PRPM110 LEC Botany derives components from each of the four

big ideas in biology:

MODULE 1
Big Idea 1: The process of evolution drives the
LESSON 1: Branches of Botany diversity and u

 Botany is a branch of science study of plants Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy
and the processes occurring in a plant life. and molecular building blocks to grow, to
Biology has many branches but the two most reproduce, & to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
common subjects are: Botany and Zoology. It is
a natural science. Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit,
and respond to information essential to life
 Botany is a vast subject that includes all plant processes.
forms and the processes related to them. Thus,
botany can be further divided into different Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these
subjects or branches depending upon the systems and their interactions possess complex
special processes or plant form.  properties.
Charles Darwin
A British naturalist proposed the theory of biological
evolution by natural selection. He defined evolution
as “descent with
modification,” the idea
that species change
over time, give rise to
new species, and share
common ancestors. He
suggested a
mechanism for
evolution: natural
selection, “heritable
traits that help
organisms survive and reproduce become more
common in a population over time”.
Darwin's concept of natural selection was based on
several key observations:

 Traits are often heritable.

 More offspring are produced than can
survive.
 Offspring vary in their heritable traits.

Based on these simple observations, Darwin

concluded the following:

 In a population, some individuals will

Theories of the origin of life, evolution and
adaptation
There are many views on how life originated
on earth. The earth is said to have come into
existence 5 billion years ago and life on earth came
into existence only a billion years after that. There
were many scientists who studied the fossils and
performed experiments to postulate their versions
of the theory of evolution.
have inherited traits that help them
survive and reproduce
 Because the helpful traits are heritable,
and because organisms with these traits
leave more offspring, the traits will tend
to become more common in the next
generation.
  over generations, the population will  PALEOBOTANY - study of the biology & the
become adapted to its environment evolution of plants in the geologic past
 BRYOLOGY - study of mosses & similar plants
 AGRONOMY - study of field crops & soils
 HORTICULTURE - ornamental plants and fruits
& vegetable crops
 FORESTRY - deals with forest conservation &
forest products (i.e., lumber)
 ECONOMIC BOTANY - plants with commercial
importance

DISCIPLINES OF BOTANY
 PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY - study
structure and function of important biological
molecule like proteins and nucleic acid
 PLANT BIOCHEMISTRY - study of chemical
interactions within plants
 PLANT CELL BIOLOGY - structure, function &
life processes of plants
1. anatomy - plant cell & tissues
2. morphology - structure (leaves, roots etc.),
evolution & development
3. physiology - processes (i.e., photosynthesis
& mineral nutrition)
 PLANT GENETICS - plant heredity & variation
 PLANT ECOLOGY - study of interrelationship
among plants and between plants & their
environment
 PLANT SYSTEMATICS - evolutionary
relationship among different plant groups
 PLANT TAXONOMY - a sub discipline of
systematics; deals with description, naming &
classification of plants
LESSON 1.2: Contributions of Early Botanists
Pharmaceutical Botany
Medical Herbalism 17th century - a remedy is
foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), reportedly used by an
English housewife to treat dropsy, and then more
systematically by the physician William Withering
(1741–1799).
Morphine from opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum L., Papaveraceae), which was first
identified by Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner of
Germany 1804 and chemically characterized in
1817 as an alkaloid.
Salicin, from willow bark (Salix spp.,
Salicaceae), was first isolated by Johannes
Buchner in Germany. It was derivatized first (in
1838) by Rafaele Pirea (France) to yield salicylic
acid, and later (1899) by the Bayer company, to
yield acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin
Quinine, from cinchona bark (Cinchona
succirubra Vahl and others), was first isolated by
Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaime
Caventou of France in 1820.

BRANCHES OF EARLY
DEFINITION CONTRIBUTIONS
BOTANY BOTANIST
Plant Anatomy Study of plant Robert Hooke  Hooke is best known today for his
cell and tissues (1635- 1703) identification of the cellular structure of plants.
 "Micrographia: or some Physiological
Descriptions of Minute Bodies" made by
published in 1665. It was the first important
work on microscopy, the study of minute
objects through a microscope. Discovered
 cells in living plant tissue used microscope
observation to discover plant tissues.
Marcello Malpighi Grew and Malpighi are considered to be the
(1628 –1694) and founders of the study of plant anatomy, for they
Nehemiah Grew examined in detail the structure and development
(1628-1711) of many plants. Marcelo Malpighi, from Italy,
discovered various tissues in stems and roots.
Nehemiah Grew, from England, described the
structure of wood.
Plant The study of J.B. van Helmont A Flemish physician and chemist, who was the
Physiology plant form and (1577- 1644) first to demonstrate that plants do not have the
function. same nutritional needs as animals. Plants absorb
water as a result of what we now know as
photosynthetic activity.
Joseph Priestley He discovered accidentally that gases play a role
1733- 1804) in photosynthesis. Put a candle in a glass jar with
a plant and in ten days the candle was able to
combust. A gas (oxygen) must be released by the
plant that supports combustion.
Plant The study that Carolus Linnaeus The Swedish botanist, owed for the present
Taxonomy identifies, (1707-1778) system of naming and classifying plants and
describes, animals by using generic name (genus) and a
names and specific name (species). In 1735 he published
classifies plants. The System of Nature (Systema Naturae) that
Plant The science of organized all plants and animals from the level of
systematics developing kingdoms all the way down to species. In 1753
methods for publication, The Genera of plants and Species
grouping Plantarum, marked the initial use of the
organisms. nomenclature for all flowering plants and ferns.
Plant Ecology Study of the Ernst Haeckel In 1866, a German scientist, coined the word
interaction of (1834-1919) “ecology”.
plants with one
another and
with their
environment.
Ethnobotany The study of the John William US botanist, in 1895 he coined the term
traditional Harshberger "ethnobotany".
knowledge and (1869- 1929)
customs of a 1 st Century BCE. A Greek scholar, Pedanius
people Pedanius Dioscorides published 5 volumes of a book
concerning Dioscorides entitled “De Materia Medica” in 78 AD, which
plants and their described more than 600 medicinal plants with
(40—90 AD)
medicinal, their collection, storage and uses. To name few of
religious and his contributions; he identified aloe, belladonna,
other uses. colchicum, ergot, hyoscyamus, and opium.
Graeco-Roman medical doctor who summarized
Claudius Galen the complex body of Graeco-Roman pharmacy
(Galenus) and medicine, and his name survived in the
130–201 CE pharmaceutical term ‘galenical'.

Shen nong ben Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica or the

cao jing Shen-nung pen-tsao ching, which provides the
earliest treatise of Chinese medicine theory
(2700 BC) classical sources on Chinese traditional medicine
 including 365 drugs, most of botanical origin. He
is believed to have introduced the technique of
acupuncture.
He was able to study podophyllum, rhubarb,
ginseng, stramonium, cinnamon bark and
ephedra.

The Yellow Emperor - regarded as the founder of

Huang Di Chinese civilization. His Classic of Internal
(2697–2597 BCE) Medicine is important in understanding the basic
ideas of traditional Chinese herbal science,
acupuncture, moxibustion Yin and Yang, the Five
Phases of Evolutive Change, and Meridian
theory.
Louis Lewin German toxicologist first to study psychoactive
(1850-1929) plants systematically. 1924 appeared his book
“Phantastica “ Lewin's most enduring task was to
create a system of classification of psychoactive
drugs and plants based on their action.
Plant Study of the Alexander Von He is often referred to as the "father of
Geography geographic Humboldt, (1769 phytogeography". He advocated a quantitative
distribution of – 1859) approach to phytogeography that has
plant species characterized modern plant geography.
and their
influence on the
earth’s surface.
Genetics The study of Performed classic experiments with pea plants.
heredity Gregor Johann
Genomics Study of genes Mendel
and their (1822 – 1884)
functions, and
related
techniques

LESSON 1.3: Plant Adaptation

 Adaptation refers to the process where the members of a population become better suited to some feature
of their environment through change in a characteristic that affects their survival or reproduction. Plants
have adaptations to help them survive (live and grow) in different areas. Adaptations are special features
that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat.
How do plants adapt to their environment?

Place of Adaptation Description Plants adapt in this environment:

Desert •Very dry and often hot
• rain often comes all at the same
time. The rest of the year is very dry.
• lots of direct sunlight shining on the
plants.
•Some plants, called succulents
• Some plants have no leaves or small
seasonal leaves that only grow after it rains
• Some plants have a short life cycle,
germinating in response to rain, growing,
flowering, and dying within one year. These
 • soil is often sandy or rocky and
unable to hold much water.
• winds are often strong, and dry out
plants.
• plants are exposed to extreme
temperatures and drought
conditions.
• plants must cope with extensive
water loss.
Temperate •Also called prairie, feature with hot
Grasslands summers and cold winters.
• Rainfall is uncertain and drought is
common.
• The soil is extremely rich in organic
material due to the fact that the
aboveground portions of grasses die
off annually, enriching the soil.
• The area is well-suited to
agriculture, and few original prairies
survive today.
Tropical Rainforest •Usually hot and it rains a lot
•Abundance of water problems:
• Harm to plants due to growth of
bacteria and fungi.
• Risk of flooding. Soil erosion and
rapid lost of nutrients from the soil.
Rapid growth of plants
• the tropical rainforest is very thick,
and not much sunlight is able to
penetrate to the forest floor.
However, the plants at the top of the
rainforest in the canopy, must be
able to survive 12 hours of intense
sunlight every day of the year.
Temperate • features minimal seasonal
Rainforest fluctuation of temperature: the
winters are mild and the summers
plants can evade drought.
Leaves with hair or spines
• Long root systems spread out wide or go
deep into the ground to absorb water;
• Waxy coating on stems and leaves, Flowers
that open at night and usually slower growing
plants.
•During a fire, while above-ground portions of
grasses may perish, the root portions survive
to sprout again / prairie shrubs readily
resprout after fire
• trees have thick bark
• Roots of prairie grasses extend deep into
the ground
• extensive root systems
• prairie grasses have narrow leaves
• Grasses grow from near their base, not from
tip
• grasses are wind pollinated
• Soft stems
• drip tips and waxy surfaces
• buttresses and prop and stilt roots
• some plants climb on others plants
• flowers on the forest floor are designed to
lure animal pollinators due to no wind
• smooth bark and smooth or waxy flowers
speed the run off of water
plants have shallow roots
• many bromeliads are epiphytes (plants that
live on other plants);
• epiphytic orchids have aerial roots
• epiphytes such as mosses and ferns grow
atop other plants to reach light.
• cool temperatures lead to slow
 cool.
• receives a lot of precipitation,
Condensation from coastal fogs also
add to the dampness.
• the soil is poor in nutrients.
• Large evergreen trees, some
reaching 300 feet in height, are the
dominant plant species
Temperate • temperature varies from hot in the
Deciduous Forest summer to below freezing in the
winter.
• Rain is plentiful,
• made up of layers of plants
• The tallest trees make up the forest
canopy
• Beneath the canopy, the
understory
• Below the understory is a shrub
layer.
• Carpeting the forest floor is the
herb layer made up of wildflowers,
mosses, and ferns.
• Fallen leaves, twigs, and dried
plants cover the ground,
decompose, and help add nutrients
to the topsoil.
Taiga • Also known as boreal forests,
• the taiga is dominated by conifers
and, most of which are evergreen
• The taiga has cold winters and
warm summers.
• Some parts of the taiga have a
permanently frozen sub layer of soil
called permafrost.
• The soil is acidic and mineral-poor.
It is covered by a deep layer of
partially-decomposed conifer
needles.
Tundra • cold year-round ---it has short cool
decomposition but seedlings grow on "nurse
logs" to take advantage of the nutrients from
the decomposing fallen logs.
• trees can grow very tall due to amount of
precipitation.
· wildflowers grow on forest floor early in the
spring before trees leaf-out and shade the
forest floor
· many trees are deciduous
· Most deciduous trees have thin, broad,
lightweight leaves that can capture a lot of
sunlight
· when the weather gets cooler, the broad
leaves cause too much water loss and can be
weighed down by too much snow,
· trees have thick bark to protect against cold
winters
•many trees are evergreen
•many trees have needle-like leaves which
shape loses less water and sheds snow more
easily than broad leaves
• waxy coating on needles prevent
evaporation
• needles are dark in color allowing more
solar heat to be absorbed
• many trees have branches that droop
downward to help shed excess snow to keep
the branches from breaking
•Tundra plants are small (usually less than 12
inches tall) and low-growing due to lack of
 summers and long, severe winters.
• has a permanently frozen sublayer
of soil called permafrost.
• drainage is poor due to the
permafrost and because of the cold,
evaporation is slow.
• The tundra receives little
precipitation, and is usually in the
form of snow or ice
• has long days during the growing
season, sometimes with 24 hours of
daylight, and long nights during the
winter.
• There is little diversity of species.
Plant life is dominated by mosses,
grasses, and sedge
Plants in water •underwater leaves and stems are
flexible to move with water currents
LESSON 1.3: Plant Adaptation (Classification)
 In biology, an adaptation is a form of change that is maintained by the natural selection process.
Adaptations allow an organism to be better suited to its present conditions and more likely to reproduce or
reproduce more successfully.
 For plants, changes in environmental conditions could be caused by, for example, a decreased availability
of water, or even an excess of water within its habitat. Plants with adaptations that are better suited to
nutrients, because being close to the ground
helps keep the plants from freezing, and
because the roots cannot penetrate the
permafrost.
Plants are dark in color—some are even red
—this helps them absorb solar heat.
· Some plants are covered with hair which
helps keep them warm
Some plants grow in clumps to protect one
another from the wind and cold.
· Some plants have dish-like flowers that
follow the sun, focusing more solar heat on
the center of the flower, helping the plant stay
warm
• some plants have air spaces in their stems
to help hold the plant up in the water
• submerged plants lack strong water
transport system (in stems); instead, water,
nutrients, and dissolved gases are absorbed
through the leaves directly from the water
• roots and root hairs reduced or absent;
roots only needed for anchorage, not for
absorption of nutrients and water
• some plants have leaves that float atop the
water, exposing themselves to the sunlight
• in floating plants chlorophyll is restricted to
upper surface of leaves (part that the sunlight
will hit) and the upper surface is waxy to repel
water
• some plants produce seeds that can float
 these new environments may do better than those without, and eventually the whole population will inherit
this change.

 There are several different ways of classifying adaptations, based on the conditions they respond to. Let's
look into some major ones that categorize a lot of plants.

CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Aquatic plants, Water-loving plants -gabi or taro (Colocasia esculenta),

hydrophytes, or
hydrophytic plants
May grow entirely or partly
submerged, floating on the
water surface, or with their
roots anchored to the ground
in swamps or beside bodies
of water.
-rice (Oryza sativa),
-water lily (Nymphaea  spp.),
-lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), and
-bakawan or mangroves (Rhizophora
mucronata)

Xerophytes A plant which needs very little Pineapple (Ananas comosus) and a variety
water of cacti
Acidifuge or calcicole Chalk-loving, lime-loving and  The alfalfa (Medicago sativa),
plants acid-escaping plants
blazing star (Chamaelirium luteum)
Those that prefer calcareous
or alkaline soils or soils with
pH above 7.0

Calcifuge or acidicole Chalk-escaping, lime-hating, rhododendrons and azaleas

plants acidophilous, acid-loving,
and acid soil plants
Those that prefer acidic soils
or soils having pH levels
below 7.0 but do not tolerate
alkaline (basic) or calcareous
soils.

Epiphytes or epiphytic Air plants and tree dwellers family Bromeliaceae including the

plants ornamental bromyliads, and other orchid
They grow aboveground on and fern families.
another plant but they are not
parasitic. They usually need  
the host only for physical
support, deriving their  
nutrition from the air.  
A hemiepiphyte, is a plant
which starts growing as an
epiphyte but, as it matures,
becomes rooted to the soil.

strangler fig (Ficus).

Halophytes or halophytic Salt loving plants nipa (Nypa fruticans),

plants
It can tolerate growing under
saline conditions or in
excessively rich in salts.
talisay (Terminalia catappa),
bakawan (Rhizophora mucronata) and
Coconut (Cocos nucifera),

Heliophytes or heliophytic Sun-loving plants mango (Mangifera indica),

plants
Are those that require for their sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum),
optimum growth full exposure
to the sun. corn (Zea mays).

Lithophytes or lithophytic Plants that grow on rocks or Orchids belonging to the genera Vanda,

plants in rocky terrain having scant Ascocenda, Ascocentrum, and Trudelia
humus. They absorb nutrients
 from the air, rain, and
decaying organic matter.

Metallophytes Metal-tolerant plants Myristica laurifolia

Plants adapted to natural
habitats with toxic levels of
metals such as Ni, Co, Cr and
Mn.

Mesophytes or mesophytic Moist-loving plants Rice, corn and many fruit trees and
plants vegetables
They can live in moderate
conditions, not excessively
dry but not too wet.

Neutrophilus Plants that can tolerate either

plants or neutrophils acidic or alkaline soils.

LESSON 2.1: Significance of Botany in  Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria)

Pharmacy
Pharmacognosy was derived from
Greek pharmakon, ‘remedy’, and gignosco,
‘knowledge’. The science of biogenic or nature-
derived pharmaceuticals and poisons. It deals with
all medicinal plants, including those yielding
complex mixtures, which are used in the form of
crude herbs (comminuted herbal substance) or
extracts (phytotherapy), pure compounds such as
morphine, and foods having additional health
benefits only in the context of having preventive
effects (nutraceuticals).
Types of drugs derived from plants:
•      Natural products or compounds isolated from
nature
•      Herbal drugs derived from specific parts of a
medicinal plant
•      Nutraceuticals or ‘functional foods’
Before our modern medicine relied on isolated,
purified, oftentimes synthetic chemical entities,
plants were the primary source of medicines for the
majority of the world’s population. Plants produce
hundreds of natural products or compounds we use
as medicines or drugs and below are some of the
most important drugs produced and synthesized
from plants.
 
- aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) which has an
anti-inflammatory and analgesic property
 Willow (Salix spp.) bark as a source of
Salicin and derivatives (model for aspirin),
use chronic and acute inflammatory
conditions
 Purple Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) as a
source of digoxin (treatment for cardiac
problems)
 Cinchona tree (Cinchona spp; Cinchona
pubescens) - where quinine was derived
from the bark, it is used for the primary
treatment for malaria.
 Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) as a source
of taxol (treatment for cancer)
 Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) where
vincristine and vinblastine was isolated
which is used as antitumor drug
 Coffee (Coffea arabica) and tea (Camellia
sinensis) as sources of caffeine (stimulant)
Gingko biloba
 Morphine, from opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum) – used as an analgesic
 Galanthamine from Galanthus and
Leucojum species, used in the management
of cognitive disorders.
  Digoxin and other digitalis glycosides, from
foxglove (Digitalis spp.), used to treat heart
failure.
Digitalis purpurea Cinchona bark
Herbal remedies or phytomedicines derived from
specific parts of a medicinal plant include:
1. Herb of St John’s wort (Hypericum
perforatum) - depression
2. Leaves of Ginkgo biloba - used for cognitive
deficiencies Papaver somniferum
such as anxiety
Taxus brevifolia
3. Flower heads of chamomile (Chamomilla
recutita) - mild GI complaints and as an anti-
inflammatory agent
4. Leaves and pods of senna (Cassia spp.) -
Constipation
Nutraceuticals or ‘functional foods’
Many foods are known to have beneficial effects on
health. Examples include:
 garlic, ginger, turmeric and many other herbs
and spices
 anthocyanin - or flavonoid - containing plants
such as bilberries, cocoa and red wine
 carotenoid - containing plants such as
tomatoes, carrots and many other
vegetables.
The Philippines is one of the countries in Southeast
Asia that uses halamang-gamot, or medicinal
plants, as alternative remedies for common
diseases. Medicines made from 10 DOH-approved
Philippine medicinal plants have become ever
more popular among Filipinos considering the
expensive western medicines which most Filipinos
could not afford. The DOH, through its Traditional
Health Program, has endorsed 10 herbal medicinal
plants which have been thoroughly tested and have
been clinically proven to have medicinal value in
the relief and treatment of various ailments.
1. Akapulko (Cassia alata) - ringworm bush,
schrub, and "acapulco" in English
 Therapeutic use/s: antifungal
2. Ampalaya (Momordica charantia) - common
names include "bitter melon " or "bitter gourd "
in English.
 Therapeutic use/s: lowering blood sugar
and anti-diabetes
3. Bawang (Allium sativum) - common name in
English is "Garlic“
 Therapeutic use/s: anti-cholesterol
4. Bayabas (Psidium guajava) - "Guava" in
English
 Therapeutic use/s: oral/skin antiseptic
5. Lagundi (Vitex negundo) - known as "5-leaved
chaste tree" in English
 Therapeutic use/s: Cough and asthma
6. Niyog-niyogan (Quisqualis indica) - A vine
known as "Chinese honey suckle".
 Therapeutic use/s:used to eliminate
intestinal parasites (antihelminthic)
7. Sambong (Blumea balsamifera) - English
name: "Ngai camphor or Blumeacamphor"
 Therapeutic use/s: used to treat kidney
stones or antiurolithiasis
8. Tsaang Gubat (Carmona retusa) - English:
"Wildtea"
 Therapeutic use/s: mouthwash
9. Pansit-Pansitan (Peperomia pellucida) - also
known as ulasimang bato
 Therapeutic use/s: Treatment of arthritis
and gout (anti-urisemia).
10. Yerba Buena (Mentha arvensis) - commonly
known as Peppermint, is used in Philippine
herbal medicine as.
 Therapeutic use/s: Analgesic/antipyretic
Summative Assessment (Correct Answer to 17. Digitalis purpurea
be follow)  treatment of heart problems

1. What type of area do plants grow and climb on 18. Salix spp
each other?  For inflammation
 Tropical Rainforest
19. Camellia sinensis
2. The ability of the plant to live in hot, dry or cold  Stimulant
areas is called adaptation.
 True 20. Papaver somniferum
 Analgesic
3. Which of these plants is a plant adaptation in a
temperate forest? 21. Taxus brevifolia
 Trees lose leaves in the fall.  Anti-cancer

4. Why are spines present on some desert plants? 22. Inflammation

 For protection  Salix

5. He published Systema Naturae. 23. Cardiac problems

 Carolus Linnaeus  Digitalis purpurea
6. The scientific study of the traditional knowledge
and customs of a people concerning plants and 24. Malaria
their medical, religious, and other uses.  Cinchona pubescens
 Ethnobotany
25. Cognitive deficiencies
7. Classification and naming of plants  Ginkgo biloba
 Plant Taxonomy
26. Stimulant
8. He wrote De Materia Medica.  Coffea arabica
 Pedanius Dioscorides
27. Cancer
9. digitalis glycoside  Taxus brevifolia
 cardiovascular medicine
MODULE 2
10. quinine LESSON 1.1 Plant Cell Structure
 treatment for malaria
Cells
11. acetylsalicylic acid
 anti-inflammatory  single cells that make up the most basic
organisms to the trillions of cells
12. vincristine  this idea, part of the cell theory, is one of the
 antitumor drug central tenants of biology.
 discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665
13. coffee  first person to use the word “cell” to identify
 stimulant microscopic structures when he was describing
cork
14. morphine
 pain suppressant

15. Hypericum perforatum

 Depression

16. Cinchona pubescens

 Anti-malaria
The cell theory states that:

 all biological organisms are composed of cells

 cells are the unit of life
 all life comes from pre-existing life

 Cytology is the study of the structure and the

function of cells.
 Cells are the simplest unit of matter that is
living.

The two primary kinds of cells are:

1. Eukaryotic cells - have a true nucleus
containing DNA.
Ex. fungi, plants, and animals.
2. Prokaryotic cells, which have no true
nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, the DNA is coiled
up in a region called the nucleoid.
Ex. bacteria
Plant cell is the basic building block of plant life,
and they carry out all of the functions necessary for
survival.
 eukaryotic cells, which have a true
nucleus along with specialized structures called
organelles that carry out different functions.
A plant cell has the following basic parts:

 Cell wall. The outermost part of the plant cell.

 Cytoplasm. It is a jelly-like fluid that is made up
of mostly water and salt.
 Cytoskeleton. The “framework”, Helps
maintain the cell shape, motility and internal
movement.
 Microtubules. Large tubular structures
composed of the protein tubulin.
 Endoplasmic reticulum.
 Rough ER – ribosomes are attached.
Proteins are synthesized here.
 Smooth ER – ribosomes aren’t
attached. Lipids and Phospholipids are
synthesized.
 Mitochondria. “Powerhouse of the cell”
 Chloroplasts. Green plastids known as
chloroplast contains chlorophyll and carotenoid
 Golgi bodies. “dictyosomes” “Packaging of
proteins” areas, transport of substances to and
from the cell.
 Cell membrane. Selectively permeable which of DNA replication that converts each
regulates the entrance and exit of substances in chromosome into two sister chromatids.
a cell
 Plasmodesma, plasmodesmata (pl.) Holes all Stages of Mitosis Cell division
over the cell wall which allows the nutrients to
 Prophase - nuclear envelope breakdown,
enter the cell and also allows the waste to exit
chromosome condensation, spindle
the cell.
formation.
 Nucleus. Structure that stores DNA and acts as
 Metaphase - chromosomes are lined up
a cell's command center.
precisely on the metaphase plate, or
 Nucleolus. Its primary function is to assemble
middle of the cell.
ribosomes, is the largest structure in the cell
 Anaphase - spindle pulls sister chromatids
nucleus.
apart.
 Vacuole. Useful for maintaining cell structure
 Telophase - chromatids begin to decondense
and water balance and used for the storage of
and become chromatin. Spindle
waste and food
disappears.
 Cytokinesis - divide cell and organelles. Actin
ring, or cleavage furrow splits cell.

LESSON 1. 2 Growth and Division of the Cell

 Cell division is the process in which one cell,
called the parent cell, divides to form two new
cells, referred to as daughter cells.
 Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than A key difference between daughter cells resulting
eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells from mitosis and meiosis is that:
themselves are simpler.  After meiosis, cells are haploid while in
mitosis, cells produced are in diploid. The
 Prokaryotic cells have a single circular
four daughter cells of meiosis contain 23
chromosome, no nucleus, and few other chromosomes.
organelles.
 Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have multiple Stages of Meiosis:
chromosomes contained within a nucleus.
1. Prophase I - the chromosomes condense, and
 Both mitosis and meiosis result in eukaryotic
the nuclear envelope breaks down; crossing-
cells dividing. The primary difference is the
over occurs
differing goals of each process.
 The goal of mitosis is to produce two daughter 2. Metaphase I – pairs of homologous
cells that are genetically identical to the parent chromosomes move to the equator of the cell
cell, meaning the new cells have exactly the
3. Anaphase I - homologous chromosomes move
same DNA as the parent cell. 
to opposite poles of the cell
 Meiosis consists of two successive divisions,
each of which is divided into four phases. 4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis – Chromosomes
 The first meiotic division is similar to mitosis and gather at the poles of the cells then cytoplasm
the second meiotic division is the "reduction" divides.
stage. The process takes the form of one DNA
5. Prophase II - A new spindle forms around the
replication followed by two successive nuclear
chromosomes.
and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II).
As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process 6. Metaphase II - chromosomes line up at the
equator
7. Anaphase II - centromeres divides. Chromatids
move to opposite poles of the cell
8. Telophase II and Cytokinesis -  A nuclear
envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.
The cytoplasm divides.
LESSON 2.1 Tissue System
 Histology is the study of tissues and cells
under a microscope. It originated from the
Greek work – histos (tissues) and logia (study
of).
 Plants do have a higher level of structure called
plant tissue systems. A plant tissue is a group
of cells, usually of the same shape and
structure, which form a collective system for a
given task. A plant tissue system can be
defined as a functional unit, which connects all
organs of a plant.
The tissues of a plant are organized into three
tissue systems: the dermal tissue system, the
ground tissue system, and the vascular tissue
system.
 Dermal tissues
 epidermis is a dermal tissue that is usually
a single layer of cells covering the younger
parts of a plant. It secretes a waxy layer
called the cuticle that inhibits water loss It
functions to protect the soft tissues of
plants, guard the plant from injury and
water loss, and controls interactions with
the plants' surroundings.
 Dermal tissue is the source of the
periderm, a protective tissue that replaces
the epidermis when the secondary growth
displaces, and ultimately destroys, the
epidermis of the primary plant body. During
abscission, injury, or invasion of microbes,
periderm is formed to protect the plant by
formation of extra layer. These provide
fortification to the plant. They include the
cork and epidermis.
1. Epidermis – It is a layer of cell that makes up
making up an outer casing of all the structures
in the plant. The stomata perforate the
epidermis at certain places. The stomata help
in loss of water and gaseous exchange.
2. Cork – This is the external protective tissue
which substitutes the epidermal cells in
mature stems and roots. Cork cells are
lifeless and lack intercellular gaps. Their cell
walls are coagulated by suberin which makes
them impervious to gas and Water Molecules.
 Ground tissue
 These tissues are involved in
photosynthesis, storage, regeneration,
support, and protection.
 The three types of ground tissue include:
parenchyma, collenchyma, and
sclerenchyma.
1. Parenchyma - Parenchyma cells are
the majority of cells in a plant. They
have thin cell walls and large vacuoles,
and are most abundant of all the cells. It
has intercellular space is found and its
main function is to perform
photosynthesis and store protein and
starch.
2. Collenchyma – It is composed of
elongated cells and have thick cell walls
and no intercellular space. Its main
function is to provide support for growing
tissues, like stem.
3. Sclerenchyma – it is composed of
narrow dead thick-walled cells and
function to provide support for the plant.
  Vascular tissue
 Composed of xylem and phloem, which
function in the transport of water and
dissolved substances. Its main function is to
transport material between the root and the
shoot of the plant.
1. Xylem – It functions as the main water-
conducting tissue of vascular plants
which arise from individual cylindrical
cells-oriented end to end. At maturity the
end walls of these cells dissolve away
and the cytoplasmic contents die.
2. Phloem – Its main function is to
transport sugar. The main components
of phloem are:
a. sieve elements – perforated walls
which allows cytoplasmic connections
between vertically-stacked cells and
have no nucleus and only a sparse
collection of other organelles
b. companion cells – it provides
energy.
LESSON 2.2 Primary Growth of Plants
 Meristematic tissues
 Plant tissues originated in meristems. These
are composed of three regions where cell
divisions produce plant growth.
 These tissues have the capability to develop
by swift division. They assist in the major
growth of the vegetation. Growth in length
and growth in diameter of the plant are
carried about by these cells. The
Meristematic cells are cubical, living cells
with a big nucleus. These cells are
meticulously crammed with no intercellular
spaces. Depending on the section where
the meristematic tissues are existing, they
are categorized as meristems intercalary,
lateral and apical.
1. Apical meristem is existent at the
growing tips or apical of stems and
roots. Apical meristem upsurges the
length of the plant. It is responsible
for primary growth.
1. Lateral meristem is existent in the
radial portion of the stem or root. Lateral
meristem upsurges the thickness or
 width of the plant. It is responsible
for secondary growth. 5. The meristematic tissue concerned with
2. Intercalary meristem is found at the providing the primary tissues of the vascular
internodes or at the base of the leaves. system.
Intercalary meristem upsurges the size  Procambium
of the internode. Responsible for the re-
growth of a plant. 6. It assembles ribosomes and contains RNA &
protein.
 Permanent tissues  Nucleolus
 Those cells which have lost their ability to
distribute but are specialized to offer
elasticity, flexibility and strength to the plant. 7. Chromosomes are visible & the centrioles move
These tissues can be additionally to opposite poles of the cell.
categorized into:  Prophase
1. Simple Permanent Tissue: They can
be classified into sclerenchyma, 8. It maintains cell structure and water balance
collenchyma and parenchyma based on  Central Vacuole
their purpose.
2. Complex Permanent Tissue: These 9. In animal cell, it is involved in digestion and
tissues include of phloem and xylem. waste removal.
Xylem is valuable for the transportation  Lysosome
of water and solvable constituents.
Xylem is made up of xylem parenchyma, 10. Which type of meristematic tissue is responsible
fibers, vessels and tracheids. Phloem is for the increase in girth of the plant?
valuable in the transportation of food  Lateral
particles. Phloem consists of phloem
parenchyma, phloem fibers, companion 11. Longest stage of mitosis.
cells, sieve cells and sieve tubes.  Prophase

12. During mitosis, it is formed from microtubules to

move/pull the chromosomes
 Spindle fibers

13. How is collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissue

similar?
 They both provide support

14. Xylem and Phloem are:

 Vascular tissue

Summative Assessment (Correct Answer to 15. Fluid portion of the nucleus

be follow)  Cytoplasm

1. Cellular respiration takes place. 16. Two new nuclear membranes are formed.
 Mitochondria  Telophase

2. Area for packaging of proteins 17. Which of the following tissues are composed of
 Dictyosome dead cells at maturity?
 Sclerenchyma
3. The region of the tissue responsible for primary
growth of the plant. 18. Which of the following is classified as Complex
 Apical meristem Permanent Tissue?
 Phloem
4. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear.
 Telophase 19. It contains oxidative enzymes
  Peroxisome 8. A meristem which is responsible for primary
growth.
20. Microtubules interact with chromosomes & lined  Apical
up along the equatorial plate.
 Metaphase 9. The study of tissues and cells under a
microscope.
21. Without this part, cell would shrink & chemical  Histology
processes will not occur.
 Cytoplasm 10. Region where cell division in plants occur
 Meristematic
11. Help in gaseous exchange
 Stomata
22. Jelly-like fluid that is made up of mostly water
and salt 12. Ground tissue: function is to perform
 Cytoplasm photosynthesis.
 Parenchyma
23. Sister chromatids separate into individual
chromosomes and are pulled apart. 13. _ elements: perforated walls of phloem
 Anaphase  Sieve

24. The nucleolus disappears & the nuclear 14. Responsible for the re-growth of a plant
envelope starts to break down.  Intercalary
 Prophase
15. A mature, external protective tissue
25. Which substance is responsible for thickening  Cork
of sclerenchyma walls?
 Lignin 16. A complex tissue that transports water and
minerals.
Crossword Answers  Xylem
1. A tissue that secretes a waxy layer called the
cuticle.
 Dermal

2. Responsible for plant's girth and diameter.

 Lateral

3. Specialized or differentiated tissues



4. one composition of xylem

 Tracheids

5. A simple tissue that protects seeds and support

mature plants.
 Sclerenchyma

6. A complex vascular tissue that transports

sugars.
 Phloem

7. An elongated cells having a thick cell wall and

no intercellular space
 Collenchyma