ground against any Sea Peoples who make it ashore. They are also picked men,
selected for their fighting quality. To represent this they are Tough Fighters. Tiny units can be spread out on the ship including the
crow’s nest. The Egyptian tiny unit has the men swinging grappling hooks as well as slingers and one man with a boarding pike.
Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario

SEA PEOPLE TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Sea Peoples medium infantry
6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
with swords and javelins
Sea Peoples skirmishers with bows 1 1 1 1 0 1 Tiny Unit

Notes. Peleset, Sherden, Denyen, Sheklesh and Tjekker were the main Sea Peoples tribes present. Tiny units can be spread out on
the ship including the crow’s nest. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

EGYPTIAN & SEA PEOPLES SHIPS

Type Fighting Contingent Move Command Special
Unit of Egyptian marines with javelins, Eager, Above waterline ram
Egyptian war galley 9" 8
bows and a tiny unit of slingers and grappling hooks
Unit of Sea Peoples medium infantry,
Sea Peoples’ ship 7" 8 Marauders
with swords, javelins and a tiny unit of archers

Ramesses III’s temple, Medinet Habu (author’s collection).

139
 “The lookouts are guarding
the coastline.”
This is a small battle in which the local defence forces of the
Achaean kingdom of Pylos attempt to resist sea raiders
during the dark chaotic times following the Trojan War. Pylos
was the kingdom of Nestor (who fought with his contingent
at Troy) which was remembered for continuing to use old-
fashioned early Mycenaean battle tactics. This was an inverse
compliment since: “Do not think that bravery and skill
entitles a chariot warrior to break ranks and fight on his own,
and nobody is to drop back and weaken the whole unit.
When a man in his own chariot comes within range of an
enemy chariot, then is the moment for him to try a spear
thrust. These are the best tactics.” (Homer, Iliad.) However,
in this battle the Eqeta chariot warriors will be called upon to
fight as individuals and so perhaps Nestor’s tactics, ideal for
pitched battles, are not best suited to the new threat of
coastal raiders and invaders.
At Pylos clay tablets inscribed with the Linear B script were
found. When deciphered, this script was proved to be the
Bronze Age Greek language and, unlike the earlier Linear A
script, could be translated and understood. Most of the texts
discovered from various Mycenaean sites are record keeping
such as inventories, but a lot of them deal with organising
and equipping the armed forces of the kingdom. Many texts
from Knossos deal with repairing chariots. A set of tablets
from Pylos, located in the south-west Peloponnese are rosters
for units of troops allocated the task of guarding the coastline
against raiders. The tablets are entitled “The watchers are
guarding the coast and the units are called Oka.” These
rosters can be interpreted almost directly as an ‘order of
Sea People raiders must overpower the local coastal defenders if they are to pillage inland.
140
battle’ according to the Hail Caesar rules, especially if we opt
for a low model to real life troop ratio (that is to interpret a
unit of 10 as a ‘tiny unit’, a unit of 20 to 30 as a ‘small unit’
and a unit of 50 as a ‘standard unit’ instead of interpreting a
standard unit as a brigade of 600 men as we might for one of
the big battles of the era). The rosters actually give the names
of the commanders, officers, chariot warriors, the units of
troops and the locations where they are stationed. In the text
below, some names have been put into Greek, but most have
been left exactly as spelled in the syllabic Linear B script.
There are probably various settlements and troop types
hidden in this text which are not yet understood and must be
guessed (the Urupijajoi for example are thought to be North
Greek mercenaries) but the term Eqeta for chariot warrior
can be identified. The squads of 10 might be skirmishers or
light troops while the units of 30 to 50 or more might be
close order troops.
THE BATTLE
In this scenario it is assumed that the lookouts on the
headlands spot unknown ships out at sea and light a beacon
fire to give a smoke signal. They will also send a swift runner
with a message to alert the coastal guard troops. The raiders,
who have probably held off the coast overnight, approach at
early dawn, coming from the north west and so are hard to
spot until quite close to land. The raiders beach their ships
with a few guards and head inland seeking plunder. At some
point, not far from the beach, they run into the defenders.
The purpose of the careful plans made by Pylos for defending
the coast is to have troops ready to oppose the raiders as
quickly as possible. Runners or a charioteer can be sent to
bring reinforcements from other sections of coast or from the
stronghold of Pylos. They may anyway see the signal and be
hurrying to assist. The raiders are probably more used to
plundering less organised coastlands and islands and so may
be surprised at the opposition, but being hardened warriors
they will be confident of overcoming local levies.
 ROSTER OF THE COASTAL GUARD DETACHMENTS (OKA) AT PYLOS
Command as recorded on Linear B Tablet Interpreted as Command in Hail Caesar rules
Command of Mareu at Owitono Mareus, Commander
Officers: Aperitawo, Oreta, Etewa, Kokijo 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen/archers
At Suwerowijo: 50 men of Owitono and Okara.
Command of Nedawatas Nedawattas, Commander
Officers: Ekemede, Apijeta, Marateu, Taniko 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen/archers
At Aulon: 20 men of Kikide of Kyparissos 1 unit of skirmisher slingers
At Atariwes: 10 men of Kekide of Kyparissos 1 small unit of chariots
With them are Eqeta’s Kekijo, Aeriqota, Erapo and Rimene 1 small unit of chariot runners with javelins
At Owitono: 30 men of Okara and 20 men of Kekide of Apuka
With them is the Eqeta Aikota.
Command of Toros at Roawa Toros, Commander
Officers: Kadasijo the Moropa, Zowo, Kirajaijo, Watuwaoko 1 large unit of medium infantry spearmen
and Mutona
At Aratuwa: 110 men of Okara.
Command of Kewono Keunos, Commander
Officers: Kake, Tusejeu, Poteu, Wone 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen
At Apitewa: men of Iwasoi and Atepo, Dewijo and Komawe 1 unit of light infantry with javelins
At Ota: 30 men of Urupipajoi, Orumasijajo 1 tiny unit of chariots
At Pirut: 50 men of Kurewe
With them is Eqeta Rouko son of Kusamenijo.
Command of Klumenos Klumenos, Commander
Officers: Periteu, Wonewa, Atijawo and Erutara 2 units of medium infantry spearmen
At Ota: 50 men of Kekide of Metapa 1 tiny unit of chariots
At Upijakirijo: 60 men of Kurewe
With them is Eqeta Alektryon son of Eteokles.
Command of Tatiqoweu at Towa Tatikoeus, Commander
Officers: Poikilops, Perinos, Deukalion, Lampedon, Doqoro, Perilawos 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen
At Enowaro: Kekide of Pedijo and 10 men of Wawoude. 1 tiny unit of skirmishers with javelins
Command of Waparo at Newokito Uparos, Commander
Officers: Erikowos, Adijeu, Akiwonijo ? unit of medium infantry spearmen
? men of Kekide of Wakatija at Sapida 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen
With them is Eqeta Pherephonios son of Ares 1 tiny unit of chariots
At Newokitowowija: 20 men of Krokulaioi
With them is Eqeta Diwijeu.
Command of Dwoios at Akerewa Duoios, Commander
Officers: Akunijo, perimedes, phutias 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen
20 men of Kekide of Apuka at Porai 1 small unit of light infantry archers
With them is Eqeta Dikonaro son of Adrastos 1 small unit of skirmishers with javelins
At Uwate: 10 men of Kekide of Newokito 1 small unit of chariots
With them is Eqeta Pleuronios
At Akerewa: 50 men of Krokulaoi
With them is Eqeta Kaesameno of Apuka.
Command of Ekino Ekinos, Commander
Officers: Eoteu, Atiro, Idaijo, Eserea l unit of medium infantry spearmen
At Enaporo: 70 men of Iwasoi 2 units of light infantry with javelins
At Tiorijo: 20 men of Krokulaioi 1 tiny unit of chariots
At Karadoro: 20 men of Krokulaioi
With them is Eqeta Worotuminijo.
Erchomenatas, Commander
Command of Erkhomenatas
1 unit of medium infantry spearmen
At Timito Akeri: Mareu, Roqota, Akeu, Akewato
1 tiny unit of chariots
The Akakirijoi and the Urupijajoi (30 men) are to go to Nedowon
With them is Eqeta.

141
THE ARMIES
The opposing armies can be
chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical “A suit of armour made up of two shoulder pieces, two body
& Classical using the
Mycenaean and Sea Peoples’
plates; a helmet made of four plates with two cheek pieces.”
army lists as a guide. From a tablet listing armour for a chariot warrior

The order of battle for each

army is below.

THE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE

PYLOS ARMY SEA PEOPLE RAIDERS

Newokito Command First Ship’s Contingent
• Uparos, General (Ld 8) • Teucer, Sea People’s Commander (Ld 8)
• 2 units of medium infantry spearmen • 1 Teresh warband
• 1 small unit of light infantry javelinmen • 1 small unit of skirmishers
• 1 tiny unit of chariots • 1 tiny unit of skirmishers

Akerewa Command Second Ship’s Contingent

• Duoios, Commander (Ld 8) • Dardanu, Sea People’s Commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of medium infantry spearmen • 1 Dardany warband
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with bows or slings • 1 small unit of skirmishers
• 1 unit of light infantry javelinmen • 1 tiny unit of skirmishers
• 1 small unit of chariots
Third Ship’s Contingent
Command of Ekino • Danunu, Sea People’s Commander (Ld 8)
• Ekino, Commander (Ld 8) • 1 Weshesh or Denyen warband
• 1 big unit of medium infantry spearmen • 1 small unit of skirmishers
• 2 units of light infantry with javelins • 1 tiny unit of skirmishers
• 1 tiny unit of chariots

Note: Apart from the commanders of the raiders, the names of the commanders are taken from the Pylos roster.

Many coastal settlements were attacked and destroyed by Sea People raiders towards the end of the Bronze Age.

142
SCENERY AND
RAIDERS’ DEPLOYMENT ZONE
DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. The Pylean and
Raider forces deploy opposite
each other in their respective
deployment zones.

The scenery is as follows:

Raiders’
Deployment Zone
This is the beach on which the
raiders land and beach their
ships ready for a quick getaway. PYLEAN DEPLOYMENT ZONE
They have chosen a suitable
beach for easy access inland so
that they can raid the farms and
settlements; therefore there are
easy ways off the beach. This is
an open level area with a few rocky knolls or sand dunes. The SPECIAL RULES
raiders deploy on the beach beside their ships. Beginning in the Pylos player’s third turn, he can roll a dice
to see if any reinforcements arrive. On a score of 4 or more
Middle Zone he can choose another division from the Pylos roster, who
This is an area of rough pasture, patches of scrub, a few gently arrive on the short table edge of his choice, having come
sloping low hills and a few fields. There is one knoll or small from the next sector of the coast. If no reinforcements turn
high hill overlooking the beach on which is a beacon with a up, roll again in the fourth turn and so on until
lookout. A small or tiny Pylean infantry unit can be deployed reinforcements arrive. When reinforcements arrive, stop
here to watch out for raiders. On sighting ships they torch the rolling for any more. However if the Pylos player rolls a 6 he
beacon. This gives the first turn to the Pylean player. can have an additional unit of Eqeta chariot warriors from
Pylos with the reinforcements and they can arrive on either
Pylean side edge or the Pylean edge.
Deployment Zone
This area has gently sloping
low hills and one or two
gently sloping high hills with
woods. There is a village on
one of the low hills. The
Pylean coastal guard force is
stationed at the village and
can be deployed anywhere in
the deployment zone, assumed
to be camped and awaiting
signals or messengers.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of the Raiders is
to overcome the coastal
defences and get on with
raiding, so they need to break
or rout the Pylean force.

The objective of the Pyleans is

to repel the raiders so that
they fall back to their ships
and go away, slaying as many
of them as possible. Each
army therefore tries to break
the other. They will only sack the temple over our dead bodies!

143
 SEA RAIDER TROOP VALUES
Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Dardany medium infantry warband
8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Wild Fighters, Stubborn
with swords and javelins
Sea People (Weshesh/Denyen) medium
8 6 2 0 5+ 6 Wild Fighters
infantry warband with swords and javelins
Sea People light infantry warband
7 5 2 1 6+ 6 Marauders
(Teresh) with a mix of javelins and bows
Skirmishers with javelins 3 2 2 0 0 4+ Small unit
Skirmishers with bows (tiny unit) 1 1 1 1 0 4+ Sub unit of warband, Tiny unit

Notes. The raiders are from several tribes conspiring together. Dardany represent this tribe and others coming down from the north
along the coast from as far as the Adriatic or Italy or coming by sea from the Dardanelles, Troy and the Thracian coast. Dorians may
be another such tribe. Some tribes may be from other Achaean or Anatolian realms or Aegean islands which have resorted to piracy
in these dark times at the end of the Bronze Age. Assume that each warband arrives in one ship and so each ship means one
warband (with enough room for skirmishers.) Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

“Two chariots inlaid with ivory, fully

assembled, crimson coloured, fitted with harness,
leather chamfrons and horn bits.”

PYLOS TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
New fashion Mycenaean
6 6 3 0 5+ 6 Tough Fighters
medium infantry with javelins and shields
Old-fashioned Mycenaean medium infantry
6 6 3 1 5+ 6 Militia, Stubborn
with a mix of long spears and bows
Mycenaean Eqeta light chariots
2 1 1 0 4+ 1 Tough Fighters, Tiny unit
with spears and javelins (tiny unit)
Mycenaean Eqeta light chariots
8 6 2 0 4+ 6 Tough Fighters, Eager
with spears (reinforcement unit)
Light infantry javelinmen 5 5 3 0 6+ 6 –
Small unit,
Light infantry javelinmen (small unit) 3 3 2 0 6+ 4
Can be Sub unit of chariots
Skirmishers with slings or a mix of slings/bows 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit

Notes. Following hints in the Iliad, the Pylos troops and methods harked back to early Mycenaean times. Local levy and militia
would be in the front line of coastal defence with their old wargear. This is the Pylean home guard defending their own homes.
However Pylos probably also recruited mercenaries, so I am allowing for one spearman unit of the Pylean player’s choice to be armed
in the more up to date Late Bronze Age ‘Urnfield’ style from Central Europe in which the long spear and tower shield is replaced by
short spears, javelins, long slashing swords, body armour and round shields or bucklers and individualistic fighting methods (more
like Sea Peoples in fact). Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

144
 “Guard yourself against arrows
and javelins.”
This battle is set during the ‘War of the High Priest’ which
dramatically marks the end of New Kingdom Egypt and reveals
the pattern of history in the chaotic disunity which is to come.
The action centres on attempts to capture a mighty fortified
Egyptian temple from the corrupt and determined armed
priests who defend it. In this battle there are up to four
factions, so it might be suitable for a multi-player game. Players
may also choose the composition of their own factions.
Towards the end of the reign of Ramesses XI, Egypt was on
the brink of dividing up again into two lands. The Egyptian
empire in Canaan had gone, leaving Israelites and Philistines
to fight over the territory. Nubia was still loyal, under the
Viceroy Panehsy. The Pharaoh ruled from somewhere in
Lower Egypt. Libyan incursions were still a problem and
Meshwesh mercenaries had been settled in the Western
Delta. In Upper Egypt, Libyan raids and corruption had
exacerbated food shortages and discontent among the
people. Tomb robbery was increasing. The necropolis was
patrolled by Medja police, but some high officials colluded
with the robber gangs. Then a rebel High Priest of Amun
declared himself and gathered a following. He ‘suppressed’
the legitimate High Priest Amunhotep, who held out in one
of the temples. The rebel, his name unknown, made the
mighty fortress temple of Medinet Habu, built by Ramesses
III in the style of a migdol stronghold, his HQ and began
conscripting the peasants and workmen to defend him. This
temple had played an important role by providing a refuge
for local people from Libyan raiders.
THE BATTLE
The Pharaoh summoned the Viceroy of Kush, Panehsy, to
move north from Nubia into Upper Egypt to restore order.
He was the man on the spot, ready with military force at
hand. Panehsy did as commanded and began taking control
of the situation in Thebes. Libyan raiders were repulsed, the
rebel High Priest was besieged in his temple. Amunhotep was
restored to office, tomb robbers were hunted down and
together with corrupt officials were tried and
executed. The Viceroy’s
restoration of order was harsh
as befitting a military man
and the purges continued for
several years. Eventually the
Pharaoh seems to have
decided to dismiss Panehsy,
possibly under the
influence of other factions.
Exactly what was
happening remains
uncertain, despite quite a
145
lot of surviving documents from the time. Panehsy led his
army further north as if in rebellion himself. Next a new
force entered the drama. Herihor and his son, Piankh, the
former having Meshwesh and military connections, went
south with an army to deal with Panehsy. He was driven out
of the Theban region and retreated into Nubia with much
fighting. Herihor took over as High Priest and effective ruler
of Upper Egypt. Piankh conscripted local peasants and
workmen into his army and pursued Panehsy up the Nile,
without being able to catch him and inflict a decisive defeat.
Egypt lost control of Nubia. One of the scribes, a certain
Djehutymose, from the team working on the Pharaoh’s tomb
was conscripted to go with the army into Nubia together with
his son Butehamun. A relative left at home wrote this to him:
“When my letter reaches you, do not go out to watch the
fighting. Remember, you have not been taken as an enemy
soldier and you have not been taken as a messenger; you have
been taken as an advisor. Stay in the boat and guard yourself
against arrows and javelins!”
Meanwhile the Pharaoh had appointed Smendes, who was
married to his daughter Tanutamun, to be vice ruler at Tanis
in the Delta and declared a ‘Renaissance Era’. Henceforth,
years were to be dated from this moment. This arrangement
did not outlast the last Pharaoh, but the division of Egypt into
two lands did. Ultimately the High Priest of Amun would rule
in Upper Egypt according to the oracles of the god and in due
course a Great Chief of the Meshwesh would use his military
might to become Pharaoh as Sheshonq I, and try to reunite
Egypt and reconquer Canaan. We are now well into the ‘Iron
Age’ although this does not mean much in Egypt, where
bronze continued as the principal metal for some time.
THE ARMIES
The opposing factions can be chosen from the Hail Caesar
book of Army Lists: Biblical & Classical using the New
Kingdom Egyptian and Nubian army lists as a guide. Each
player commanding a faction can choose the order of battle
of his faction. Each faction amounts to a single ‘division’
except that one faction can choose a sub commander and so
may be divided into two divisions. Each faction commander
automatically has himself as general (who may ride in a
chariot unless he is a High Priest) and has five further choices
from the faction orders of battle below.
New Kingdom Egyptian close fighters
SCENERY AND
DEPLOYMENT
Set up the battlefield as
described in the section Setting
up the Scenario. There are four NORTHERN
deployment zones one along DEPLOYMENT ZONE
each edge of the table extending

DEPLOYMENT ZONE
DEPLOYMENT ZONE
12" into the middle. Panehsy
deploys on one long edge which

WESTERN

EASTERN
is the southern edge. Herihor
deploys on the opposite long
edge which is the northern edge.
The Rebel High Priest deploys SOUTHERN
on the western short edge and DEPLOYMENT ZONE
Amenhotep deploys on the
eastern short edge. The factions
deploy in their respective
deployment zones and can
occupy buildings in those zones.
The scenery is as follows:

Southern Deployment Zone
This is open, level ground stretching from the desert edge to
the Nile. It has fields, irrigation ditches, a village and palm
groves as well as desert at the western end.
Western Deployment Zone
This is desert with steep, rugged hills. Between the hills are
temples and tombs. One of these can be a fortified temple.
Any of these buildings can be ruins or half finished. There can
be a village around a temple, palm groves and stretches of wall.
Middle Zone
This is level open ground with fields, irrigation ditches and
palm groves.
Northern Deployment Zone
This is open level ground with fields and low, rugged desert
hills at the western end.

Eastern Deployment Zone

This is open, level ground with many fields and palm groves
and at least one village. There is a big, walled building that
might be a temple or noble’s villa.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of each faction is to survive and rule over
Thebes with no rivals. The leader of each faction wants to be
the last man standing. Temporary alliances may be made
between a maximum of two factions.

Egyptian archers (author’s collection)
SPECIAL RULES
Temples and other walled enclosures have huge gateways,
but the gates have already been knocked down in previous
riots. Troops can occupy a flat roof, a temple pylon roof or
the top of a wall. There are no siege rules for a fortified
temple; you have to get through the gates, but there should
be several wide gateways. Holding the gates is a job for
desperate priests with cudgels, bows, snakes, etc. A
colonnade or hall of columns can be occupied like a wood
and provides cover. An avenue of sphinxes can join up
temples like a stretch of road, counting as a colonnade.
Irrigation ditches are obstacles. An imaginative group of
priests have prepared a small pit full of snakes or crocodiles
(say 3" wide) in the courtyard or forecourt of a temple to
make things difficult for their enemies. The pit is impassable
in that anyone falling in does not come out!

146
 THE ARMIES – ORDERS OF BATTLE
HIGH PRIEST AMUNHOTEP’S FACTION VICEROY OF KUSH’S FACTION
• High Priest Amunhotep, General (Ld 8) • Panehsy General (Ld 9)
Plus five units chosen from: Plus five units chosen from:
• 1 small unit of Egyptian priests – medium infantry • 1 small unit of Viceroy’s guard – medium infantry
• 1 small unit of regular medium infantry • 1 Kushite light infantry warband
• 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows • 1 small unit of Nubian light infantry
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings • 1 small unit of Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows

REBEL HIGH PRIEST’S FACTION HERIHOR & PIANKH’S FACTION

• Rebel High Priest, General (Ld 8)
Plus five units chosen from:
• 1 small unit of Egyptian priests – medium infantry
• 1 small unit of conscript medium infantry
• 1 mob of armed peasants and tomb robbers
• 1 small unit of skirmishers with slings
• Herihor or Piankh, General (Ld 8)
Plus five units chosen from:
• One of the above as sub-commander (Ld 8)
• 1 unit of regular Egyptian medium infantry
• 1 warband of Meshwesh mercenary medium infantry
• 1 small unit of Libyan mercenary skirmishers
• 1 small unit of Egyptian light cavalry

Apart from the Rebel High

Priest, the names of the
commanders are known.
Herihor’s faction arrived some years
after Panehsy took charge in Thebes, by
which time the Rebel High Priest was
deposed. This scenario imagines
him being sent south sooner.

FACTION TROOP VALUES

Unit Combat Morale Stamina Special
Clash Sustained Short Long Save
Range Range
Egyptian Priests medium infantry with bows 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Stubborn
Egyptian Priests, medium infantry
6 6 2/0 0 5+ 6 Fanatics
with spears and axes
Regular Egyptian medium infantry
6 6 3 0 5+ 6 –
with spears and shields
Regular Egyptian medium infantry with bows 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 –
Viceroy’s Guard Nubian medium infantry archers 5 5 3 3 5+ 6 Valiant
Nubian light infantry with a mix of javelins/bows 3 3 2 1 6+ 6 Eager, Small unit
Kushite light infantry warband
7 5 2 1 6+ 6 Eager, Wild Fighters
with a mix of javelins/bows
Meshwesh Libyan mercenary medium infantry
8 5 2 1 6+ 6 Marauders, Tough Fighters
warband with a mix of javelins/bows
Conscript Egyptian medium infantry with spears 5 5 3 0 5+ 6 Levy, Freshly Raised
Mob of armed peasants 5 4 2 0 0 6 Levy, Freshly Raised
Medja Nubian skirmishers with bows 4 4 3 3 0 6 Eager, Marksmen
Libyan mercenary skirmishers with javelins 3 3 2 0 6+ 4 Small unit
Skirmishers with slings 2 2 2 2 0 4 Levy, Small unit
Egyptian Light Cavalry, bow 4 2 1 1 6+ 4 Small unit

Notes. Note that variations from the Hail Caesar army lists apply only to this scenario.

147
A battle is a momentous historical event and so needs to be
given a date to tell us when it happened. As we are dealing
with a remote period of history, the dates given for the battles
are approximate. We are used to the BC/AD dating system,
but before that method of dating events was invented, which
was after the fall of the Roman Empire, events were dated
according to the regnal years of kings and emperors and each
civilisation had its own annals, chronicles and king lists.
Sometimes a ruler tried to start counting years from a certain
event, but such attempts didn’t last long. Sometimes a nation
also used the list of officials to name or date each year; such
as the Limmu list of Assyria. Other cultures relied on
counting the generations of their royal family or chief’s clan.
All these methods left records which are used by researchers
to try and establish a reliable chronology of events. Sometimes
the reigns of several rulers in different lands can be
synchronised and sometimes ancient records of astronomical
observations or volcanic eruptions can be used to try and
improve accuracy. Scientific dating methods such as
stratigraphy, radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology do
not seem to be used as much as they should be for the
Ancient Near East. Rather too much reliance is made of king
lists, especially since there was the unfortunate habit of
striking out disapproved rulers and episodes from the records!
There has been a gradual tendency to ‘lower’ the chronology,
which has the effect of reducing the gaps in the historical records
often labelled as ‘dark-ages’. Sometimes there is a real gap due to
missing evidence and sometimes it may be an illusion created by
ancient scribes who were either confused, deliberately left things
out or were trying to embellish history in favour of their royal
master or his kingdom. Another problem is that records may not
always be in the right order. Often kings and dynasties
overlapped in time, which was difficult for ancient scribes to
deal with in their king lists. Thus the dates of battles given here
are approximate and we should expect them to be different in
various history books and likely to change as research continues.
There are currently four main chronological schemes
favoured by different researchers of the Ancient Near East.
The Middle Chronology is currently the most widely
accepted and so that is the dating system used in this book.
Pharaoh triumphs in personal combat! The wretched enemy chief bites the dust.
148
I am inclined towards the later dating schemes as these seem
to work best with the military evidence. How these vary is best
shown by what each scheme does to the reign of Hammurabi
of Babylon, who ruled in the middle of the Bronze Age.
HIGH CHRONOLOGY
In this scheme Hammurabi’s dates would be 1848-1806 BC.
Few researchers now follow this scheme which features a long
‘dark age’ following the end of the Bronze Age for which
evidence is scanty.
MIDDLE CHRONOLOGY
This is currently the favoured scheme of most researchers. In
this scheme; Hammurabi’s dates would be 1792-1750 BC.
There is a gap in evidence at the end of the Bronze Age, but
gradual adjustment as evidence turns up will eventually close
the gap. For example; the gap in Hittite records between the
end of the Hittite Empire and rise of the Neo-Hittite
Successor states may be due to the Hittites shifting their
capital eastwards. This site may await discovery with its
archives (if any survive).
LOW CHRONOLOGY
In this scheme; Hammurabi’s dates would be 1728-1686 BC.
This may be closer to the real story, or something in between
this and the Middle Chronology.
NEW CHRONOLOGY
This is a radically revised scheme favoured by a few
researchers. In this scheme, Hammurabi’s dates would be
1565-1523 BC. The research behind this controversial scheme
has had the beneficial effect of shaking up conventional ideas.
One result has been further study and better understanding
of the Hyksos period. New evidence shows this to be a longer
period than other schemes allow for. The scheme makes better
sense of a lot of the political and military history. It calls for
overlapping and parallel dynasties, which probably did occur
to some extent but wipes out the ‘dark age’ so thoroughly that
new evidence would push dates earlier again.
 THE BRONZE AGE NEAR EAST: TIMELINE OF MILITARY HISTORY
This is a selection of significant events in the military history of the Bronze Age Near East to put the battle scenarios in their wider context.
3000 BC Wars of unification in Egypt.
2630 BC Menaragsi Sumerian king of Kish
defeats Elamites.
2600 BC War between Gilgamesh of Uruk
and Agga of Kish in Sumer.
2500 BC Sumerian battlecart burials at Ur –
the standard of Ur from the same
tombs depicts them in battle.
2500 BC Beginning of Early Bronze Age.
2450 BC Irkabdamu of Ebla conquers Mari.
2475 BC Eannatum of Lagash repels attack
by Kish, Elam and Mari, and
defeats Umma.
2400 BC Battle of Ugiga between Sumerian
city states of Umma and Lagash.
2330 BC Battle of Akkad between Sumerian
overlord Lugalzaggisi and Sargon
of Akkad.
2280 BC Egyptian commander Weni
campaigns against Amorites.
2265 BC Conquest of Magan by
Manishtushu of Akkad.
2225 BC Fall of Ebla to Naramsin of Akkad.
2200 BC Sura Steppe skirmish between
Kurgan chariot tribes of the
Eurasian Steppes.
2175 BC Fall of Akkad to Gutian invaders.
2125 BC Battle of Kumeruki between
Sumerians and Gutians.
2090 BC Egyptian warlord Ankhtify conquers
Upper Egyptian provinces.
2050 BC Necropolis of Abudju ravaged in
Egyptian civil war.
2015 BC Outflanking of Muriq-Tidnum
defences of Ur by Amorite hordes.
2005 BC Fall of Ur to Amorites
and Elamites.
2000 BC Beginning of Middle Bronze Age.
1970 BC Egypt re-united by Mentuhotep I’s
victory over 10th Dynasty.
1830 BC Egyptian Pharaoh Senusret III
campaigns in Nubia.
1825BC Egyptian rearguard fights
Early Canaanites and Amorites
at Sekmem.
1814 BC Shamshi-Adad I captures Ashur.
1764 BC Hammurabi of Babylon and his
allies defeat Elam.
1763 BC Hammurabi and his allies
capture Larsa.
1762 BC Battle of Eshnunna between
Hammurabi of Babylon and Silisin
of Eshnunna.
1760 BC Battle of Hit between Hammurabi
of Babylon and Zimrilim of Mari.
1700 BC Minoan skirmish on Aegean islands
as Minos imposes his rule over the
seas.
1625 BC Storming of Hahhum by Hittite
king Hattusili I.
1610 BC Stab in the Back – Battle of Nekheb
between Egyptians and Kushites.
1595 BC Hittites led by Mursili I
sack Babylon.
1540 BC Cutting off Avaris, capital
of the Hyksos by Egyptian
Pharaoh Kamose.
1530 BC Fall of Avaris and overthrow of Hyksos
by Pharaoh Ahmose I of Egypt.
1500 BC Beginning of Later Bronze Age.
1475 BC Idrimi regains Alalakh with
Habiru warband.
1457 BC Battle of Megiddo between
Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III
and Canaanite confederation.
1446 BC Thutmose III of Egypt crosses
Euphrates and defeats Mitanni.
1430 BC Tudhaliya I of Hatti campaigns
against the Assuwa confederacy in
Western Anatolia.
1420 BC Across the Orontes: Egyptians
engage the Mitannians.
1385 BC Battle of Zippasla between Hittites
and Achaeans.
1353 BC Not quiet on the Kaska front
as raiders break through Hittite
frontier defences.
1345 BC Battle of Isuwa between
Suppiluliuma I of Hittites and
Tushratta of Mitanni.
1335 BC It’s a long way to Karduniyash for
caravans bound for Egypt at risk
from Sutu bandits.
1326 BC Suppiluliuma I of Hatti captures
Carchemish, completing the
conquest of Mitanni.
1325 BC Ambush of Zannanza, a Hittite
prince on his way to Egypt.
1300 BC Battle of Astarpa where Mursili II
of Hatti defeats Arzawa.
1294 BC The Battle of Beth Shan between
the Egyptian army of Seti I and the
Shasu and Habiru tribes.
1275 BC Battle of Kadesh where Hittites led
by Muwatalli defeat Egyptian
Pharaoh Ramesses II.
1270 BC Siege of Dapur where Ramesses II
attempts to storm a Hittite fortress.
149
1260 BC Shalmaneser I of Assyria defeats
Shattuara of Hanigalbat (Mitanni).
1259 BC Peace treaty between Egyptians
and Hittites.
1250 BC Shipwreck skirmish where a
Phoenician ship’s crew fight off
pirates on Cyprus.
1235 BC Hattusili III of Hatti campaigns in
Western Anatolia against Achaeans.
1230 BC Battle of Nihriya where Assyrians
clash with Hittites.
1208 BC Battle of Peryeru between Egyptian
Pharaoh Merenptah and Libyans
with Sea People allies.
1200 BC Beginning of Early Iron Age.
1200 BC Battle of Mount Tabor between
Canaanite Hazor and Barak’s
Hebrew tribesmen.
1190 BC Fall of Hattusas to Kaska and
Mushki invaders.
1185 BC Chariot duels at Troy between
Trojan and Achaean Champions.
1180 BC Fall of Troy to coalition
of Achaean warlords led
by Agamemnon.
1173 BC Battle of Hatsho where Ramesses
III defeats Libyans and Sea Peoples.
1176 BC Battle of the Nile between Sea
People invaders and the warships of
Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III.
1178 BC Ramesses III defeats Libyans and
Sea Peoples.
1168 BC Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte
vanquishes Babylon, bringing down
the Kassite Dynasty.
1150 BC Raiders of Pylos ravage the
Achaean coast.
1120 BC Battle of River Ulai between
Babylonians led by Nebuchnezzar I
and Elamites.
1115 BC Battle of Kadmuhu where Tiglath-
Piuleser I of Assyria repelled
Mushki hordes.
1110 BC Battle of Jebel Bishri where
Tiglath-Piuleser I defeated
invading
Aramaean
tribes.
1087 BC War of The
High Priest tears
Egypt apart.
1000 BC Traditional date
for King David’s
reign in Israel.
ARMIES AND DIVISIONS
The Hail Caesar Rules are ideal for creating armies of the
Bronze Age Near East because the ‘divisional’ organisation
mirrors the military organisation of the time. The records
tell us that armies were divided into between two and five
divisions. A typical early arrangement was in two divisions
consisting of a vanguard and rearguard or right and left
wings of the army. Another arrangement was in three
divisions consisting of a right wing, left wing and centre.
Chariot units might even be permanently allocated to
right or left wings so that they know exactly where to
deploy from column of march and this may have
influenced the arrangement of chariot crew. At the
famous battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, the Egyptian army
was organised into four divisions, each of which may have
been a self-contained army. These were named after the
gods Amun, Ra, Ptah and Set. The same divisions are
referred to in other battles. At Kadesh, the army of
Ramesses II’s ally, Amurru, formed a further division
known as the Na’aruna.
Usually, each big division of an army had a standard to
march behind and deploy around, representing a god or
goddess. In records of battles, it is often said that these
gods ‘went before the army’ and were credited with the
victory. This tradition went right back to the Akkadian
Empire, as depicted on Naramsin’s victory stele, or even
earlier to the Egyptian wars of unification, since totem
standards are depicted in battle scenes of that time. A
notable divisional or army standard used by the
Mesopotamians, Mitanni, Hittites and Assyrians was
‘Ishtar of the Battlefield’.
Many armies were made up of ally contingents from different
city-states or regions and these forces would form a distinct
division commanded by the ally king or viceroy.
Armies were as big as the generals could make them, but
records indicate that a typical size was 10,000 to 20,000 men
for a strong army. An army of 5,000 would be sufficient for
most raids and actions to guard frontiers. At Kadesh, the
Hittite king Muwatallis invoked every treaty to compel his
ally kingdoms to supply contingents and then hired
mercenaries as well resulting in an army of 3,500 chariots
and 40,000 infantry.
Akkadian spearmen
150
INFANTRY UNITS
Unit organisation was fairly consistant
throughout the period. The basic unit
of infantry was a squad of ten men,
although there could also be squads
of four, five or six men (useful for
guard duties, scouting and as
runner detachments). In
Mesopotamia it was the custom to
calculate in multiples of 60, a method
also used elsewhere and sometimes in Egypt. Usually, other
regions and Egypt calculated in multiples of 50. This meant
that a company could be from 40 to 60 men and several
would combine to form regiments of 200, 250, 300, 400 or
600 men. Sometimes there were bigger units of 1,000 men,
which may have been brigades of two or four units working
together. The most common units in the records are those
of 600 men. In skirmish actions, units are seldom bigger
than 50 and usually 10 or 20 men.
CHARIOTRY UNITS
The basic chariot unit was the chariot team itself consisting
of the chariot, the span of horses, the charioteer who drove
the vehicle, the chariot warrior, and one or more chariot
runners who were supporting light infantry. Five or (more
often), six chariots formed a chariot troop, and 24 or 25 or
50 chariots formed a chariot squadron. Usually three
squadrons were brigaded together to form a unit of 150
chariots. Four such brigades formed a bigger formation of
600 chariots. This might be the entire chariot force of a
powerful city state or province and the entire chariot
strength of a wing (division) of the army. At Kadesh, the
Hittite chariotry attacked with four ‘bodies’ of 600 chariots
and there were a further 1,000 chariots held in reserve. On
a skirmish level, a single chariot might be a tactical unit
and there are records of chariot teams being allocated to
guard routes into besieged cities or sections of coast
threatened by raiders. A single chariot could have a
devastating effect on a group of raiders or marauding
nomads, rather like an armoured car in more recent times
in these regions.
CHARIOT RUNNERS
Soon after the earliest chariots were used in battle it was
found to be a good idea to allocate detachments of light
infantry to support them and also to exploit any advantage
created by the chariots. Such infantry needed to be lightly
armed athletic warriors, able to run and keep up with the
chariots. Except for all out charges, most of the time chariots
moved at the trot or canter and probably did not often
outpace the supporting infantry by far. When they did, the
chariots could rally back to the infantry or wait for them to
catch up. Supporting infantry had many roles to play,
including finding ways for chariots through rugged ground,
helping to carry light chariots over obstacles, acting as
grooms, fighting beside chariots in combat, screening the
chariots, rescuing fallen chariot crew and capturing fallen
enemy chariot crew. Chariot crewmen who lost their chariot
could join the supporting infantry. By the time that the two
horse light chariot was in use everywhere, so were supporting
light infantry.
Such troops are mentioned frequently in records and
depicted in battle scenes following chariots. There were
several special military terms for them. In Egypt they were
known as ‘runners’ which is Pehrer in Egyptian, derived from
the verb ‘to run’. The name is actually written with a special
hieroglyph depicting a soldier running with shield and
javelin. Several Egyptian soldiers who recorded their battle
experiences in tomb inscriptions acted as Runners. The
Egyptians referred to the third crewmen mounted on Hittite
chariots as runners, indicating that they could dismount to
operate on foot. In Hittite records the terms Piran-Huyatalla
and Sharikuwa may refer to runners. The term Runner was
also applied to other light troops such as Sea People
javelinmen and, indeed, the Egyptians recruited these as
chariot runners. A chariot might be allocated a detachment
of only one runner or a squad of several. The Old Testament
refers to as many as fifty runners. In Shang Dynasty China,
chariot burials have been found with as many as 125
skeletons of supporting infantry, though these probably
included not only light infantry but also the rest of the
chariot lord’s infantry retinue.
CAVALRY SCOUTS
Cavalry scouts and messengers riding either asses or horses
were in use almost as early as the first chariots if not before.
Depictions show the riders of early small horses using the so
called ‘donkey seat’ and sitting far back on the animal’s
rump. This may simply be due to the artist depicting all
riders in the same way and those riding horses may actually
have slid forward into a better riding position. Stirrups were
unknown and saddles were very basic and so the rider relied
on expertise to stay mounted. Some did use the bow from
horseback but it was a long time before true cavalry evolved.
The chariot in which the charioteer concentrated on driving
while his companion concentrated on shooting and fighting
proved superior to cavalry in combat throughout the Bronze
Age. References to actions by cavalry occur only towards the
end of the Bronze Age and the appearance of true cavalry is a
development of the Iron Age – pioneered by the Neo-Hittites
and Assyrians.
151
BAGGAGE
Most armies would have a big baggage train carrying
essentials such as tents, fodder, food supply for the troops,
water for the chariot horses, any plunder and captives and
spare ammunition, as well as the wounded. Four wheeled
and two wheeled wagons drawn by oxen are depicted in
battle scenes and pottery models. There were also many
baggage animals – usually asses and mules. The camel does
not seem to have been used much in the Near East before the
Iron Age. A huge amount of food supply for the army went
‘on the hoof’ in the form of herds of goats, sheep and cattle.
There would also be spare horses or asses for chariots and a
mobile chariot repair workshop (as shown in the Kadesh
scenes in Egypt). Water for the chariot horses in these arid
regions would be crucial and it seems likely that some carts
might be converted into huge water carriers, liberally coated
in pitch. Such carts were used by later armies, especially for
crossing the Sinai desert, and some carts with rounded tops
depicted in the Egyptian Kadesh scenes may be such water
carriers. Pre-fabricated siege devices might also be carried on
carts and Thutmose III of Egypt is recorded as having taken
dismantled transport ships on wagons from the Phoenician
coast to enable his army to cross the Euphrates into Mitanni.
As for returning with plunder, many records tell of victorious
armies carrying off treasure and statues of gods looted from
temples, so you can imagine how this added to the ponderous
baggage train. The baggage was vulnerable to attack and
caravans were regularly ambushed by bandit nomads. Battle
scenes from Ramesses III’s wars against the Sea Peoples show
the Egyptian army pushing the foe back onto their defended ox
carts carrying their dependants on the migration. One solution
for the problem of logistics and one which the Assyrians would
later develop, was to require ally states to gather military
provisions as tribute at certain depot cities. Then the army
would march via these cities to replenish its supplies and
re-supply for the next stage, gathering reinforcements as well.
Libyan skirmishers
The Bronze Age is so called because the principle metal in use
for making tools, weapons and armour was the alloy of copper
and tin we know as bronze. Copper and other copper alloys
were employed earlier to make these kinds of utilitarian objects
and also continued in use to some extent. A very small amount
of iron was used for exotic items and was sometimes meteoric
in origin. The increased use of iron and a decline in the use of
bronze marks the end of the Bronze Age, although this was
obviously a developmental process and didn’t happen
everywhere at the same time. This was also the great age of
chariots, since the wheel had been invented during the
preceding Neolithic age. However the first chariots were drawn
by wild asses until domesticated horses became available. These
horses were too small for riders to act as effective cavalry, but
ideal for harnessing to chariots where one man concentrated on
driving while another concentrated on shooting and fighting.
Riding skills remained undeveloped until bigger horses were
bred towards the end of the era. Early horse bones and wild ass
bones are difficult to distinguish and so the beasts harnessed to
early chariots are often referred to as ‘equines’, since they could
be asses, horses or hybrids. Alongside developments in chariot
technology were those in ship design which led to the sea power
of the Minoans, Egyptians, Sea Peoples and Phoenicians.
Increasing skill in metallurgy, especially in metal rich regions
such as Europe, led to improved designs of metal armour, axes
and swords. Technical innovations often enabled a tribe or
kingdom to gain the upper hand over enemies.
ARMOUR
The Sumerians devised some of the earliest forms of armour.
The soldiers wore copper helmets of a ‘bascinet’ design. The
‘Standard of Ur’ depicts spearmen of the city of Ur wearing
war capes that cover most of the body, leaving both hands
free to grip the long spear. These capes are covered in large
dots which are thought to represent copper discs. The same
kind of armour is depicted on the similar ‘Standard of Mari’.
The ‘Standard of Ebla’ has the best depiction of this kind of
armour and shows soldiers in war-capes on which the discs
are very well represented. It can be seen that the discs are
plates, probably of metal or horn rather than merely
decoration. The discs are perhaps about a palm in diameter
and cover the cape, meeting edge to edge. The cape was
probably itself leather or thick felt. If they are of copper then
Early City-State spearmen
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the effect would be to see more glinting copper than cloak.
As an alternative to war capes, Sumerian troops wore thick
fleeces and cross straps of leather.
Scale armour seems to have evolved from earlier armour using
bone, horn, hide or wooden plates laced together and boars’
tusks attached to helmets. Such forms of armour were used in
the Neolithic period and have been found in the burials of
warriors and chieftains, especially in South East Europe and
Eurasia. With the development of copper and bronze
technology, it was possible to make such armour with metal
scales. This innovation seems to have begun among the steppe
cultures or in the highlands north of the Near East. An early
Hurrian name for metal scale armour means ‘snake skin’ and
the scales do indeed look like scaled up snake scales complete
with a reinforcing central rib. The Nuzi archive describes a
great variety of scale armour, using hundreds of scales of
varying sizes to create scale hauberks and scale helmets for
Maryannu chariot warriors and bards for their chariot horses.
This kind of armour is depicted in its various forms on the
decorated chariot cab of Pharaoh Thutmose IV, who is shown
fighting the Mitanni. Leather scale hauberks were used as well
as metal ones and an example of one of these was found rolled
up in Tutankhamun’s tomb. Egyptians and Hittites often wore
hauberks with alternating rows of differently coloured or
patinated scales, usually red and blue. When battle scenes are
viewed from a distance or in small photographs, these rows
look like stripes. Another cause of the stripy look is when a
layer of leather was fitted between each row of scales or if the
artist was representing the rows of thongs attaching rows of
scales to the linen or leather base of the hauberk.
While Egyptian elite troops had scale armour, the Egyptians
devised various types of leather and fabric armour for their
infantry. Some of this looks much like the Roman lorica
segmentata in design or medieval linen jacks. The armour was
often made of stiffened linen reinforced with studs and maybe
wooden or thick leather plates. Helmets included bronze
‘bascinet’ types, scale helmets and typically Egyptian style
stripy helmets made of woven palm fibre or leather thongs. In
the Aegean and Europe, advances were made in making sheet
bronze armour such as helmets, breast and back plates, greaves
and arm-guards. These were worn over padded linen tunics.
The ‘Dendra’ armour made for a Mycenaean Eqeta chariot
warrior is one of the more ambitious suits of armour of this
type, but variations of the same idea, in bronze and in
studded moulded leather were worn by Sea Peoples warriors.
The ‘boars’ tusks’ helmets of ancient design continued to be
worn with this armour.
SHIELDS
The Egyptians were some of the first to use shields and the
earliest depicted Egyptian warriors of the time before the
unification wear feathers and look much like Libyans except that
they carry shields. Most other warriors at this time used hide
capes instead of shields. When the Sumerians began organising
their soldiers into close order formations of spearmen, some
cities continued using war capes which were covered with discs,
while others equipped their infantry with huge bodyshields.
These were either hung from a shoulder strap to leave both
hands free to thrust with the long spear, or carried by specialist
shieldbearers in the front rank. Such formations had to advance
unflinching into a hail of slingshot. The Minoans, Early
Egyptians and Early Mycenaeans continued using such tower
shields, while in Mesopotamia the handier Amorite shields and
bucklers were adopted. The smaller shields suited tactics using
short spears, javelins, swords and chariot fighting.
The Sea Peoples brought the next development in shield
design, using the round leather buckler of a type favoured in
Europe, fitted with one or more bronze bosses, which was
used in combination with a long slashing sword. These sword
and buckler warriors, who were often also armoured, could
hack into dense formations of infantry and were not afraid to
attack chariots. It was ideal armament for sea raiders.
BATTLE-AxES
The battle axe was a favoured weapon of the Early Bronze
Age. It was easy to make by flat-casting a big bronze or copper
axehead and later by casting a socketed axe head. The long
shaft enabled it to be swung with great force using both
hands. With this weapon, favoured especially by bodyguards,
fierce warriors could hack through the wall of tower shields
and break into a dense formation. Later, the weapon was less
popular, being replaced with handier bronze weapons such as
the khopesh which could be used in combination with a shield.
However the Egyptians continued to use axe armed soldiers
wielding a weapon which combined the effect of a mace and
an axe as well as another weapon which was like a very long
spearhead on a short handle. These were effective weapons
against the well armoured Maryannu chariot warriors.
SWORDS
Swords were an invention of the Bronze Age and evolved from
copper and bronze daggers. The earliest daggers were made of
flint or bone so could only be made quite short. The same
designs were copied in copper and bronze and such blades were
sometimes fitted sideways on a long shaft to create a dagger axe
(a favoured weapon in Shang China and Early Bronze Age
Europe). In the Middle Bronze Age it was discovered that by
adding a strengthening midrib the dagger blade could be made
long and tapering. This created the so called ‘rapier’ much
favoured by the Minoans. In the Near East, a new style of sword
was invented in the shape of a sickle, known as the khopesh. This
was in fact a scimitar, weighted especially for downward hacking
and probably good at knocking aside shields. Straight sword
development continued in the Bronze Age Aegean and Europe
and the Sea Peoples’ warriors burst upon the scene armed with
very long bronze thrusting and slashing swords. These were very
effective and came as rather a surprise to their eastern enemies,
who hastened to copy the idea. Finds show that Pharaoh
Merenptah, who had to face these warriors and Libyans rearmed
with such swords by their Sea Peoples allies, ordered swords of
this type to be manufactured for his auxiliary troops.
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Achaean archers
ARCHERY
The earliest archers used a short bow made of a single stave
of wood. Some of these might be quite large, such as those
used by the Early Egyptians. Many tribesmen continued using
such simple bows for a long time. The composite bow was
probably invented on the Eurasian steppe and possibly
separately elsewhere. It was first used in the Near East in
Sumerian and Akkadian times. The composite bow was a
complex bow made of wood, sinew and horn. It was compact
and powerful and the ideal weapon for chariot warriors and
horsemen. It was introduced into Egypt by the Hyksos at the
same time as the chariot and khopesh. The Egyptians began
making their own version and re-armed their infantry with it.
This must have given them the edge over the Hyksos in the
war of liberation. Elsewhere, the composite bow remained an
expensive weapon used by nobles, elite troops and regular
soldiers who could be armed with bows made in quantity in
workshops at state expense. Many of the Canaanite princes
who requested help from the Pharaoh against the Habiru in
the Amarna letters thought that their problems could be
solved if Pharaoh sent them just a company of archers.
Probably because they were well equipped and well trained all
round soldiers.
THROW STICKS
This curious weapon was a form of boomerang and so used
the principle of the aerofoil shape. It evolved from a hunting
weapon which was hurled at a flock of birds. The throw stick
was favoured especially by nomadic tribesmen such as the
Amorites, Gutians and Libyans and the Egyptians named
some of them after the weapon (in the same way that Saxons
and Franks were named after their tribal weapon). Indeed,
tribal names were written in hieroglyphic script using the
glyph of a throw stick. It was a handy weapon and a pair of
them could be tucked into the belt and so it was popular with
axemen as a missile. Sumerians, Akkadians and Hammurabic
troops used throwsticks in combination with axes, long spears
and short spears and they were manufactured in large
quantities at Mari. The weapon fell out of use with the
increased use of handy shields, helmets and armour.
What follows is an imaginary interview with some veteran
Egyptian soldiers of the later New Kingdom, a prospective
new recruit and his scribal schoolmaster who doesn’t think
much of soldiering as a career. Their replies are based on
ancient texts written on papyrus and ostraka (limestone
tablets) from an Egyptian scribal school.
What is it like to be a soldier of Pharaoh?
Old Soldier: “Let me tell you how woefully fares the soldier;
his superiors are many; the general, the commander of
auxiliaries, the rank-master who is at their head, the standard-
bearer, the lieutenant, the scribe, the captain of fifty, the
commander of hereditary soldiers. They go in and out of the
headquarters and say: ‘make them do some work!’ He is
woken up after an hour of sleep and is driven like an ass. He
works until the sun goes down. He is hungry and he feels like
he is dead while still alive!
Is it better to be a soldier than study hard to be a scribe?
Scribe Schoolmaster: “Ah, what do you mean by saying: ‘it is
thought that the soldier is better off than the scribe’? Let me
tell you how the soldier fares. He is brought, while still a
youth to be shut up in the barracks. He gets a burning blow
on his body, a ruinous blow on his eye, a knockout blow on
his forehead and his head is scarred with a wound. He is laid
down and beaten like a sheet of papyrus. He is battered and
bruised with flogging.”
Yes but he sees the world doesn’t he?
Old Soldier: “Let me tell you how he goes to Retennu (Syria)
and how he marches over mountains. His bread and water are
borne upon his shoulder like the load of an ass. His drink is
stinking water. He falls out only to keep watch. When he
reaches the enemy, he is like a trapped bird and he has no
strength in his limbs. If he comes back to Egypt he is like a bit
of worm-eaten old wood! All the subjects are mustered and the
best taken. The man is made into a soldier and the stripling
into a recruit. The boy is only bred to be torn from the arms of
his mother; if he reaches manhood his bones are battered. Are
you an ass that is led for it has no understanding! Acquire for
yourself this great career of a scribe!”
Surely it must be better in the chariotry?
Old Soldier: “Let me tell you of a miserable career, that of the
chariotry officer. He is placed in the stable out of regard for his
“The name of the brave man is in that which he has done; it will not perish in the land forever!” Ahmose Sa Bana, Egyptian soldier of the Hyksos war.
154
family connections, with five slaves; two of them are given to
him as helpers. He hurries to get steeds from the stall in His
Majesty’s presence. When he gets good horses he is exultant.
He comes with them to his town and tramples it with zest. He
expends his family wealth that he may acquire a chariot. It’s
very expensive. He goes forth eagerly to war. He ends up on
foot having cast off his chariot in a thicket, and his feet are cut
by the sandals and his shirt is pierced with thorns. When the
troops are mustered he is grievously tormented, he is beaten
upon the ground with a hundred stripes.”
Old Charioteer: “The boy becomes a soldier’s servant, the
stripling, a recruit. If his span leaves him and runs away, he is
demoted to the infantry.”
Surely campaigning is such an adventure?
Old Soldier: “The soldier, when he goes to Retennu, has no
staff and no sandals. He knows not if he be dead or alive!
The foe lies hidden in the scrub and the enemy stand ready
for battle. The soldier marches on and cries out to his god,
come and save me!”
Another Old Soldier: “Ah you have not marched to Kadesh
and Tubikhi You have not gone into the region of the nomads
with the auxiliary troops of the army You have not trodden the
road to Meger, where the sky is dark by day because it is
overgrown with cypress and oak and cedars that reach heaven.
There are more lions there than panthers and hyenas and it is
surrounded with nomads on all sides. You have not climbed
Mount Shewe. Your chariot is dragged by ropes as your horses
are dragged. You will know what it’s like to be a Maryanna
when you bear your chariot on your shoulders!”
Old Charioteer: “You wake at the hour for starting in the
dark of night. You are alone to do the harnessing, the
grooms don’t come. Deserters have come into the camp, the
horses have been let loose, your tent has been ransacked.
Your groom awoke in the night and saw what was done, has
taken what was left and joined with the ranks of the wicked!
He has merged with the nomads and changed himself into
one of them.”
 EXTRACTS FROM DESPATCHES
Letter requesting information on impressed conscripts.
“To the scribe Puhem from the scribe Mehu of the Pharaoh’s
workshop. This is written to let my lord know. The vizier sent
three youths saying, ‘Make them priests in the Temple of
Merenptah’, but that laid hold of them and took them away
saying, ‘They shall be soldiers.’ Hurry and catch up with them
and write to me as to how they fare.”
Letter of congratulations from one officer to another.
“The commander of auxiliaries and overseer of foreign tribes
Penamun to the commander of auxiliaries Pehripide.
Furthermore I have heard that you had written to say that
pharaoh my good lord has carried out for me his good
intentions, pharaoh has appointed me chief captain of the
auxiliaries as well, so have you written to me. It is a good action
of Ra that you are now in the position of your father, well done!”
Extracts from a letter from an officer stationed in a forgotten
desert outpost.
“I reside in Khenkentawi and I am without equipment. I spend
the day gazing at the sky as though I were catching birds. My eye
glances furtively at the road in order to go up to Canaan. The
mosquito is there at twilight and the gnat at noon and it sucks at
every vein. There are two hundred large dogs here and three
hundred wolfhounds, in all five hundred, which stand ready every
day at the door of the house whenever I go out, because they
smelt the beer when the jar was opened. May god deliver whom
he will from this heat which is here and has no compassion!”
An exercise given to a trainee military scribe.
“You are despatched on a mission to Phoenicia at the head of
the victorious army to crush those rebels who are called Ne’arin
[Canaanite meaning ‘young warriors’]. The auxiliary troops that
you command number 1,900 plus 520 Sherden, 1,600 Kehek
[Libyans], 100 Mashawasha, and 880 Nubians; in all 5,000 not
including their officers. Tribute supplies have been brought to
you of bread, cattle, and wine. The number of men is too great
and the provision is too small for them. You receive the
provisions and they are placed in the camp. The army is
equipped and ready, so divide it up quickly and give each man
his ration. The nomad scouts look on furtively and say ‘Oh,
clever scribe’. Midday comes, the camp is restless. The order
comes: ‘It’s time to start.’ The troops say, ‘Be not wrathful oh
commander of auxiliaries. We have yet far to march. Why is
there no bread? Our night quarters are far off! Why do you beat
us for speaking up, for aren’t you a clever scribe?’”
A geographical question posed by the scribe Hori for the
student Amenemope.
“Know you not the name of Khelez, which is in the land of Upe,
the scene of battles of all warriors? The stream of Jordan, how is
it crossed? Show me how to pass by Megiddo which lies above it.
You are a Maryanna who is skilled in deeds of valour! A
Maryanna such as you is qualified to march at the head of the
host! Forward, oh Maryan, to shoot! Look out! There is a
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ravine, two thousand cubits deep, filled with boulders and
shingle. You make a detour. You grasp the bow. The auxiliary
chiefs see you in action until your arm aches and shout out in
Canaanite, ‘You slay like a lion oh Maryanna!’ Thus you earn
the name of Mahir among the officers of Egypt!”
“Behold there is a narrow defile made perilous by nomads who are
hidden among the bushes. Some of them are of four cubits and five
cubits from nose to the soles of their feet. They are fierce of face,
not mild of heart and they don’t hearken to parley! You are alone
with no help with you and no army behind you. You find no guide
to show you a way through. You decide to go forward as you know
the way. Shuddering seizes you and the hair of your head stands on
end. Your soul lies in your hand! Your path is full of boulders and
scree and there is no passable track for it is overgrown with thorns.
The ravine is on one side of you, the mountain on the other. On
you go and guide your chariot beside you. The leather fails. You
unharness the horses to make repairs in the middle of the defile.
You are no expert in the way of binding it!”
“The sky is clear and you suspect that the enemy is behind you.
Then trembling takes hold of you. The horses are gone and the
road stretches out before them. They smashed your chariot and
your weapons fall to the ground and are buried in the sand. You
best of scribes! You Maher that aims well! Leader of the
Ne’arin! Chief of the army! I have described to you the foreign
lands as far as the end of the land of Canaan, but your answers
to me are neither good nor bad and you return no report!”
Raphia, what is its wall like? How many leagues march is it to
Gaza? Answer quickly! Render me a report, so that I can call you
a Mahir and you may boast of your name to the rest. Then I will
tell them that you really are a Maryan!”
A Military Despatch from the Hammurabic Period reporting
victory in battle.
“Tell Yasmakhaddu, your brother Ishmedagahn sends the
following despatch: The warriors of the Awlanumn tribe gathered
here for battle, their entire force led by Maraddu. We fought at
Tuwi and I inflicted a severe defeat upon them. Maraddu and all
the Awlanumn tribesmen are slain. So are their allies and slaves.
Not even a single enemy got away alive. Rejoice!”
Report to Zimrilim of Mari on the preparation of his
contingent for the Larsa Campaign.
“Tell my lord, your servant Bakhdi-Addu sends this despatch.
The second batch of Hana tribal auxiliaries has just arrived here.
Both the first and second detachments are well. There is no
sickness and nothing wrong. Also, the baggage is well and my
lord should not worry about anything. Indeed, in all the
campaigns that I have seen, there was a lot of discontent and on
this present campaign I have been on the lookout for it, but
there is no moaning whatsoever. It’s all good humour and they
are as happy as if they were at home in their camps. My lord’s
troops are eager to fight battles and defeat the enemy. Be of
good cheer my lord!”
As for all of the Ancient and Medieval periods, our
information on the military history and the appearance and
organisation of armies comes from a wide variety of sources.
Some of these are written sources in a variety of ancient
languages and scripts and some of these are finds from
archaeological excavations. There is an almost limitless amount
of potential evidence gathered from years of investigation
stored in libraries, museums and on the monuments, with
more still hidden in the ground. New information is turning
up all the time. The more research you do the more you find
and the more you can learn from what has already been found.
The main sources are described briefly here.
THE SOURCES
Battle Scenes
Battle scenes were carved on the walls of Egyptian temples
to commemorate battles and glorify the Pharaoh. On a
lesser scale, battle scenes were used to decorate various
things such as Tutankhamun’s painted box and the
‘Standard of Ur’. Some tomb paintings depict battles. From
the Iron Age there are the Assyrian palace reliefs depicting
their army in detail and the tradition continues up to such
monuments as Trajan’s Column and the Bayeux Tapestry.
These scenes are the best source for the appearance of
156
armies and depicting methods of warfare and tactics. It is
thanks to these scenes that entire ranges of model soldiers
can be made and they are usually the inspiration for them.
Most of the big Egyptian temples, such as Karnak, Luxor,
the Ramesseum, Abu Simbel and Medinet Habu, have
battles scenes, especially the Battle of Kadesh and Ramesses
III’s battles against Libyans and Sea Peoples. Some Assyrian
battle reliefs can be seen in the British Museum, although
these belong to the period after this book, they show the
next developments in warfare. Assyrian scenes show scribes
and ‘war artists’ taking field notes on wax tablets of events
and captured items for use later in creating scenes.
Egyptians also did this and inscriptions often quote directly
from military despatches. This means that the scenes are
usually reliable and when artefacts are found they usually
match the depictions in these scenes.
When the Egyptian scenes were first discovered, often by
scholars accompanying Napoleon to Egypt or following up
later, the artists could see and copy the details and original
colours which had survived by being covered up by wind
blown sand. Now these scenes are eroded and so to get the
most information from them it is a good idea to consult the
oldest modern books which copy them. Then you will see
details such as scale armour which is not so easy to see now.
Battle scenes were usually accompanied by long inscriptions
 THE STORY OF SINUHE
This famous ancient Egyptian tale is based on the true
story of an Egyptian Royal Bodyguard who fled from the
scene of the assassination of Pharaoh Amenemhat I,
believing (incorrectly) that he would probably not survive
the purge when the crown prince asserted his right to the
throne. Highlights of the story are given here.
Sinuhe says, “I took the north road and reached the wall of
the ruler made to repel invaders from the east. I hid in a
thicket lest the lookout on the wall should spot me. At
evening I moved on and at dawn, reached the Isthmus of
Suez there I fell down with thirst, I was parched, my throat
burned and I said, ‘This is the taste of death.’ Then I lifted
up my heart and my body for I heard the sound of cattle
and saw nomads, the chief, who had visited Egypt,
recognised me. He gave me water and warm milk and I
went with this tribe and they treated me kindly. Tribe
passed me on to tribe…
Nenshi son of Amu prince of Retjennu took me and said
you will do alright with me! You’re useful because you
understand Egyptian. He let me choose for myself a good
domain on his border with another country, a good land
called Yaa. There were figs and vines and there was more
wine than water … he made me ruler of a tribe among the
best in his country. I spent many years there and my
children grew up to be mighty men each ruling over a tribe
… when the nomads began to get bold and defy the
chieftains of the lands I reported their movements. The
prince of Retjennu caused me to pass many years as
captain of his hosts and every tribe against which I
which contain useful tactical information amongst the
triumphalism. This idea is very much like the Bayeux
Tapestry with its text and represents ancient efforts to create
a sort of graphic narrative, cartoon strip or film with the
media available. This idea is ultimately descended from
prehistoric rock art. Fragments of papyrus indicate that such
scenes, painted in miniature, were used to illustrate epic tales
on rolls of papyrus, leather or parchment, but hardly any of
these survive.
Inscriptions and Victory Stelae
Inscriptions recording historical events such as battles,
campaigns and conquests were carved onto statues and slabs
of stone known as ‘stelae’, as commemorative monuments.
These were set up in temples, on borders or sometimes
carved into a rock face. They often have accompanying scenes
which depict warriors. One of the best examples is the ‘Stela
of the Vultures’ recording the victory of Lagash over Umma,
so called because it depicts vultures descending on the
battlefield, as well as a wonderful scene of a Sumerian
infantry formation with spears levelled, going into battle.
157
marched, when I attacked it was driven from its pastures
and wells.
One day, there came a mighty man of Retjennu to
challenge me in my camp. He was a champion without peer
and had subdued the whole of Retjennu. He vowed that he
would fight with me, planned to rob me, plotted to take my
cattle. I may be a foreigner whom none loves any more than
a nomad would be loved in the Delta but if that man is a
bull that loves combat I also am a fighting bull and am not
afraid to try and finish it with him! At night time I strung
my bow and practiced shooting arrows. I drew out my
dagger and sharpened my weapons. At dawn when the
Retjennu challenger came he had stirred up its tribes, he
had gathered the countries of half of it and planned this
combat. Every heart was sore for me. They said is there
another mighty man who can fight against him? As well as
his shield, his axe and his armful of javelins, the challenger
had a bow, but after I had drawn out his weapons I let his
arrows pass by me uselessly spent … he charged me and I
shot him, my arrow sticking out of his neck. He cried out
and fell on his nose. I laid him low with my own axe and
raised my shout of victory over his back!”
Sinuhe eventually returned to Egypt where he was
welcomed by the Pharaoh as a loyal retainer of his father.
When he appeared at the palace, shaggy and
unrecognisable as a savage, scaring the princes and
princesses of the court, Pharaoh ordered him to be bathed,
shaven, given a haircut and dressed in nice clean white
Egyptian cloths like a civilised man.
Royal Annals
These survive in the form of inscriptions on monuments or
texts on numerous clay tablets belonging to a palace archive.
They usually record battles and campaigns in some detail and
reveal the political and diplomatic circumstances
surrounding the military action. Notable examples are the
Hittite Annals and the Assyrian Annals, some of which go
back into the Bronze Age. Some annals and chronicles that
once existed on tablets, scrolls or bronze sheets were copied,
perhaps several times and survived to be consulted much
later by researchers such as the Ptolemaic historian Manetho
and the scribes who compiled the Old Testament.
Tomb Biographies
This is mainly an Egyptian source. Egyptian nobles and
soldiers such as Ahmose Sa Ebana and Ahmose Pen Nekheb
and generals such as Horemhab inscribed their military careers
on the walls of their tombs. It was normal for officials to
proudly record their lifetime achievements in the parts of the
tomb accessible to their descendants. The texts are often
accompanied by paintings or carved scenes of military action.
 Ramesses III temple, Medinet Habu, Migdol gateway (author’s collection).
Cuneiform clay tablets
Most cities, palaces and temples throughout the Near East kept
vast archives of documents of all kinds, usually inscribed in
cuneiform script on baked clay tablets. Such tablets had a very
good chance of surviving for centuries, even millennia, and so
could be consulted. Treaties and omens were particularly
important and so the military events connected to them were
recorded in detail. There were also annals, diplomatic
despatches, letters and vast amounts of logistical texts
concerned with making armaments, raising troops, lists of
tribute and war booty and even manuals on training chariot
horses. These were the books of the time. Many of these
archives have been discovered during archaeological
excavations in the ruins of cities and due to the thousands of
tablets, some of which are broken, it takes many years to
decipher, translate and publish the texts. The information is
often very important for reconstructing military history and
organisation and there is a steady stream of new information
coming from the ongoing study as well as new discoveries.
Notable examples of such archives are the Mari archive, the
Hittite records from Hattusas (Boghazkoy), the Amarna
Letters, the Nuzi archive – which reveals the armament and
organisation of Maryannu chariotry – and the Linear B tablets
from Mycenaean Greece and Crete. Scribes attended rulers
and generals with wax tablets as well as wet clay tablets and
would often be called upon to write dictated despatches which
were quickly baked to be sent by swift couriers. This means
that many documents are reliable first hand historical evidence
and make excellent reading, especially when an enraged
general is reacting to events and dictating to his scribe!
Papyrus documents
In Egypt they used papyrus instead of clay tablets, although
their diplomatic scribes were accomplished in the use of
cuneiform and tablets. Papyrus is a form of paper made from
reeds. They also used leather rolls, especially for military
records. On these materials they wrote in the hieroglyphic
script with a reed pen and ink, usually in a cursive version of
the script used for monumental inscriptions. Many papyrus
158
documents have survived thanks to the dry conditions in
Egypt, including military despatches. Few fragments of leather
rolls have survived, but these were extensively used and we
should imagine all kinds of maps, plans, diagrams, manuals
and records. Indeed the Egyptian scribes refer to using them
when working on the monumental scenes and inscriptions.
The Old Testament
The early books of the Old Testament are full of episodes of
military history and details of tactics and military organisation
dating to the Bronze Age. The later books do the same for the
rise and fall of the Israelite kingdoms in the Iron Age. Much
of the Old Testament was compiled in the form we recognise
now from the time of the Babylonian exile to the age of the
Ptolemies. The detail is such that earlier tales, annals and
sources were certainly consulted by the scribes who did this
work. Since Israel and Judah were invaded several times, old
records were probably hidden in secret stashes as often as they
were destroyed and so became lost. Like the Assyrian and
Babylonian scribes, the Israelite scribes would be keen to hunt
down any information to enrich their written heritage. The
Old Testament has been an inspiration for battle tactics to
many commanders long afterwards, down to our own time.
Greek legendary History
The Greek legends and the epic tale of the Iliad were written
down in the form we know them in Archaic Greek times, but
have long been recognised as being much earlier in origin.
Scenes from such legendary history are depicted on Greek
pottery dating to not long after the end of the Bronze Age
and the details of armaments and warfare in the Iliad
compare well with the archaeological evidence. Hittite
records also support the outline of history in the legends and
we should remember that they led the archaeologist Heinrich
Schliemann directly to Troy and Mycenae. Epics survived by
being recited over generations, but it is also likely that as
soon as the alphabetic script reached Greece or west Anatolia
from Phoenicia, someone started writing it down or even
copying it from another script.
Cylinder seals
These are small engraved cylinders that were hung around
the neck on a thong. A merchant or official or maybe a
commander could roll the seal over a clay, tablet or wax tablet
revealing the scene. Many of these depict military scenes,
such as victorious rulers with enemy captives, soldiers,
chariots and hunting scenes. The picture was the individual
seal of the owner. Many early chariots are shown on such
seals, perhaps they belonged to chariot nobles who had
mercantile interests.
Models and figurines
Models of onager drawn battle carts and early chariots made
of pottery and bronze survive from Sumerian times. These
are very useful for understanding the true three-dimensional
appearance of these vehicles since depictions in battle scenes
show them in profile with the frontal shield as if seen from
the front leading to some strange reconstructions. One
Ancient Egyptian noble, Neheri, of the 11th dynasty was
buried with two companies of big model soldiers made of
wood. They are very good! There is a company of 40
Egyptian spearmen and another of 40 Nubian archers, all
marching in column.
Rock Graffiti
Warriors on campaign sometimes inscribe a memorial to the
events on local rock faces. These may be made by ordinary
soldiers or their commanders. When these are found it not
only reveals the location of action but often an insight into little
known events. Two of the best are the graffiti in Nubia showing
Queen Hatshepsut actually charging in her war chariot and a
text in which a soldier says that he saw Queen Hatshepsut going
into battle. The soldiers were so struck by this unusual event
that they felt compelled to record it on the local rocks!
Archaeological Excavations
Ever since Napoleon brought along scholars with him on his
Egyptian expedition of 1798, there has been continuous
research and archaeological excavation in the lands of the
ancient Bronze Age civilisations. Archaeology is specifically
the study of the past through its material remains, but in
these pre-classical ages, excavations have also unearthed the
written records of the time. Notable advances have been the
decipherment of hieroglyphics, cuneiform and Linear B, the
discovery of huge archives of texts, the recording of temple
scenes in Egypt, the excavation of sites such as Troy and
Mycenae by Heinrich Schliemann, formerly known only
through legend. Much of what figure designers, rule writers,
artists and filmmakers rely on results from archaeological
excavation. This is ongoing, producing more evidence all the
time, including entire lost civilisations. Whatever question
you have, a fragment of the answer is probably already
somewhere in a museum storeroom (and certainly there’s
more awaiting discovery beneath the sands somewhere else
as well).
Surviving Weapons, Armour and Chariots
The artefacts unearthed by archaeologists include weapons,
armour and even chariots. Indeed, chariot burials and
Egyptian tombs have preserved entire chariots from the
Bronze Age. Many museums have big collections of such
artefacts that are the raw materials for studying the warfare of
159
the period. You can check for yourself whether or not you
believe a warrior wielded a double-handed axe, or how sturdy
a chariot might be or whether the bronze armour was
convincingly effective by consulting the museum collections.
Experimental Archaeology
One aspect of archaeology is attempting to reconstruct things
from the evidence to test how they worked. Spectacular
examples of this are the reconstructions of ships, built
according to ancient techniques. One of these from the
Bronze Age has been a reconstruction of Hatshepsut’s ship
built for the Punt expedition, based on actual wooden
fragments found on the Red Sea coast. Chariots have been
reconstructed and tested many times. A Sumerian onager
chariot was reconstructed and tested for a TV documentary.
Egyptian chariots have been built and test driven, proving
their suspected speed and agility as well as the skill required
to drive them and the importance of training the horses. The
results of such experiments can be found by searching on the
internet. Many researchers and re-enactment groups
reconstruct armour and weaponry with impressive results.
Dendra armour, boars’ tusk helmets and Sea Peoples’ armour
can be readily found by internet searches. I myself have a
collection of my own reconstructions and experiments. All
this work provides insight for designing figures and writing
wargames rules.
FURTHER READING
Nigel Stillman & Nigel Tallis;
Armies of the Ancient Near East (WRG)
Yigael Yadin; The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands
Trevor Bryce; The Kingdom of the Hittites
Robert Drews; The End of the Bronze Age
James Henry Breasted; Ancient Records of Egypt
William L. Moran; The Amarna Letters
David M.Rohl; A Test of Time
David M. Rohl; The Lords of Avaris
Georges Roux; Ancient Iraq
Marc Van De Mieroop; King Hammurabi of Babylon
David W. Anthony; The Horse, The Wheel and Language
Chaim Herzog & Mordechai Gichon; Battles of the Bible
Osprey Books
WAR 167 Early Aegean Warrior 5000-1450 BC
WAR 120 Hittite Warrior
NVG 119 Bronze Age War Chariots
ELI 40 New Kingdom Egypt
ELI 204 Sea Peoples of the
Bronze Age Mediterranean
MEN OF BRONZE
Through our partnership with Cutting Edge
Miniatures we bring you the most comprehensive
and thoroughly researched range of Bronze Age
figures available on the market. Featuring a wide
variety of figures and chariots from the Early, Middle
and Late Bronze Ages, you can build your forces to
play out this fascinating and enigmatic period of
military history.
The Cutting Edge range continues to grow with new
products being added the range on a regular basis.
So, whether you want to collect the Sumerians with
their iconic carts pulled by wild asses or the empires
of the Hittites or Egyptians, this range has everything
you need.

Still Making History

The Hail Caesar game covers warfare
from the Bronze Age right through
to Medieval times and we have
extensive ranges of 28mm
miniatures for many of the periods
and conflicts in that time – in
plastic, resin and metal – a small
selection of which are
shown here.
We also have a growing range
of supplements focusing on
famous periods, campaigns
and battles that add more
detail to your games.
History is our passion
and we’re delighted it’s
still being made...

Visit our HQ store on Lenton Boulevard, Nottingham, NG72BD

TM
Call our UK office on: +44 (0) 115 978 0386 For Trade enquiries: +44 (0) 115 978 4202
For North American Trade enquiries: (602) 445 6406 (Arizona time)

www.warlordgames.com

160
 Egyptian troops run into a diehard Hittite rearguard. Will the charioteers ever see Egypt again?

The Egyptians always put faith in close formation archers, who were often armed for close combat if necessary.

It is hard to advance with infantry when there are well-armed enemy Maryanna chariots dominating the battlefield.
For two thousand years, from 3000 BC to 1000 BC, warriors
fought battles with weapons of bronze. Battle was a dazzling sight
as weapons and armour glinted in the sun amid the clash of bronze
against bronze and the clatter of charging chariots. This was the
heroic age of legend!

There are 32 scenarios in this book, each based on historical battles or

skirmishes. We begin with the Sumerians and the conflicts between
the rival city states of Mesopotamia. Then we see the rise and fall of
the first great empire of the Akkadians. Ancient Egyptians fight to
unite their nation and repel Hyksos invaders. The mighty
Hammurabi takes on rivals to create the kingdom of Babylon. The
chariot empires of the Hittites and Mitanni clash and try and hold
their own against the New Kingdom Pharaohs and the Mycenaeans.
Egyptian and Canaanite chariots battle on the plain of Megiddo.
Heroes fight duels upon the plain of Troy. As we approach the
dramatic end of the Bronze Age, Sea Peoples and Habiru tribes
challenge the chariot lords.

A copy of the Hail Caesar rulebook is required to use

this supplement.

Warlord Games, the Warlord Games logo,

ISBN: 978-1-911281-52-8
Hail Caesar and the Hail Caesar logo are trade
Made in the E.U.

marks of Warlord Games Ltd. The exclusive

copyright in the contents of this package is the
property of Warlord Games Ltd. © 2019.
All rights reserved.

Product Code: 109410004