Mastering Biology BK1A Notes

1 Introducing biology
1.1 What is biology?

1 Biology (生物學) is the scientific study of organisms (生物).
2 Some branches of biology:
Branch of biology The scientific study of…
Anatomy (解剖學) the structure of organisms
Cytology (細胞學) the basic unit of organisms – cells
Ecology (生態學) interactions between organisms and their environment
Genetics (遺傳學) the ways in which characteristics of organisms are

passed on from one generation to the next
Physiology (生理學) how organisms’ bodies function
Taxonomy (分類學) the classification of organisms
1.2 The characteristics of organisms

1 Organisms share some characteristics including reproduction (生殖), nutrition (營養),
respiration (呼吸作用), growth (生長), excretion (排泄), irritability (感應性) and movement.
2 Not all the above characteristics are shown by all organisms.
1.3 Importance of studying biology

1 Studying biology helps us:
- develop a sense of wonder about the living world
- develop scientific thinking skills
- understand how biological knowledge is applied to daily life
- better understand biology-related social issues.
New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2014

(Second Edition) -1-
1.4 The scientific method
1 Scientists study the natural world using the scientific method (科學方法).
2 There is no single scientific method, but it usually involves a few basic steps:
Hypothesis
supported
Making Asking a Proposing a Making a Doing Drawing a

observations question hypothesis prediction experiments conclusion
New or revised Hypothesis

hypothesis not supported
3 A hypothesis (假說) is a reasonable answer which tries to explain what is observed.

4 Variables (變量) in a fair test:
Independent variable Dependent variable Controlled variables

(自變量) (因變量) (控制變量)
The variable to be The variable that may change with The variables that are kept
changed the independent variable; it is the the same
variable to be measured
5 The control (對照) set-up is identical to the experimental set-up, except that the factor under
investigation is absent. It aims to ensure the result of the experiment is due only to the factor
under investigation.

2 The cell as the basic unit of life
2.1 Chemicals of life

1 Inorganic (無機的) chemical constituents (化學成分) of organisms:
Example Function
Water - As a reactant (反應物)

- As a medium for chemical reactions to take place
- As a medium of transport
- As a cooling agent (冷卻劑)
- Provides support and buoyancy (浮力)
Inorganic Nitrate (硝酸鹽) - As a source of nitrogen (氮) in plants for the synthesis of proteins
ions
Magnesium (鎂) - As a component of chlorophyll (葉綠素) in plants
(無機離子)
- Involved in activating some enzymes (酶)
Calcium (鈣) - As a main component of bones and teeth
Iron (鐵) - As a component of haemoglobin (血紅蛋白) in red blood cells
2 Organic (有機的) chemical constituents of organisms:
Biomolecule Type of atoms

(生物分子)
Example and function
contained*
Carbohydrates C, H, O - Glucose (葡萄糖) is broken down directly to release energy.

(碳水化合物) - Starch (澱粉) is an energy reserve (能量儲備) in plants.
- Cellulose (纖維素) is the main component of plant cell walls.
Lipids (脂質) C, H, O - Triglycerides (甘油三脂) are an energy reserve in our body;

also help reduce heat loss and protect the internal organs.
- Phospholipids (磷脂) are the component of cell membranes.
Proteins C, H, O, N - Proteins make up many body tissues.

(蛋白質) (and S in some - Enzymes (酶) speed up reactions in our body.
proteins) - Antibodies (抗體) defend our body against diseases.
Nucleic acids C, H, O, N, P - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries genetic information.

(核酸) - Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is involved in protein synthesis.
* C = carbon, H = hydrogen, O = oxygen, N = nitrogen, S = sulphur, P = phosphorus

2.2 Studying cells using microscopes
1 The Cell Theory (細胞學說) states that:
- all organisms are made up of one or more cells
- the cell is the basic unit of life
- all cells come from pre-existing cells.
2 Light microscopes (光學顯微鏡) and electron microscopes (電子顯微鏡) are two common types
of modern microscopes.
3 Different parts of a light microscope:
body tube eyepiece (目鏡)
(鏡筒)
coarse adjustment
knob (粗調節器)
nosepiece
(物鏡轉換器) fine adjustment
knob (微調節器)
objectives
(物鏡) arm
stage clips
(載物台)
condenser
(聚光器) mirror
diaphragm base
(光欄)
4 Magnification (放大率) of a light microscope:
Total magnification of magnification magnification size of the image

= × Magnification =
the light microscope of eyepiece of objective size of the object
5 Basic steps of observation with a light microscope:

a Low-power magnification:
- Select a low-power eyepiece and a low-power objective. Adjust the brightness of the
field of view.
- Clip a specimen onto the stage. Watch from the side. Lower the body tube by turning
the coarse adjustment knob until the objective nearly touches the slide.
- Look through the eyepiece. Slowly raise the body tube by turning the coarse adjustment
knob. Focus with the fine adjustment knob.
b High-power magnification:
- Focus the specimen with a low-power objective.
- Watch from the side and rotate the nosepiece to select a high-power objective.
- Focus with the fine adjustment knob.

2.3 The basic structure of a cell
1 Structure of animal cells and plant cells:
cell membrane (細胞膜)

cytoplasm (細胞質)
nucleus (細胞核)
rough endoplasmic
reticulum (粗糙內質網)
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (光滑內質網)
mitochondrion (線粒體)
vacuole (液泡)
ribosome (核糖體)
cell wall (細胞壁)
chloroplast (葉綠體)
animal cell plant cell
2 Functions of different sub-cellular structures (亞細胞構造):
Sub-cellular structure Function
Cell membrane - Separates the cell contents from the outside environment
- Controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell
Cytoplasm - Holds many organelles (細胞器)

- As a site for many chemical reactions
- Allows the movement and transport of materials inside the cell
Nucleus - Contains DNA, which carries genetic information that controls

activities of the cell
Mitochondrion - As the main site for the energy-releasing stage of respiration (呼吸作用)
Rough endoplasmic - Has ribosomes; involved in the synthesis of proteins

reticulum (rough ER)
Smooth endoplasmic - Does not have ribosomes; involved in the synthesis of lipids
reticulum (smooth ER)
Vacuole - Contains water and dissolved substances
- Provides support to the plant when it is full of water
Cell wall - Protects, supports and gives shape to the plant cell
Chloroplast - Contains chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis

3 Differences between animal cells and plant cells:
Animal cell Plant cell
Size - Smaller - Larger
Shape - Usually irregular - Fixed by the cell wall
Structure - No cell wall - Has a cell wall

- Has small or no vacuoles - Often has a large central vacuole
- No chloroplasts - Some plant cells have chloroplasts
Position of - Usually in the centre of the cell - May be located on one side of the cell
nucleus
4 When preparing temporary mounts of animal cells and tissues for microscopic examination,
methylene blue solution (亞甲藍溶液) is commonly used to stain the cells or tissues for clearer
observation.
5 When preparing temporary mounts of plant cells and tissues for microscopic examination,
iodine solution (碘液) is commonly used to stain the cells or tissues for clearer observation.
2.4 Levels of body organization

1 Division of labour among different kinds of cells is commonly found in multicellular
organisms (多細胞生物).
2 Cells in an organism work together at different levels of organization:
cellcell tissue organ system organism
2.5 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

1 Animal cells and plant cells have a true nucleus surrounded by the nuclear membrane (核膜).
They are eukaryotic cells (真核細胞).
2 Some unicellular organisms (單細胞生物) (e.g. bacteria) do not have a true nucleus. They are
prokaryotic cells (原核細胞).

3 Structure of a prokaryotic cell (e.g. a bacterium):
cell wall
cell membrane
cytoplasm
genetic material
(DNA)
ribosome
4 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Size - Usually smaller - Usually larger
Nucleus - No true nucleus - Has a true nucleus
Genetic material - DNA lying free in the - DNA enclosed in the nucleus
cytoplasm
Cell wall - May be present or absent - Present in plant cells but absent
in animal cells
- Does not contain cellulose - Contains cellulose
Organelles bounded by - Absent - Present

a double membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum - Absent - Present
Ribosomes - Lying free in the cytoplasm - Some attached to ER; some

lying free in the cytoplasm

3 Movement of substances
across cell membrane
3.1 Cell membrane

1 The fluid mosaic model (流動鑲嵌模型) suggests that the cell membrane is mainly made up of
phospholipids (磷脂) and proteins:
protein molecules carbohydrate

molecule
outside of cell
glycoprotein
(糖蛋白)
phospholipid
bilayer
(磷脂雙層)
inside of cell (cytoplasm)
2 Structure of the cell membrane and its relation to the properties and functions of the cell
membrane:
How the membrane structure is related to its

Structure of the cell membrane
properties and functions
- The cell membrane is mainly made up - This makes the cell membrane differentially
of phospholipids and proteins. permeable.
- The phospholipid molecules are - Only small, non-polar molecules can move across
arranged in a bilayer. the phospholipid bilayer.
- Some protein molecules act as - Small, polar molecules and certain ions can move
channels or carriers. across the cell membrane through channel
proteins (通道蛋白) or carrier proteins (載體蛋白).
- The cell membrane is fluid in nature - This makes the cell membrane flexible, so that the
as the phospholipid molecules can cell membrane can change its shape and fuse
move laterally (橫向地). during phagocytosis and cell division.
- Protein molecules are interspersed (散 - This makes the cell membrane strong enough to
佈) among the phospholipid molecules. support the cell contents.

3.2 Movement of substances across membranes
Diffusion
1 Diffusion (擴散) is the net movement of particles down the concentration gradient (濃度梯度)
until the particles become evenly distributed.
2 Importance of diffusion:
- It allows cells to obtain useful materials like oxygen and nutrients.
- It allows cells to remove waste like carbon dioxide.
- It allows substances in cells to be distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
3 Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:
- Concentration gradient: the steeper the concentration gradient is, the higher the rate of
diffusion.
- Temperature: The higher the temperature is, the higher the rate of diffusion.
- Size of particles: The smaller the particles are, the higher the rate of diffusion.
- Distance: The shorter the diffusion distance is, the higher the rate of diffusion.
- Surface area: The larger the surface area of the membrane is, the higher the rate of
diffusion.
Osmosis
4 Osmosis (滲透) is the net movement of water molecules across a differentially permeable
membrane from a region of higher water potential (水勢) / lower concentration to a region
of lower water potential / higher concentration.
5 Hypotonic (低滲的) solution has a water potential higher than the cytoplasm.
Isotonic (等滲的) solution has the same water potential as the cytoplasm.
Hypertonic (高滲的) solution has a water potential lower than the cytoplasm.
6 Changes in animal cells in solutions of different water potentials:
In hypotonic solution In isotonic solution In hypertonic solution
net water no net water net water

movement movement movement
cell swells and finally cell remains cell shrinks (萎縮) and
bursts (爆裂) unchanged becomes wrinkled (皺褶)

7 Changes in plant cells in solutions of different water potentials:
In hypotonic solution In isotonic solution In hypertonic solution
net water no net water net water

movement movement movement
cell becomes cell remains cell becomes

turgid (膨脹) unchanged plasmolysed (質壁分離)
and flaccid (軟縮)
8 Importance of osmosis:
- It is the main process by which water enters or leaves cells in all organisms.
- It allows the absorption of water in human small intestines.
- It allows the absorption of water in plant roots.
Active transport
9 Active transport (主動轉運) is the movement of substances against a concentration gradient.
It requires energy.
10 The process of active transport:
lower
concentration
carrier protein
higher
concentration
The substance to be transported The carrier protein changes Finally, the substance is
binds to a carrier protein. its shape using energy. released on the other side of
the cell membrane.
11 Importance of active transport:
- It allows the absorption of glucose in human small intestines.
- It allows the absorption of minerals from the soil into plant roots.

Phagocytosis
12 Phagocytosis (吞噬) is the uptake of large particles into the cells by the formation of a pit or
pseudopodia (偽足) at the cell membrane. It requires energy.
13 The process of phagocytosis:
1 At the cell membrane,

a pit or pseudopodium
cell membrane
is formed to engulf the
target particle.
outside of cell
inside of cell
digested
products 2 The particle is
enclosed in a
small vacuole.
4 The digested
products diffuse
to the cytoplasm.
3 The cell releases

enzymes to digest the
enzyme
particle in the vacuole.
14 Importance of phagocytosis:
- It allows some unicellular organisms to engulf food particles.
- It allows certain white blood cells to engulf harmful microorganisms so as to protect our
body against diseases.
15 Comparison of diffusion, osmosis, active transport and phagocytosis:
Active or Energy
Process Membrane needed?
passive? needed?
Diffusion No Passive No
Osmosis Differentially permeable membrane needed Passive No
Active transport Living membrane needed Active Yes
Phagocytosis Living membrane needed Active Yes

4 Enzymes and metabolism
4.1 Metabolism
1 Metabolism (新陳代謝) includes catabolism (分解代謝) and anabolism (合成代謝):
Catabolism Anabolism Metabolism

- the breaking-down - the building-up the sum of the
reactions in an reactions in an chemical reactions
organism organism that take place in an
- energy is released - energy is required organism
4.2 The role of enzymes in metabolism

1 Enzymes are biological catalysts (催化劑).
activation energy
They speed up chemical reactions in (without enzyme)
energy level
organisms by lowering the activation activation energy

reactants (with enzyme)
energy (活化能) of reactions.
products
progress of reaction
4.3 Actions and properties of enzymes

1 The working principle of enzymes:
- Each enzyme has an active site (活性部位).
- Substrate(s) (受質) binds to the active site of the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate
complex (酶受質複合物). This greatly lowers the activation energy.
- The substrate(s) are converted into product(s) (生成物), which dissociate from the enzyme
molecule.
- The enzyme is released in its original form.
2 Enzyme actions are specific (專一的) because the active sites of the enzymes have specific
shapes. Each enzyme binds only to substrate(s) that fits the shape of its active site.
3 The specificity of enzyme actions can be explained by the lock-and-key hypothesis (鎖鑰假說).

4 Properties of enzymes:
- Enzymes are biological catalysts.
- The actions of enzymes are specific.
- Enzymes are proteins. Their structures and activity are easily affected by temperature and
pH.
- Enzymes are reusable.
- Enzymes are needed in relatively small amounts.
4.4 Factors affecting the rate of enzymatic reactions
Temperature
1 The effect of temperature on the rate of an enzymatic reaction:
maximum rate
reaction rate
enzymes are enzymes are

inactive denatured
temperature (℃)
10 20 30 40 50 60
optimum temperature for this enzyme
Rate of enzymatic
Temperature Reason
reactions
At low Low - Enzymes are inactive (不活躍). The kinetic energy of

temperatures enzyme and substrate molecules is low.
As temperature Increases - Both enzyme and substrate molecules have more

rises kinetic energy. They collide with each other more
frequently.
At optimum (最適) Reaches a
- The chance of forming enzyme-substrate complex
temperature maximum
increases.
At high Decreases - High temperatures may cause conformational

temperatures change in the active site of the enzyme molecule.
The enzyme is denatured.
- The substrate molecule can no longer fit into the
active site of the enzyme to form an
enzyme-substrate complex.

pH
1 Different enzymes have their own optimum pH:
many enzymes in mammals
(e.g. salivary amylase)
pepsin pancreatic
lipase
reaction rate
pH
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
optimum pH optimum pH optimum pH
2 Most enzymes work in a narrow range of pH. Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
3 Unsuitable pH may cause denaturation of the enzymes.
Inhibitors
4 Inhibitors (抑制劑) are chemicals that can decrease the rate of enzymatic reactions. Examples
of inhibitors are cyanide and heavy metals.
4.5 Applications of enzymes

1 Enzymes are widely used to produce commercial products:
Type of enzyme
Product Use of enzyme
present
Biological washing Proteases and Help break down insoluble proteins and lipids in
powders lipases stains into soluble products
Stonewashed jeans Cellulase Helps break down the cellulose fibres of the jeans
(石磨藍牛仔褲)
Contact lens cleaners Proteases Help remove the proteins that are deposited on
the contact lens
Meat tenderizers (鬆肉粉) Papain (木瓜酶) Helps break down proteins in meat to soften meat
Cheese Proteases Used for coagulating (凝固) milk
Fruit juices Pectinase (果膠酶) Helps break down the pectin (果膠) in the juices,
making the juices look clear

2 Advantages of using enzymes in the production of commercial products:
Property of enzyme Advantage
Can speed up chemical reactions Shortens the production time and allows the mass
production of products
Specific in action Reduces the production of unwanted products
Reusable and are needed in small Lowers the cost of production

amounts only
Many work at moderate conditions Does not require extreme conditions, such as very
high temperatures and pressures
3 Limitations of using enzymes in the production of commercial products:
Property of enzyme Limitation
Sensitive to temperature and pH Have to carefully control the temperatures and pH of

changes the production processes
Easily affected by inhibitors All containers that are used in the production
processes have to be clean to prevent the containers
from contaminating with inhibitors

5 Food and humans
5.1 Modes of nutrition
1 Autotrophic nutrition (自養營養) and heterotrophic nutrition (異養營養):
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
- Can make their own food - Have to take in organic matter from their
(e.g. by photosynthesis) surroundings; depend on other organisms for
food
- Example of autotrophs (自養生物): plants - Example of heterotrophs (異養生物): humans
5.2 The food requirements of humans

1 Food provides us with:
- energy for supporting daily activities and keeping us warm
- raw materials for growth and repair of body tissues
- substances that are important for maintaining health.
2 There are seven types of food substances (食物物質):
Food substance that provides energy Food substance that does not provide energy
- Carbohydrates (碳水化合物) - Minerals (礦物質)

- Lipids (脂質) - Vitamins (維生素)
- Proteins (蛋白質) - Dietary fibre (食用纖維)
- Water
3 Functions and food sources of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins:
Food substance Function Food source
Carbohydrates - As the main energy source Cereals and

(classified into - Glucose (葡萄糖) is directly broken down in body their products,
monosaccharides (單糖), cells for releasing energy potatoes, fruits
disaccharides (雙糖) and - Starch (澱粉) is the storage form of and vegetables
polysaccharides (多糖)) carbohydrates in plants
- Glycogen (糖原) is the storage form of
carbohydrates in the liver and muscles
cont.
- Cellulose (纖維素) is a source of dietary fibre

Food substance Function Food source
Lipids - As energy reserves Fatty meat,

(commonly formed from - Stored in subcutaneous fat (皮下脂肪) to reduce seeds, nuts,
the condensation (縮合) of heat loss milk and dairy
three fatty acid (脂肪酸) - As a shock absorber to protect internal organs products
molecules and one - Involved in transporting and storing
glycerol (甘油) molecule) lipid-soluble vitamins
- Form cell membranes and some hormones
Proteins - For growth and repair of body tissues Meat, fish,

(consisting of - Form enzymes, antibodies and some hormones eggs, beans,
polypeptides (多肽), which - Broken down to release energy if milk and dairy
are formed from the carbohydrates and lipids are used up products
condensation of amino - A deficiency of protein leads to kwashiorkor
acid (氨基酸) molecules) (蛋白缺乏病)
4 Functions, food sources and deficiency diseases (營養缺乏病) of minerals, vitamins and dietary
fibre:
Food substance Function Food source Deficiency disease
Calcium (鈣) - For the formation of bones Canned sardines, Rickets (軟骨病) in
and teeth milk, dairy products, children
- Important in blood clotting green vegetables and
(血液凝固) , muscle tofu
contraction and sending
messages in the nervous
system (神經系統)
Iron (鐵) - For the formation of Beef, liver, beans Anaemia (貧血)
haemoglobin and spinach
Vitamin A - Helps form a pigment in the Fish liver oils, liver, - Night blindness
(lipid-soluble) retina (視網膜) dairy products, eggs, (夜盲症)
- Keeps the skin, the cornea vegetables and fruits - Drying up of the
(角膜) and the lining of the containing carotene cornea and skin
alimentary canal (消化道) and (胡蘿蔔素) - Easy infection of
breathing system healthy the lining of the
cont.
lungs and trachea

Food substance Function Food source Deficiency disease
Vitamin C - Helps the growth and repair Fresh vegetables and Scurvy (壞血病)
(water-soluble) of connective tissues fruits
- Promotes the absorption of
iron
- Helps the immune system
(免疫系統) work properly
Vitamin D - Promotes the absorption of Fatty fish, fish liver Rickets in children
(lipid-soluble) calcium and phosphate ions oils, liver and egg
yolks
Dietary fibre - Adds bulk to food to Vegetables, fruits Constipation (便秘) or
(食用纖維) stimulate peristalsis (蠕動); and wholemeal even colorectal
allows faeces to be passed products cancer (結腸直腸癌)
out easily
5 Water acts as a solvent, a medium for chemical reactions, a transport medium, a cooling
agent and a reactant in our body.
5.3 Food tests

1 Food tests (食物試驗) for identifying different food substances:
Food substance Food test Positive result
Glucose Using glucose test paper Depends on the colour chart on the packing of
the test paper.
Reducing sugar Benedict’s test (本立德試驗) A brick-red precipitate (沉澱物) is formed.
Starch Iodine test Iodine solution changes from brown to
blue-black.
Lipid Grease spot test A translucent spot (半透明點) is left, which
disappears after immersing it in an organic
solvent.
Protein Using protein test paper Depends on the colour chart on the packing of
the test paper.
Vitamin C Using DCPIP (二氯酚靛酚) Decolourization of the DCPIP solution.
solution

5.4 Balanced diet
1 A balanced diet (均衡膳食) consists of all Eat less Fat, oil, salt and sugar
the seven types of food substances in the
Dairy products
right amounts and proportions. Eat moderately
Meat, eggs and beans
2 We can use the food pyramid (食物金字塔)
as a guideline to plan a balanced diet. Vegetables
Eat more
Fruits
Eat the most Cereals and

grains
3 Factors affecting our dietary requirements:
Factor Description Reason
Age - Children and teenagers need a large - For building body tissues
amount of proteins, calcium and iron.
- Children require the greatest amount - Children have the highest growth rate,
of energy per unit body mass. metabolic rate and rate of heat loss
Sex - Males need more energy and proteins - Males have a higher metabolic rate and
than females. are more muscular
- Females need more iron than males. - To replace the loss during menstruation
(月經)
Level of - People who are more physically - For muscular activities

activity active need more energy.
Body - Pregnant women need more energy, - For the growth of the foetus and the
status proteins and iron. formation of foetal red blood cells
- Breast-feeding mothers need an extra - For milk production
supply of various types of nutrients.
4 Anorexia nervosa (神經性厭食) is a disease of under-eating. Patients refuse to eat because they
are afraid of gaining weight. They become seriously weak.
5 If we take in more energy than we need, we may become overweight (過重). Obesity (肥胖症) is
the condition of being seriously overweight.
6 Being overweight or obese increases the risk of a number of diseases like diabetes, heart
disease, stroke (中風) and arthritis (關節炎).

6 Nutrition in humans
6.1 The human digestive system

1 Nutrition (營養) in humans consists of five main processes:
ingestion (攝食) digestion (消化) absorption (吸收)
egestion (排遺) assimilation (同化)
2 Nutrition in humans takes place in the digestive system (消化系統), which consists of the
alimentary canal (消化道) and its associated digestive glands (消化腺).
tongue
mouth cavity tooth

(口腔)
pharynx (咽)
#
salivary glands
(唾腺)
oesophagus (食道)
#
liver (肝)
gall bladder (膽囊) stomach (胃)
#
bile duct (膽管) pancreas (胰)
duodenum pancreatic duct (胰管)

(十二指腸)
small intestine colon (結腸)
(小腸) caecum (盲腸)
large intestine
ileum (迴腸) appendix (闌尾) (大腸)
rectum (直腸)
anus (肛門)
#
Note: Structures with are digestive glands.

6.2 Ingestion
1 Mastication (咀嚼) is the process of chewing food into small pieces by the teeth.
2 The four types of teeth in humans:
Type of tooth Shape Function
Incisor (門齒) - Chisel-shaped (鑿形的), with flat sharp edges - Biting and cutting
- Has one root food
Canine (犬齒) - Pointed and curved - Tearing flesh

- Has one root
Premolar (前臼齒) - Broad top with cusps (尖突) - Crushing and

- Has one or two roots grinding food
Molar (臼齒) - Similar to premolars but larger - Crushing and

- Has two or three roots grinding food
3 Dentition (齒系) refers to the numbers and arrangement of different types of teeth in a mammal.
4 A dental formula (齒式) shows the number of teeth on each side of the upper and lower jaws.
5 Milk teeth (乳齒) and permanent teeth (恆齒):
Milk teeth Permanent teeth
Dental formula 2102 / 2102 2123 / 2123
Total number of teeth (2 + 1 + 0 + 2) × 2 × 2 = 20 (2 + 1 + 2 + 3) × 2 × 2 = 32
6 General structure of a tooth:
enamel (琺瑯質)
dentine (牙本質)
pulp cavity (髓腔)

crown (齒冠)
nerve fibre
neck (齒頸)
blood vessel
gum (齒齦)
jawbone (顎骨) root (齒根)
periodontal
membrane (牙周膜)
cement (牙骨質)

7 Each tooth consists of three layers:
Layer Feature
Enamel - The hardest part of the crown

- Non-living and is made mainly of calcium salts
- Protects the tooth from wearing down
Dentine - A bone-like substance, but is not as hard as the enamel

- Strands of living cytoplasm run through the dentine
Pulp cavity - Contains living cells, blood vessels and nerve fibres
- The blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients to the tooth, and remove wastes
from it
- The nerve fibres can detect temperature and pressure
6.3 Digestion
1 The digestion processes in our body can be classified into two types:
Physical digestion (機械消化) Chemical digestion (化學消化)
Meaning Breaking down of food into smaller Changing the chemical structure of food
pieces by physical actions by chemical reactions that are catalysed
by digestive enzymes (消化酶)
Significance Increases the surface area of food in Breaks down food molecules into small,
contact with digestive juices simpler and soluble forms which are
ready for absorption
Example - Mastication, churning (劇烈攬動) in Digestion of food catalysed by:

the stomach and peristalsis - carbohydrases (碳水化合物酶)
- Emulsification (乳化) of lipids by bile - proteases (蛋白酶)
salts (膽鹽) in the small intestine - lipases (脂肪酶)
2 Peristalsis is produced by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the longitudinal

muscles (縱肌) and circular muscles (環肌) in the wall of the alimentary canal.
3 Importance of peristalsis:
- It pushes food along the oesophagus and other parts of the alimentary canal.
- It helps mix the food with the digestive juices.
- It increases the contact between the wall of the alimentary canal and digested food to
facilitate absorption.

4 Actions of digestive juices in the digestive system:
Site of Digestive Site of Enzyme or other

Action of digestive juice
action juice production substance present
Mouth Saliva (唾液) Salivary - Salivary amylase - starch → maltose

cavity (generally glands - Water
neutral) - Mucus (黏液)
Stomach Gastric juice Gastric glands - Pepsin (胃蛋白酶) - proteins → peptides

(胃液) (胃腺) in - Hydrochloric acid
(acidic) stomach wall - Mucus
Small Bile (膽汁) Liver - Bile salts - lipids → small droplets

intestine (alkaline) - Bile pigments (emulsification)
- Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
Pancreatic Pancreas - Pancreatic - starch → maltose

juice (胰液) amylase
(alkaline) - Proteases - proteins → peptides
peptides → amino acids
- Lipase - lipids → fatty acids +
- Sodium glycerol
hydrogencarbonate
Intestinal Glands in the - Water －

juice (腸液) wall of small - Mucus
(alkaline) intestine - Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
Specialized - Carbohydrases - disaccharides

cells on → monosaccharides
epithelium of - Proteases - peptides → amino acids
small intestine

6.4 Absorption
1 Absorption of food molecules mainly takes place in the ileum.
2 Adaptation of the small intestine for absorption:
Adaptation Significance
- Being very long Increase the surface area for absorption

- Inner wall highly-folded and
numerous villi (絨毛)
- Numerous microvilli (微絨毛)
on the epithelial cells of villi
Thin epithelium Reduces the distance for diffusion of food molecules into the
blood
Presence of lacteals (乳糜管) and Allow the absorbed food molecules to be carried away
a network of capillaries rapidly, thus keeping a steep concentration gradient of food
molecules across the wall of the small intestine to increase the
rate of diffusion of food molecules
Movement of the villi caused Keeps a steep concentration gradient of food molecules
by peristalsis across the wall of the small intestine to increase the rate of
diffusion of food molecules
3 The routes of absorption of digested food at the villus (L.S.):

Monosaccharides, amino acids,
minerals and water-soluble vitamins
are absorbed into the blood by
epithelium
diffusion and active transport.
Water is absorbed into the blood by
capillary osmosis.
lacteal
Fatty acids and glycerol enter the
epithelium of the villi by diffusion.
They recombine to form fine lipid
droplets which are absorbed into
the lymph (淋巴) in the lacteal.
Lipid-soluble vitamins are

absorbed into the lacteal.
blood vessel carrying lymph vessel (淋巴管) carrying digested

digested food molecules lipid via the lymphatic system (淋巴系統)
via the blood to the liver to the bloodstream

4 The routes of absorption of digested food at the villus (T.S.):
amino acids
minerals,
water-soluble
monosaccharides
vitamins
epithelial cell
capillary
lacteal
fine lipid droplets
lipid-soluble glycerol
vitamins
fatty acids
6.5 Assimilation of the absorbed food

1 Assimilation is the uptake and use of absorbed food molecules by cells for metabolism.
2 The transport of absorbed food from the villus to other parts of the body:
Small intestine
Absorption
monosaccharides,
amino acids and other capillaries hepatic Liver hepatic vein
water-soluble food in villi portal vein Assimilation
molecules
vena cava
fatty acids and glycerol lacteals lymph main vein near
recombine to form in villi vessels the neck region
lipids
heart
lipid-soluble vitamins
Body cells aorta
Assimilation

3 The fates of the absorbed food:
Absorbed food Fate
Glucose - Used by body cells for releasing energy

- Excess glucose is converted to glycogen or lipids in the liver
Amino acids - Used by body cells to make proteins for growth and repair
- Used to make enzymes, antibodies and some hormones
Lipids - Used to make cell membranes and some hormones

- As energy reserves for releasing energy when the body is short of
glycogen
- Excess lipids may be deposited around the internal organs or build up
in adipose tissue
4 The roles of the liver:

- Regulating blood glucose level
- Storing glycogen, iron and lipid-soluble vitamins
- Producing bile and vitamin A
- Deaminating excess amino acids
- Detoxifying certain mild toxic substances
6.6 Egestion
1 Faeces contain undigested and unabsorbed materials, including dietary fibre, bacteria,
secretions from the alimentary canal, dead cells from the intestinal wall and a small amount of
water.
2 Faeces are brown in colour because of the presence of bile pigments . Faeces are temporarily
stored in the rectum.
3 Egestion or defaecation (排糞) is the process of expelling faeces from the body.


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1 Introducing biology

1.1 What is biology?

Branch of biology The scientific study of…

Anatomy (解剖學) the structure of organisms

Cytology (細胞學) the basic unit of organisms – cells

Ecology (生態學) interactions between organisms and their environment

Genetics (遺傳學) the ways in which characteristics of organisms are

Physiology (生理學) how organisms’ bodies function

Taxonomy (分類學) the classification of organisms

1.2 The characteristics of organisms

1.3 Importance of studying biology

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2014

Making Asking a Proposing a Making a Doing Drawing a

New or revised Hypothesis

3 A hypothesis (假說) is a reasonable answer which tries to explain what is observed.

Independent variable Dependent variable Controlled variables

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2014

2.1 Chemicals of life

Water - As a reactant (反應物)

Calcium (鈣) - As a main component of bones and teeth

Iron (鐵) - As a component of haemoglobin (血紅蛋白) in red blood cells

2 Organic (有機的) chemical constituents of organisms:

Biomolecule Type of atoms

Carbohydrates C, H, O - Glucose (葡萄糖) is broken down directly to release energy.

Lipids (脂質) C, H, O - Triglycerides (甘油三脂) are an energy reserve in our body;

Proteins C, H, O, N - Proteins make up many body tissues.

Nucleic acids C, H, O, N, P - Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) carries genetic information.

* C = carbon, H = hydrogen, O = oxygen, N = nitrogen, S = sulphur, P = phosphorus

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2014

4 Magnification (放大率) of a light microscope:

Total magnification of magnification magnification size of the image

5 Basic steps of observation with a light microscope:

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2014

cell membrane (細胞膜)

animal cell plant cell

2 Functions of different sub-cellular structures (亞細胞構造):

Sub-cellular structure Function

Cytoplasm - Holds many organelles (細胞器)

Nucleus - Contains DNA, which carries genetic information that controls

Rough endoplasmic - Has ribosomes; involved in the synthesis of proteins

Chloroplast - Contains chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis

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Animal cell Plant cell

Size - Smaller - Larger

Shape - Usually irregular - Fixed by the cell wall

Structure - No cell wall - Has a cell wall

2.4 Levels of body organization

cellcell tissue organ system organism

2.5 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

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4 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Size - Usually smaller - Usually larger

Nucleus - No true nucleus - Has a true nucleus

Organelles bounded by - Absent - Present

Endoplasmic reticulum - Absent - Present

Ribosomes - Lying free in the cytoplasm - Some attached to ER; some

New Senior Secondary Mastering Biology  Oxford University Press 2014

3.1 Cell membrane

protein molecules carbohydrate

How the membrane structure is related to its

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In hypotonic solution In isotonic solution In hypertonic solution

net water no net water net water