PRPM110 LEC B.

Taproot
 In dicot plants, the primary root grows
MODULE 3 longer and thicker than the secondary roots.
It anchors the plant deeply, helping to
 Typical organs of plant are stems (axial aerial
prevent the wind from blowing them over.
organs with continuous growth), leaves (flat Taproot has modified root for food storage
lateral organ with restricted growth), roots (axial and has high drought tolerance.
soil organ modified for absorption) and floral  Ex. Raddish
units which are elements of the generative
system such as a pine cone or any flower.
These organs help plants make and use food,
obtain water and minerals, and store resources,
like food and water. Differences in the structure
of stems and roots occur between two major
groups of flowering plants, the monocots and
the dicots, and also between herbaceous plants
that show only primary growth and woody
plants that show secondary growth. For this
module, plant roots' basic structures and
functions will be presented, as well as its
importance in the pharmaceutical field.

 Roots anchor a plant into the soil, helping it LESSON 1.2: Primary
withstand the push of wind and water. It grows Roots are important organs in all vascular plants.
through the soil, absorbing the water and Most vascular plants have two types of roots:
minerals plants need and transporting them primary roots that grow downward and secondary
upward into the shoot through vascular tissue. roots that branch out to the side. Together, all the
Plant roots also form very important roots of a plant make up a root system. For some
relationships with soil fungi and bacteria that plants, a root system is composed of three external
help plants grow. structures. These are the following:
LESSON 1.1: Morphology and Anatomy 1. Primary root – first root of a plant, originating in
(External and internal structures) the embryo.
Root, in botany, is a part of a vascular plant that 2. Secondary roots – produced on the primary
normally grows underground. Its primary functions root
are anchorage of the plant, absorption of water and 3. Tertiary roots – grow in various directions and
dissolved minerals and conduction of these to the help in fixing the plant firmly into the soil.
stem, and storage of reserve foods. The root differs
from the stem mainly by lacking leaf scars and
buds, having a root cap, and having branches that
originate from internal tissue rather than from buds.
Two main types of root system
A. Fibrous root system
 Monocots tend to have “fibrous roots” that
web off in many directions. These fibrous
roots occupy the upper level of the soil in
comparison to dicot root. Fibrous root
absorbs water and nutrients quickly and
helps prevent soil erosion as they anchor
plants to the top layers of soil.
 Ex. Grass
LESSON 1.3: Primary and Secondary Growth
Primary Growth
 Root growth begins with seed germination.
When the plant embryo emerges from the seed,
the radicle of the embryo forms the root system.
The tip of the root is protected by the root cap, a
structure exclusive to roots and unlike any other
plant structure. The root cap is continuously
replaced because it gets damaged easily as the
root pushes through soil. Behind the root cap,
within the first centimeter or so, the root tip can
be divided into four regions namely:
1. Root cap - thimble-shaped mass of cells
that covers the apex of the root thus
protects the growing root tip.
2. Meristematic region - the location of cell
division.
3. Region/Area of elongation - is the area
of root lengthening. The cell produced
from the meristematic region grow in the
elongation region.
4. Region/Area of maturation - this is
where the cells that grew in the elongation
region fully develop and become adult
cells.
their own primary growth, continually adding
length to the lateral root.
 The vascular cylinder is interior to the
endodermis and is surrounded by the pericycle,
a layer of cells that gives rise to branch roots.
The conductive tissues of the vascular cylinder
are usually arranged in a star-shaped pattern.
The xylem tissue, which carries water and
dissolved minerals, comprises the core of the
star; the phloem tissue, which carries food, is
located in small groups between the points of
the star.
 The older roots of woody plants form secondary
tissues, which lead to an increase in girth.
These secondary tissues are produced by the
vascular cambium and the cork cambium. The
former arises from meristematic cells that lie
between the primary xylem and phloem.

Root cross-section

Secondary growth

 Secondary growth occurs in many roots and

usually results in the thickening of the root
diameter by the addition of vascular tissue.
Plants may also have lateral roots that branch
from the main tap root. Initiation of secondary In woody plants, primary growth is followed  by
growth occurs when cells in the residual secondary growth.
procambium and parts of the pericycle begin to
make divisions. The lateral roots originate from
meristematic tissue in the pericycle, which is the
outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder in
the center of the root. Lateral roots then display
LESSON 1.4: Modified/Specialized Roots
There are many different types of specialized roots, and listed below are the most common root modifications.

Root modification Description Examples

Food storage roots
Water storage roots
Propagative roots
roots are enlarged and store large
quantities of starch and other
carbohydrates, which may later
be used for extensive growth.
plants that grow in arid regions
are known for growing structures
used to retain water & used these
water supply when the supply in
the soil is inadequate.
produces adventitious buds along
the roots that grow near the
surface of the ground. The buds
develop into aerial stems
(suckers). The rooted suckers can
be separated from the original
root & grow individually.
Carrots, beets, turnips (Brassica
rapa), sweet potatoes, yams,
hemlocks, dandelions, radish
(Raphanus sativus L. var
longipinnatus)
pumpkin, manroots (Marah
oreganus), calabazilla (Cucurbita
perennis), watermelon (Citrullus
lanatus)
cherries, apple, pear, rice-paper
plant (Tetrapanax papyrifera),
tree-of-heaven, weeds such as
hoarseradish, Canada thistle

Pneumatophores Breathing roots to help plants that Mangrove trees (Avicennia nitida)
grow in very wet areas like
swamps get enough oxygen.
These roots act like snorkel tubes
for plants, rising up above the
surface of the water so that the
plant can get oxygen.

Aerial Roots and
Photosynthetic roots
Orchids produce velamen roots, Orchids, corn, ivies, vanilla
corn plants have prop roots, ivies orchids
have adventitious roots and
vanilla orchids even have
photosynthetic roots. They can
facilitate climbing and support to
the plant.

Contractile roots Function: it pulls the plant deeper Lily, dandelion, hyacinth
into the soil by expanding radially (Hyacinthus orientalis)
and contracting longitudinally.
The contractile part of the root
may lose as much as 2/3 of its
length within a few weeks as
stored food is used and the cortex
collapses.
Buttress roots Large roots on all sides of a tall or Fig tree and other tropical trees
shallowly rooted tree. It provides
support and stability to a tree.

Parasitic roots Plants without chlorophyll become Mistletoe, orchids

dependent on chlorophyll-bearing
plants for nutrition. They
 parasitize their host plants via
peglike projections called
haustoria, which develop along
the stem in contact with the host.
Symbiotic roots Mycorrhizae form a mutualistic Peanuts, pea, beans, legumes
association with plant roots.

Root+ fungi = mychorrhiza (better

absorption of phosphorus from
the soil)

Root + bacteria = rhizobia

(nitrogen fixation, convert n2 to
nh3 to use by plant for protein
synthesis)
LESSON 1.5: Mechanism of Water and Nutrient These conditions create an osmotic gradient,
Absorption whereby water flows into the epidermal cells. This
flow exerts a force, called root pressure, that helps
The primary tissues of the root are; from outermost drive the water through the roots. Root pressure is
to innermost; the epidermis, the cortex, and the partially responsible for the rise of water in plants,
vascular cylinder. The epidermis is composed of but it cannot alone account for the transport of
thin-walled cells and is usually only one cell layer water to the top of tall trees.
thick. The absorption of water and dissolved
minerals occurs through the epidermis, a process
greatly enhanced in most land plants by the
presence of root hairs—slender, tubular extensions
of the epidermal cell wall that are found only in the
region of maturation.

LESSON 1. 6: Pharmaceutical and

Pharmacological importance of the roots
Different parts of the plant or plant as a whole has
served as the source of bioactive compounds for
purpose
of

The absorption of water is chiefly via osmosis,

which occurs because:
1. water is present in higher concentrations in
the soil than within the epidermal cells (where
it contains salts, sugars, and other dissolved
organic products) and
2. the membrane of the epidermal cells is
permeable to water but not too many of the
substances dissolved in the internal fluid.
investigation and research, as well as for
commercial drug production. Roots of the plant hold
various active pharmaceutical constituents which
display curative possibilities for many human
ailments.  The vast diversity of plants gives a
promising journey ahead in quest for knowledge
and cure for many diseases.
Herbal Drugs obtained from roots and maximum in the
underground parts rhizome part.

 GABI (Colocasia esculenta)

 BEGONIA (Begonia
 Tubers yield amino
coccinea)
acids.
 Roots of the juice used for
 Tubers are digestive,
conjunctivitis.tuberous
laxative, diuretic,
roots and fruits are
lactagogue, and
anodyne, antiphlogistic,
styptic.
and antispasmodic.

 MAKAHIYA (Mimosa pudica)

 SPIDER PLANT (Chlorophytum comosum)
 Roots yield flavonoids,
 Root tubers have yielded
phytosterol, alkaloids,
sapogenins, and saponins.
amino acids, tannins,
 Studies have suggested
glycoside, fatty acids.
antitumor, antiproliferative,
 Roots are bitter,
indoor air-purifying,
astringent, acrid,
phytoremediative, burn
alexipharmic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac,
wound healing properties.
constipating, cooling, diuretic, emetic,
febrifuge, resolvent, vulnerary.
 KOGON (Imperata cylindrical)
 Considered antifebrile,
 ANIS (licorice) [Glycyrrhiza glabra]
anthelmintic, antibacterial,
 Roots yield starches
diuretic, febrifuge,
(30%), pectins, simple
restorative, styptic, tonic
sugars, gums,
mucilage (rhizome),
 TALAHIB (Saccharum spontaneum)
polysaccharides,
 Various root extracts
amino acids, triterpene
yielded terpenoids,
saponin, flavonoids.
steroids, glycosides,
 Sweet root is said to contain a glycyrrhizin,
tannins, flavonoids,
a saponin glycoside, that is roughly 50 times
carbohydrates.
sweeter than cane sugar.
 Roots are considered sweet, astringent,
 Demulcent, emollient, expectorant, anti-
emollient, refrigerant, diuretic, lithotriptic,
inflammatory, antispasmodic, alterative,
purgative, tonic, aphrodisiac.
diuretic and laxative.

 BIGA (Alocasia macrorrhizos)

 Rhizomes contain phytosterols, alkaloids, LESSON 2
glucose and fructose.
 Rootstock considered laxative, diuretic INTRODUCTION

 BAYABANG (Nephrolepis cordifolia)

 Tubers were found to
contain high amounts
of moisture, fat,
carbohydrate, and
calcium; protein was
Transportation in plants mean the carrying of
substances absorbed or made by photosynthesis
into the different body parts. Water and minerals in
plants are being transported by two of the
conducting systems, xylem and phloem. The
mechanisms involved in the transport process
maybe by diffusion or osmosis. 
LESSON 2.1: Plant Transport
 Xylem moves water from roots to the leaves,
and phloem moves food from the leaves to the
rest of the plant. During transpiration water
evaporates from the leaves and draws water
from the roots.
Xylem and Phloem
Plants have tissues to transport water, nutrients
and minerals. Xylem transports water and mineral
salts from the roots up to other parts of the plant,
while phloem transports sucrose and amino acids
between the leaves and other parts of the plant.
Xylem
 Mature xylem consists of elongated dead cells,
arranged end to end to form continuous
vessels (tubes).
 Mature xylem vessels:
 contain no cytoplasm
 are impermeable to water
 have tough walls containing a woody
material called lignin
Phloem
 Phloem consists of living cells arranged end to
end. Unlike xylem, phloem vessels contain
cytoplasm, and this goes through holes from
one cell to the next.
 Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids up
and down the plant. This is called translocation.
In general, this happens between where these
substances are made (the sources) and where
they are used or stored (the sinks).
 This means, for example, that sucrose is
transported:
 from sources in the root to sinks in the
leaves in spring time
 from sources in the leaves to sinks in the
root in the summer
 Applied chemicals, such as pesticides, also
move through the plant by translocation.
LESSON 2.2: Plant Transport Process and
Other Transport Processes
Molecular movement – molecules and ions are
constantly in random motion. Brownian movement
is the result of the bombardment of the visible
particles by water molecules.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from a
region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until a state of equilibrium is
reached.

 bulk flow: overall movement of water in

response to differences in the potential
energy of water.

 water potential: difference in water

energy between two regions containing
water.
Think of the control of

 water behind a dam

 water in your bladder

 As you should already know, water (like any

other substance) always moves from an area
of relatively high water potential to an area of
relatively low water potential.
 Water potential is usually measured in units of
the pressure needed to stop water movement,
or hydrostatic pressure.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion: pressure,
temperature, density of the medium.
Recall:

 Any liquid dissolving a substance is known

as a solvent
 Any substance dissolved in a solvent is
known as a solute.
Water, being a polar substance, is an excellent
solvent for polar (hydrophilic) solids. In solution,
water molecules cluster around a polar solute
molecule, creating a hydration shell:
A few more definitions to recall:
 A hypotonic (= hypoosmotic) solution is one
which has relatively more water molecules
(and fewer solutes) than a solution to which it
is being compared.
 A hypertonic (= hyperosmotic) solution is one
which has relatively fewer water molecules
(and more solutes) than a solution to which it
is being compared.
 Two or more isotonic (=isoosmotic)
solutions have equal concentrations of
solutes.
Osmosis – the diffusion of water through a
semipermeable membrane from a region where
an aqueous solution is more diluted to a region
where an aqueous solution is less diluted (more
concentrated). Osmosis stops if the
concentration on both sides of the membrane
are equal.
 Osmosis is the primary means by which
water enters plants from their surrounding
environment.
Osmotic potential is a measure of the potential
of water to move from one cell to another as
influenced by solute concentration, osmotic
pressure is the pressure required to prevent
osmosis.
Dialysis is the movement of solute molecules
from an area of relatively high concentration to
an area of relatively low concentration across a
selectively permeable membrane.
Water molecules are highly cohesive (they stick
together) and adhesive (they stick to other polar
substances).
Osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency
of a solution to take up water molecules when
separated from pure water by a selectively
permeable membrane.
In living cells, the plasma membrane serves as
the selectively permeable membrane.
Turgid – cell becomes firm because of water
gain through osmosis.
Turgor pressure – develops against the walls as
a result of water entering the vacuole of the cell.
This pressure is heard when a celery stick or the
leaf of a young head of lettuce is bitten.
A plant cell in a very hypertonic solution, left long
enough, may lose so much internal water (via
osmosis) that it becomes plasmolyzed (i.e., torn
away from the cell wall) beyond repair.
In an isoosmotic solution, a plant cell is
somewhat flaccid (i.e., it's walls have a bit of
"give" and "bounce").
In a hypoosmotic solution, a plant cell will take
up water and become turgid. (If the solution is
too hypoosmotic, the cell may rupture).
As long as the plasma membrane is intact, the
turgor pressure of a cell is equal and opposite to
the wall pressure. This is the main source of
structural support in herbaceous plants)
Thus,
Plasmolysis – the loss of water through osmosis
that is accompanied by the shrinkage of
protoplasm away from the cell wall.
Imbibition – results in the swelling of tissues to
several times their original volume, whether they
are alive or dead. It is the initial step in the
germination of seeds.
Water and Its Movement through the Plant
 Plants imbibe (take up) and transpire
(release via the stomata) more water than
animals do, as they have no re- circulation
system. About 90% of all water entering the
roots leaves the leaves via the stomates
(transpiration) without ever taking part in
metabolism.
 A single plant can transpire about 60L of water
in a single growing season.
 A typical corn field of about 60,000 plants per
hectare can transpire nearly 4,000,000L of
water per hectare in a single growing season.
 Unless this transpired water is constantly
replaced, these plants will die. But replaced it
is!
 Water movement is due to differences in
potential between soil, root, stem, leaf and
atmosphere.
 Under normal circumstances, the water
potential in soil is higher than that in root cell
cytosol, resulting in water flowing to follow the
potential gradient. This is known as bulk flow,
and it is the primary force driving water
through xylem.
  The aqueous solution of dissolved minerals in
the xylem is known as xylem sap.
 Bulk flow is much faster than diffusion or
osmosis, reaching a rate of 15-45 m/hour,
depending on environmental conditions and
the size of the xylem lumen.
 Xylem raises water up to 350 feet above the
ground in some of the largest trees on earth.
Uses of water in plants:
 Water is needed for plant’s enzyme actions
and other chemical activities in the cells
 Water is used in the process of
photosynthesis
 To keep the mesophyll surfaces moist to keep
stomata open and allow passage of carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis.
 Water is also needed for cell turgor, which
gives rigidity to herbaceous plants.
Pushing Xylem Sap: Root Pressure
Water enters the root because the water potential
of the root tissues is almost always lower than that
of the soil, with its high dissolved mineral content.
Water entering the stele may travel via one of the
three routes we already have defined:
 apoplastic route - soil solution is taken
up by the hydrophilic walls of the root
hairs, which provide access to the
apoplast (continuum formed by the cell
walls). Water and minerals diffuse into
the cortex along the matrix of cell walls.
 symplastic route - minerals and water
cross the plasma membranes of root hair
cells and enter the symplast (continuum
of cytoplasm formed via plasmodesmata)
 transmembrane (tonoplast) route -
some water and minerals traveling along
the apoplast are actively transported into
the protoplasts of epidermal and cortical
cells, and then move inward via the
symplast.
Casparian strips in the endodermis block
interstitial entry of water and minerals into the
stele. Only solutions already in the symplast or
entering it via the plasma membrane of the
endodermal cells can get into the xylem.
Endodermal and living cells in the stele
discharge water and minerals into their apoplast.
The xylem vessels then transport the apoplastic
water and minerals upward into the shoot
system.
At night...
 stomata are usually closed
 endodermis prevents "leakage" of ions
out of the stele into other tissues
the resulting decrease in water potential in
the stele (due to the accumulation of
ions) means that water will continue to
follow the potential gradient into the stele.
 the resulting flow of water from the cortex
into the stele is known as root pressure:
xylem sap being pushed up the xylem
because of incoming water from the root.
 Root pressure, exerted from below,
is positive pressure potential, since
potential increases as one moves up the
stem.
 Root pressure is sufficient to lift water no
more than a few feet above the ground,
which doesn't account for the ability of
large trees to get water to their very tips.

Guttation
 In a small plant, root pressure could result
in potentially harmful water pressure
buildup at night, when stomata are closed.
 Many herbaceous plants have special
openings on the leaf margins called
hydathodes. These allow root pressure
water to escape, forming lovely little
"beads" of "dew" overnight, and
 preventing cell rupture due to too much
water pressure. This process is known as
guttation, and its results are generally
observable only in the early morning,
when humidity is relatively high.
Pulling Xylem Sap: Shoot Tension
Plants can move water not only from below, via
positive pressure, but also by "pulling" from above
via negative pressure potential: in this case,
potential decreases as one moves up the stem.
This occurs via transpiration.
 The air spaces inside spongy mesophyll are
quite humid, as they are constantly in
contact with moist cell walls and vascular
tissue filled with xylem sap.
 On typical, non-rainy days, the water
potential of the atmosphere is far lower
(more negative) than that of the spaces
inside the mesophyll.
 This means that water will want to travel out
of the stomata to the area of relatively low
water potential.
 As one moves down the plant, water
potential increases. Here's a hypothetical
array of water potentials in a soil and plant
system:
Water follows the potential gradient from soil to
atmosphere, and is pulled together by
the cohesiveness and adhesiveness of the
molecules themselves. The negative pressure in
the xylem tubes generated this way is known as
shoot tension.
 Water diffuses from the xylem into the
spaces inside the spongy mesophyll-->
stomata-->atmosphere.
Regulation of Transpiration
Stomatal apparatus: guard cells and an opening
called stoma (stomata) – regulates transpiration
and gas exchange.
Closed stomata – turgor pressure is low and when
water and potassium ions leaves the guard cells
Opened stomata – turgor pressure is high and
when water and potassium ions enters the guard
cells
Abscisic acid – hormones produced in leaves that
is subject to water stress which causes membrane
leakages that leads to potassium ions loss leading
to shrinking of guard cells, then closing of stomata.
 Stomata of most plants are open during the
day and close at night. While deserts plants
have stomata the are open only at night to
conserve water, thus they have a special
form of photosynthesis called CAM that
uses the carbon dioxide released from
organic acids that are stored during night
time.
 Stomatal crypts – found in leaves of desert
plants and in pine trees where the stomata
recessed below the surface of the leaf in
small chambers (stomatal crypts) that is
also filled with epidermal hairs to prevent
water loss.
Transport of Food Substances (Organic
Solutes) in Aqueous Solution Through Phloem
Phloem – where translocation or transportation of
food substance in solution (through water) occurs.
Unlike movement of xylem sap, movement of
phloem sap requires energy expenditure on the
part of the plant.
Recall that substances have three different
means by which they can cross a plasma
membrane:
 diffusion - passive transport; molecules
simply move across the membrane
following the potential gradient.
 facilitated diffusion - also passive;
substances must pass through a protein
 "filter" in the membrane, though they are
still following the potential gradient.
 active transport - the cell uses energy
(stored and "delivered" by ATP, adenosine
triphosphate) to pump cells into or out of
the cell against a gradient.
Active Transport- plants absorb and retain
particles against diffusion gradient or from
low concentration to high concentration
movement through the use of energy
(from ATP) and involvement of an enzyme
complex that controls proton pump.
The proton pump:
 Left to their own devices, protons will
travel from areas of high to low potential
until they reach equilibrium, with equal
concentration of protons on either side of
a membrane.
 Living cells can hydrolyze ATP and use
the energy thus released to transport
portons out of the cytoplasm, through the
plasma membrane and into the
extracellular spaces against the proton
potential gradient.
 The enzymatic machinery and the process
itself are known as the proton pump.
Phloem sap is a thick, aqueous solution
containing up to 30% sugars (sucrose), amino
acids, hormones etc. (In contrast, xylem sap
is relatively thin and watery, containing mostly
dissolved inorganics)
Plants need to mobilize stored carbohydrates
in order to perform cellular work via cellular
respiration:
 convert starches/stored carbs into simple
sugars
 load simple sugar (usually sucrose) into
phloem
 transport sugar to wherever it needs to go
Pressure flow (mass flow) hypothesis – theory
for movement of substances in the phloem.
According to this theory, food substances in
solution (organic solutes) flow from a source,
where water enters by osmosis (ex food-
producing tissue such as the cortex of the root,
or food producing tissue, such as the mesophyll
tissue of a leaf.
Reference
Stern’s Introductory Plant Biology
MODULE 4
LESSON 1.1: Morphology and Anatomy
(External and internal structures)
Stems perform four main functions in plants:
1. Support
 Stems of most species support leaves and
reproductive structures. The upright position
of most stems and the arrangement of
leaves on them enable each leaf to absorb
maximum light for use in photosynthesis.
Reproductive structures (flowers and fruits)
are located on stems in areas accessible for
insects, birds, and air currents, which
transfer pollen from flower to flower and
help disperse seeds and fruits.
2. Conduction
 Like roots, stems contain vascular tissue
(xylem and phloem). Xylem conducts water
and minerals. Phloem conducts the sugars
created during photosynthesis. Stem also
serve as conduits for moving water,
minerals, and food throughout the plant.
3. Growth
 During the growing season, cell division and
elongation are occurring in both the apical
and lateral meristems of dicots. This results
in plant growth. The same things are
occurring in the intercalary meristems of
monocots.
4. Storage
 Stems are sometimes modified to store food
and (or) water. Plants that store large
amounts of water in their stems or leaves
are called succulents
  Stems, the focus of this module, link a
plant’s roots to its leaves and are usually
aerial, although many plants have
underground stems. Stems exhibit varied
forms, ranging from ropelike vines to
massive tree trunks. Stems are either
herbaceous (consisting of soft, nonwoody
tissues) or woody (with extensive hard
tissues of wood and bark). Most stems are
circular in cross section, although a few,
such as mint stems, are square.
Although stems exhibit
great variation in structure
and growth, they all have
buds. At the tip of a stem
is a terminal bud. When
a terminal bud is dormant
(that is, unopened and not
actively growing), it is
covered and protected by
an outer protective layer
of bud scales, which are
modified leaves. Axillary
buds, also called lateral
buds, are found in the
axils—the upper angles
between leaves and the
stem to which they are
attached. When terminal
and axillary buds grow, they form stems that bear
leaves and/or flowers. The area on a stem where
each leaf is attached is called a node, and the
region of a stem between two successive nodes is
an internode.
A woody twig of a deciduous tree (a tree that sheds
its leaves annually) can provide a model of stem
structures. Bud scales cover the terminal bud and
protect its delicate tip during dormancy. When the parenchyma cells. The parenchyma tissue in the center
bud resumes growth, the bud scales fall off,
leaving bud scale scars on the stem where they
were attached. Woody twigs of temperate plants
form terminal buds once a year, at the end of the
growing season. Therefore, the number of groups
of terminal bud scale scars on a twig reveals its
age.
A leaf scar shows where a leaf was attached on
the stem, and the vascular (conducting) tissue that
extends from the stem out into the leaf
forms bundle scars within the leaf scar. Axillary
buds develop above the leaf scars. Also, the bark
of a woody twig has lenticels, sites of loosely
arranged cells that allow gas exchange to occur.
Lenticels look like tiny marks, or specks, on the
bark of a twig and are often used as an aid in
identifying the plant.
LESSON 1.2: Primary and Secondary Growth
The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is composed of
dividing cells. It is responsible for the initiation of
new leaves and buds and for making the three
primary meristems – protoderm, ground
meristem, and procambium. The apical meristem
is dormant before the growing season begins. It is
protected by bud scales of the bud by leaf
primordia (singular: primordium), the tiny embryonic
leaves that will develop into mature leaves after the
bud scales drop off and growth begins. The apical
meristem in the embryonic stem of a seed is also
dormant until the seed begins to germinate.
 Protoderm to Epidermis
When a bud begins to expand or a seed
germinates, the cells of the apical meristem undergo
mitosis, and soon three primary meristems develop from
it. The outermost of these primary meristems, the
protoderm, gives rise to the epidermis. Although there
are exceptions, the epidermis is typically one cell thick
and usually becomes coated with a thin, waxy, protective
layer, the cuticle.
 Procambium to Primary Xylem and Phloem
A cylinder of strands constituting the procambium
appears to the interior of the protoderm. (The
procambium produces water-conducting primary xylem
cells and primary phloem cells that have several
functions, including the conduction of food.)
 Ground Meristem to Pith and Cortex
The remainder of the meristematic tissue, called
ground meristem, produces two tissues composed of
of the stem is the pith. Pith cells tend to be very large
and may break down shortly after they are formed,
leaving a cylindrical, hollow area. Even if they do not
break down early, they may eventually be crushed as
new tissues produced by other meristems add to the girth
of the stem, particularly in woody plants. The other tissue
produced by the ground meristem is the cortex. The
cortex may become more extensive than the pith, but in
woody plants, it, too, eventually will be crushed and
replaced by new tissues produced from within. The
parenchyma of both the pith and the cortex function in
storing food or sometimes, if chloroplasts are present, in
manufacturing it.
All five of the tissues produced by this apical
meristem complex (epidermis, primary xylem, primary
phloem, pith, and cortex) arise while the stem is
increasing in length and are called primary tissues.
You may recall that plants undergo two types of
growth. Primary growth, an increase in the length of a
plant, occurs at apical meristems at the tips of stems and
roots. Secondary growth, an increase in the girth
(circumference) of a plant, is due to the activity of lateral
meristems along the sides of stems and roots. The new
tissues formed by the lateral meristems are called
secondary tissues to distinguish them from the primary
tissues produced by apical meristems.
Herbaceous plants mostly undergo primary growth,
with little secondary growth or increase in
thickness. Secondary growth, or “wood”, is
noticeable in woody plants; it occurs in some
dicots, but occurs very rarely in monocots.
Primary Growth
 Most primary growth occurs at the apices, or
tips, of stems and roots. Primary growth is a
result of rapidly-dividing cells in the apical
meristems at the shoot tip and root tip.
Subsequent cell elongation also contributes to
primary growth.
Secondary Growth
 The increase in stem thickness that results from
secondary growth is due to the activity of the
lateral meristems, which are lacking in
herbaceous plants. Lateral meristems include
the vascular cambium and, in woody plants,
the cork cambium.
 Cells in the vascular cambium divide and
produce two complex tissues: secondary
xylem (wood), to replace primary xylem;
and secondary phloem (inner bark), to
replace primary phloem. Primary xylem and
primary phloem cannot transport materials
indefinitely and are replaced in plants that
have extended life spans.
 Cells of the outer lateral meristem,
the cork cambium, divide to produce cork
cells, containing a waxy substance known
as suberin that can repel water, and cork
parenchyma (phelloderm). The cork
cambium and the tissues it produces are
collectively called periderm (outer bark).
Periderm functions as a replacement for the
epidermis, which splits apart as the stem
increases in girth.
 In some plants, the periderm has many
openings, known as lenticels (as shown
below), which allow the interior cells to
exchange gases with the outside
atmosphere. This supplies oxygen to the
living and metabolically active cells of the
cortex, xylem and phloem.

LESSON 1.2.1: Herbaceous Dicot and Monocot
Stems
Although herbaceous stems all have the same
basic tissues, the arrangement of the tissues varies
considerably. Herbaceous dicot stems have the
vascular bundles arranged in a circle in cross
section and have a distinct cortex and pith.
 Dicot Stem
 Unlike the root with its pith ringed by
vascular bundles, the stem has a
continuous cortex punctuated with vascular
bundles. In the close-up of the vascular
bundle, note the lignifed support cells, the
large vessels and the single layer of
meristematic cells which produces the
xylem & phloem
 Monocot Stem
 Unlike the root, the stele is split into a
number of vascular bundles. The pith
remains intact and is separated from the
cortex by a meristematic layer, the
interfasicular (between bundles) and
fasicular vascular cambium (within the
vascular bundles).
 Monocots (with the exception of the most
primitive species, the Joshua Tree (Yucca
brevifolia var. brevifolia; Family Liliaceae))
lack a vascular cambium or cork cambium.
Therefore, these monocots do not produce
true, botanical wood (concentric rings of
xylem), although they may be very "woody"
in some cases (e.g., palms, large
bamboos).
LESSON 1.2.2: Woody Stem
In woody plants, obvious differences begin to
appear as soon as the vascular cambium and the
cork cambium develop. The most conspicuous
differences involve the secondary xylem,
or wood, as it is best known. Some tropical trees
(e.g., ebony), in which both the vascular cambium
and the cork cambium are active all year, produce
an ungrained, uniform wood. The wood of most
trees, however, is produced seasonally. In trees of
temperate climates, virtually all growth takes place
during the spring and summer and then ceases
until the following spring.
When the vascular cambium of a typical broadleaf
tree first becomes active in the spring, it usually
produces relatively large vessel elements of
secondary xylem; such xylem is referred to
as spring wood. As the season progresses, the
vascular cambium may produce vessel elements
whose diameters become progressively smaller in
each succeeding series of cells produced, or there
may be fewer vessel elements in proportion to
tracheids produced until tracheids (and sometimes
fibers) predominate.
The xylem that is produced after the spring wood,
and which has smaller or fewer vessel elements
and larger numbers of tracheids, is referred to
as summer wood. Over a period of years, the
result of this type of switch between the early spring
and the summer growth is a series of alternating
concentric rings of light and dark cells. One year’s
growth of xylem is called an annual ring. In when the cell wall of the parenchyma cell actually
conifers, the wood consists mostly of tracheids, grows through a pit and into the vessel member.
with vessels and fibers being absent. Annual rings Tyloses look like bubbles; they can fill a vessel
are still visible, however, because the first tracheids member and completely block it
produced in the spring are considerably larger and
lighter in color than those produced later in the
growing season. Note that an annual ring normally
may contain many layers of xylem cells and it is all
the layers produced in one growing season that
constitute an annual ring—not just the dark layers.

The annual rings not only indicate the age of the

tree (because, normally, only one is produced each
year), but they can also tell something of the
climate and other conditions that occurred during
the tree’s lifetime.
Fairly obvious lighter streaks or lines can be seen
radiating out from the center across the annual
rings. These lines, called vascular rays, consist of
parenchyma cells that may remain alive for 10 or
more years. Their primary function is the lateral
conduction of nutrients and water from the stele,
through the xylem and phloem, to the cortex, with
some cells also storing food. Any part of a ray
within the xylem is called a xylem ray, while its
extension through the phloem is called a phloem
ray.
If you have ever examined different types of
lumber, you may have noticed that some trees
have wood with two different colors. The functional
secondary xylem—that is, the part that conducts
water and dissolved minerals—is the sapwood, the
younger, lighter colored wood closest to the
bark. Heartwood, the older wood in the center of
the trunk, is typically a brownish red. A microscopic
examination of heartwood reveals that its vessels
and tracheids are plugged with pigments, tannins,
gums, resins, and other materials. Therefore,
heartwood no longer functions in conduction. In
some woody plants, heartwood vessel members
are blocked by structures called tyloses. This is
true of white oak (Quercus alba), the wood used to
make wine barrels. In some wood, parenchyma
cells lie adjacent to vessel members. A tylose forms
While the vascular cambium is producing
secondary xylem to the inside, it is also producing
secondary phloem to the outside. The term bark is
usually applied to all the tissues outside the
cambium, including the phloem. Some scientists
distinguish between the inner bark, consisting of
primary and secondary phloem, and the outer bark
(periderm), consisting of cork tissue and cork
cambium.
LESSON 1.3: Stem Modifications
Although most higher plants have an erect shoot
system, many species have specialized stems that
are modified for various functions. The overall
appearance of specialized stems may differ
markedly from that of the stems discussed so far,
but all stems have nodes, internodes, and axillary
buds; these features distinguish them from roots
and leaves, which do not have them. The leaves at
the nodes of these specialized stems are often
small and scale-like. They are seldom green, but
full-sized, functioning leaves may also be produced.
Descriptions of some of the specialized stems
follow.
Stem Modification Description Image

Rhizomes Thickened underground stem that

has distinct nodes and internodes
and scaly leaves at the nodes.

Example: Ginger

Runners It grows parallel to the ground and

has a creeping stem with long
internodes. On the lower surface, the
nodes give out adventitious roots at
regular intervals. A runner develops
from the axils of lower leaves of the
aerial stem

Example: Strawberry

Stolons Similar to runners but are produced

beneath the surface of the ground
and tend to grow in different
directions but usually not horizontally

Stem tendrils These types of stems are slender,

twining strands that enable a plant to
seek support while climbing on other
surfaces.

Ex. Grapes
 Corms Short, vertical, swollen underground
stem of a plant that serves as a food
storage organ to enable the plant to
survive adverse conditions.

Example: Colocasia

Cladophylls Also called Phyllocades

This type of stem is a green,

flattened or cylindrical one that
resembles a leaf. A phylloclade is
capable of performing
photosynthesis and we can find them
in xerophytes or in other plants that
have little or no leaves

Tubers The thickened end of a rhizome that

is fleshy and enlarged for food
storage.

The “eyes” of a potato are actually

axillary buds, evidence that the tuber
is an underground stem rather than a
storage root like sweet potatoes or
carrots

Bulbs A bulb is a modified underground

bud in which fleshy storage leaves
are attached to a short stem. A bulb
is rounded and is covered by paper-
like bulb scales, which are modified
leaves. It frequently forms small
daughter bulbs (bulblets). Two kinds
of bulbs are as follows:

 Tunicate bulbs have a papery

outer covering.
 Protection from digging and
drying out.
 Example: onion, tulips,
daffodils.
 Non-tunicate/Scaly bulbs lack a
papery outer covering.
 Susceptible to damage and
drying
 Example: Garlic, Lily bulbs.
Bulblets Tiny secondary bulb that forms in the
angle between a leaf and stem or in
place of flowers in certain plants.
LESSON 1.4: Pharmaceutical and  Bark extract used for nasal stuffiness &
Pharmacological Importance of the Stem discharge
 To drain sinuses and alleviate asthma
Just like the willow bark, there are other plants that
and sinus headache
we use for other medicinal uses. You may
download the file below to view a list of other plant
7. Chinese rubber tree
stems with their medicinal uses.
(Eucommia ulmoides)
Stems with Pharmaceutical and  Bark extract improve
Pharmacological Importance circulation to the hands
and feet
1. Button Snakeroot
 Reduce high BP
(Eryngium aquaticum spp)
 Alleviate frequent
 Inserted chewed stem in
urination problems
nostrils to arrest epistaxis
8. Cinquefoil
(Potentilla erecta)
2. Camphor  Dried rhizome used
(Cinnamomum camphora) to control diarrhea
 Oil from leaves & wood
used in cold remedies & 9. Cotton
liniments (Gossypium spp)
 Gossypium hirsutum
3. Cascara or Gossypium
(Rhamnus purshiana) barbadense
 Bark extract widely used as  Cotton root bark was
laxative used by black slaves
to induce abortion

4. Cat’s Claw
(Uncaria tomentosa)
 Root bark extract used in
intestinal problems like 10. Ephedra
diverticulosis & (Ephedra spp.)
Crohnsdisease  E. nevadensis or E.
 Hirsutincomponent-lowers BP sinica
 Alkaloid property inhibits platelet clotting;  Drug ephedrine is
increase brain serotonin level widely used in nasal
congestion and low
BP; also known as
MA-HUANG
 Contains toxic amounts of cyanide
5. Cherry (wild)
(Prunus serotina) 11. European Birch
 Tea from bark is used for (Betula pendula)
coughs and colds  Oil distilled from
barks and leaves are
used for kidney
6. Chinese magnolia stones and UTI
(Magnolia officinalis or Magnolia
quinquepeta)
12. Fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare)
Within each leaf, the vascular tissue forms veins.
 Roots & stems & fruits
The arrangement of veins in a leaf is called the
used as appetite
venation pattern. Monocots and dicots differ in their
suppressant and as
patterns of venation. Monocots have parallel
eyewash
venation in which the veins run in straight lines
across the length of the leaf without converging. In
13. Lilly of the valley
dicots, however, the veins of the leaf have a net-
(Convallaria majalis)
like appearance, forming a pattern known as
 Plant is poisonous
reticulate venation. Ginkgo biloba is an example of
 But all parts can be a plant with dichotomous venation.
used to control
irregular heart beat
 A heart stimulant
LESSON 2.2: Internal structures
similar to digitalis
1. Epidermis
14. Cinchona
(Cinchona pubescens) The leaf is a
 Its bark is a complex organ
composed of
practical source
several tissues
of Quinine organized to
 Used for the optimize
treatment of photosynthesis.
malaria. The leaf blade
has upper and
lower surfaces
LESSON 2.1: Morphology and Anatomy consisting of an epidermal layer. The upper
(External and internal structures) epidermis covers the upper surface, and the lower
epidermis covers the lower surface. Most cells in
External Structure these layers are living parenchyma cells that lack
chloroplasts and are relatively transparent.
 All leaves originate as primordia (immature
leaf) in the buds. Once mature, each leaf would  One interesting feature of leaf epidermal cells is
typically have a leaf blade, also called that the cell wall facing toward the outside
the lamina, which is also the widest part of the environment is somewhat thicker than the cell
leaf. Some leaves are attached to the plant wall facing inward. This extra thickness may
stem by a petiole. Leaves that do not have a provide the plant with additional protection
petiole and are directly attached to the plant against injury or water loss.
stem are called sessile leaves. Leaves also  The upper epidermises of the leaves of certain
have stipules, small green appendages usually grasses have large, thin-walled cells called
found at the base of the petiole. Most leaves bulliform cells on both sides of the midvein.
have a midrib, which travels the length of the These cells appear to be involved in the rolling
or folding inward of the leaf during drought.
leaf and branches to each side to produce veins
When water is plentiful, bulliform cells are turgid
of vascular tissue. The edge of the leaf is called (swollen with water) and the leaf is open. When
the margin; while the tip of the leaf is called bulliform cells lose water (as they may during a
an apex. drought), the leaf folds inward, decreasing its
surface area exposed to the air, an action that
reduces water loss by evaporation.
  Palisade mesophyll is the main site of
photosynthesis in the leaf. Photosynthesis
also occurs in the spongy mesophyll, but the
primary function of the spongy mesophyll is
to allow diffusion of gases, particularly CO2,
throughout the leaf’s interior.
 Some monocots (corn and other grasses) do
not have mesophyll differentiated into distinct
palisade and spongy layers.

2. Cuticle

A leaf has a large surface area exposed to the

atmosphere; as a result, water loss by evaporation
from the leaf’s surface is unavoidable. However,
epidermal cells secrete a waxy layer, the cuticle,
that reduces water loss from their exterior walls.
The cuticle, which consists primarily of a waxy
substance called cutin, varies in thickness in
different plants, partly as a result of environmental
conditions.

 A leaf’s exposed (and warmer) upper

epidermis generally has a thicker cuticle
than the shaded (and cooler) lower
epidermis.
3. Stomata and Guard Cells
The epidermis contains minute openings,
or stomata, for gas exchange. Each stoma is
flanked by two specialized epidermal guard cells.
Changes in the shape of each pair of guard
cells open and close the stoma. Guard cells are
usually the only epidermal cells with chloroplasts.
4. Mesophyll
The photosynthetic ground tissue of the leaf,
the mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper
epidermis and the lower epidermis. Mesophyll cells,
which are parenchyma cells packed with
chloroplasts, are loosely arranged with many air
spaces between them that facilitate gas exchange.
In many plants, the mesophyll is divided into two
sublayers. Toward the upper epidermis, the
columnar cells are stacked closely together in a
layer called palisade mesophyll. In the lower
portion, the cells are more loosely and more
irregularly arranged, in a layer called spongy
mesophyll.
5. Vascular bundles
The veins, or vascular bundles, of a leaf extend
through the mesophyll. Each vein contains two
types of vascular tissue: xylem and phloem.
 Xylem, which conducts water and dissolved
minerals upward (inorganic nutrients), is
usually located on the upper side of a vein,
toward the upper epidermis.
 Phloem, which conducts dissolved sugars
throughout the plant, is usually confined to
the lower side of a vein.
One or more layers of nonvascular cells surround
the larger veins and make up the bundle sheath.
LESSON 2.3: Leaf Functions
Plant leaves help to sustain life on earth as they
generate food for both plant and animal life. The
following are the important functions of leaves:
1. Photosynthesis
 This is the most important function of a leaf.
They contain chloroplasts which have the
pigment chlorophyll that is responsible for
 helping in photosynthesis. The prepared
food is transported to the other parts of the
plant via phloem tissue. (Further discussion
on Lesson 5 of this module and Module 10)

2. Gas exchange
 The epidermis of the leaf contains guard
cells that control and regulate the small
pores on the undersurface of the leaves.
These pores are called stomata. Stomata
are responsible for regulating water in and
out of the cell. It is also responsible for the
Guttation
exchange of gases across the epidermis.
 Guttation is the secretion of droplets of water
3. Storage of food from the pores of plants called hydathodes. It
 In some plants, the leaves are modified to is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the
store food. These plants generally have tips or edges of leaves of some vascular plants,
succulent leaves as seen in xerophytic such as grasses. Guttation is not to be
plants. confused with dew, which condenses from the
atmosphere onto the plant surface.
Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis is the process of absorbing

energy from sunlight and using it to produce
food in the form of sugar. Leaves make it
possible for plants to fulfill their role as primary
producers in food chains. Not only do leaves
make food, but they also generate oxygen
during photosynthesis and are major
contributors to the cycle of carbon and oxygen
in the environment. (More in-depth discussion
on Module 10)
Transpiration

 Despite leaf adaptations such as the cuticle,

approximately 99 percent of the water that a
plant absorbs from the soil is lost by
evaporation from the leaves and, to a lesser
extent, the stems. Loss of water vapor from
aerial plant parts is called transpiration. Most
transpiration occurs through open stomata. The
numerous stomatal pores that are so effective
in gas exchange for photosynthesis also
provide openings through which water vapor
escapes.
LESSON 2.4: Pharmaceutical and
Pharmacological Importance of the leaves
Leaves are an important source of drugs used in
medicine and of narcotics and poisons.
Leaves with Pharmaceutical and
Pharmacological Importance
 Catnip
(Nepeta cataria)
 Leaf tea for colds and relieve
infant colic
 Creosote bush
(Larrea divaricata)
 Globe artichoke
 Decoction from leaves used
(Cynara scolymus)
as CURE ALL by Native
 Leaf and root extract used for
Americans espfor respiratory
gallstone formation and to
problems
alleviate digestion problems
 Damiana
 Green tea
(Turnera diffusa)
(Camellia sinensis)
 Dried leaves used for minor
 Unfermented leaves source
pain, as a laxative,
of polyphenols which appear
flavoringfor liquor, and as
to reduce incidence of
sexual stimulant; also said to
cancers in regular users
improve blood circulation
through neutralization of free
radicals;
 Deadly nightshade
 Epigallocatechin
(Atropa belladonna)
gallate(EGCG) ingredient of green tea
 A drug complex from the
particularly effective for prostate
leaves containing
cancer(Mayo clinic)
atropine, hyoscyamine, &
scopolamine(used as
 Jimson weed
opium antidotes)
(Datura stramonium spp.)
 For shock treatment
 Drugs atropine,
 Pupil dilation
hyoscyamine, and
 Scopolamine as
scopolamine obtained
tranquilizer to induce twilight sleep during
from seeds, flowers and
child birth
leaves
 Used for knockout drops,
 Echinacea
and for asthma
(Echinacea purpurea)
 Highly poisonous
 Leaves and root have
antiviraland anti-
 Kava kava
inflammatory property
(Piper methysticum)
 Used to boost the immune
 Leaf tea used as
system
sedative, muscle relaxant,
and as pain reliever
 Eucalyptus
(Eucalyptus spp)
 Lemon Balm
 Oil extracted leaves used to
(Melissa officinalis)
alleviate bronchitis and
 Leaf extract oils used
coughs
for colds
 Ginkgo
 Lobelia
(Ginkgo biloba)
(Lobelia inflata)
 Concentrated leaf extract
 Source of Lobeline
improves oxygen carrying
sulfate - a drug used for
capacity of capillaries esp
smoking cessation, and
those of the brain and may
in treatment of
improve memory;
respiratory disorder
 used for treating vertigo and tinnitus
LESSON 2.5: Modified Leaves
Although photosynthesis is the main function of leaves, certain leaves have special modifications for other
functions.

Leaf Modification Description Example

Shade Leaves  They are larger than their counterparts in the

sun.

 They are thinner and have fewer well-defined

mesophyll layers and fewer chloroplasts

 They also do not have as many hairs.

Leaves of Arid  Thick, leathery leaves and fewer stomata, or

Region stomata that are sunken below the surface in
special depressions, to reduce loss of water
through transpiration.

 May have succulent, water-retaining leaves or

no leaves at all May have dense, hairy
coverings

Leaves of Aquatic Less xylem than phloem, and the mesophyll,

Areas which is not differentiated into palisade and
spongy layers, has large air spaces

Tendrils  Helps the plant in climbing or supporting weak

stems

 Tendrils curl in the direction of the contact

(solid support) growth is continuous

 Clematis- the rachis serve effectively as

tendrils

 Cucurbits family

Spines  Less water loss  Leaf tissue replaced

with sclerenchyma
 Protects the plant
from browsing Example: Mesquite,
animals black locust

Thorns Pine-like objects arising

in the axils of leaves
 Prickles  Neither leaves nor
stems, but are
(Same with spines and outgrowths from the
thorns) epidermis or cortex

Example: roses and

raspberries

Storage Leaves Succulent leaves (modified for water retention)

Parenchyma cells with large vacuoles

Flower Pot Leaves Dischidia is an epiphyte that grows non-

parasitically on other plants develop urn like
pouches that become home to ant colonies

Window Leaves  Leaves buried in ground/sand.

 There is a mass of tightly packed, transparent

water-storage cells below the exposed end;
these allow light coming through the
“windows” to penetrate to the chloroplasts in
the mesophyll, located all around the inside of
the shell of the leaf.

Reproductive Leaves  Walking fern - New plants at leaf tips

 Air plant - Tiny plantlets along leaf margins

Floral Leaves (Bract)  Specialized leaves known as bracts are found

at the bases of flowers or flower stalks.

 In poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), the

flowers themselves have no petals, but the
brightly colored floral bracts that surround the
small flowers function as petals in attracting
pollinators
 Insect Trapping Leaves

Pitcher Plants  “passive trap”

(Serracenia)
 Pitcher leaves have nectar-secreting glands
around the rim.

 The distinctive odor produced by these glands

attracts insects, which, while foraging, often
fall into the watery fluid at the bottom.

Sundews (Drosera)  Mechanically/actively trap insects.

 Leaves covered with glandular hairs have

sticky digestive enzymes

Venus flytrap  “active trap”

(Dionaea muscipula)
 Two halves of the blade have the appearance
of being hinged along the midrib, with stiff,
hairlike projections along their margins

Bladderworts  Found in margins of lakes and streams

(Utricularia)
 Have finely dissected leaves with tiny
bladders.

 When triggered, the trapdoor springs open,

and water rushes into the bladder, trapping
the insect inside.