INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

Biology = the scientific study of life

Botany = the scientific study of plants

(and many organisms previously thought
to be plants) or in other words it is the
biology of plants
 What is a plant?
• Chlorophyll
• Transform light energy to chemical energy
• No need to move or cannot move?
• Cannot move : responsive to
environmental changes, eg : seasons or
weather
• Lowest food chain therefore powers of
regeneration
 FUNCTION OF PLANTS

• Food
• Clothing
• Buildings and furniture
• Bio-diesel (Oil palm and Jatropha)
• Environment
SUBDICIPLINS OF BOTANY

1.Systematics/taxonomy
2.Morphology
3.Anatomy
4.Cytology
5.Physiology
6.Genetics
7.Ecology
Systematics =  the scientific study of
biological diversity

Because there are millions of

organisms on earth, we need some
sort of ordered system for keeping
track of them and communicating
about them. Without a name the
information about an organism is lost.
The taxonomic hierarchy - Species are
grouped into an ordered hierarchical
system of classification

Kingdom
Division (Phylum)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
 Development of classification

Until relatively recently organisms were

classified as either plants or animals and
two kingdoms were recognized. 

1. Non-motile autotrophs were placed in

the plant kingdom

2. Motile heterotrophs were placed in the

animal kingdom
 However, as more organisms were
discovered and studied it became
apparent that many organisms did not
fit into this system:

1. Euglena is a unicellular, motile autotroph

2. Fungi (mushrooms and molds),

traditionally classified as plants, are
non-motile heterotrophs
Development of better microscopes led to the
discovery that there are two fundamental
types of organisms, defined by their cell
types:

1. Prokaryotes (bacteria) - lack: nuclei,

organelles, 9+2 flagella, chromosomes,
multicellularity and sexuality

2. Eukaryotes (nearly all other organisms) -

have: nuclei, organelles, 9+2 flagella, DNA
associated with histone proteins to form
chromatin/chromosomes, sexual
reproduction and most are multicellular
D. Whitaker proposed a five
kingdom system. All Prokaryotes
were placed into a single kingdom
(Monera) and the Eukaryotes were
placed into four kingdoms: Plantae,
Fungi, Animalia and Protista
Kingdom Animalia (Animals) - motile,
multicellular, lack plastids and cell walls,
heterotrophic, sexual reproduction

Kingdom Plantae (Plants) - nonmotile,

multicellular, plastids and autotrophic,
cell walls made of cellulose, adapted for
life on land, mostly sexual
reproduction. 
Kingdom Fungi (Mushrooms and Molds)
- nonmotile, filamentous, lack plastids,
cell walls are made of chitin,
heterotrophic via absorption of
nutrients from dead (saprophytic) or
living (parasitic) matter. Virtually all
are multicellular except yeast. Both
sexual and asexual reproduction
Kingdom Protista - lack multicellularity.
Heterogeneous assemblage of
unicellular, colonial and multicellular
Eukaryotes that do not have the
distinctive characters of plants, animals
or fungi. 
PLANT KINGDOM
Division Bryophyta (mosses, lumut) – tiny
plants with no vascular system.
Transportation through capillary.
Division Pteridophyta
(ferns,paku-pakis) –bigger
plants, require vascular
system for transportation.

Tree fern
Division Spermatophyta :
subdivision Gymnosperm dan
Angiosperm.

Gymnosperm : four different

division of : Coniferophyta,
Ginkgophyta, Cycadophyta dan
Gnetophyta – NON FLOWERING,
SEED PLANTS
DIVISION
CONIFEROPHYTA -
Pinus
Female pine cone, sliced
lengthwise, viewed Closeup of ovules on
through microscope female cone scales.
The tissue marked "X" is
an ovule.
 Male pine
cone, sliced
lengthwise, 

viewed
through
microscope

Male pine cone

Closeup of pollen sacs on
male cone scales.
The tiny dots all around the
"X" are pollen grains
 You can
DIVISI GINGKOPHYTA – DAUN distuinguish a
BERBENTUK KIPAS Ginkgo from
other
gymnosperms
by its fan
shaped and
bilobed leaves.
All Ginkgo
trees have a
relatively
primitive
vascular
system. The
veins
continuously
divide into
two's.
DIVISI GINGKOPHYTA – BIJI
DIVISI CYCADOPHYTA – MALE
CYCAD WITH A STROBILUS
DIVISI
GNETOPHYTA –
IMMATURE SEEDS
OF GENTUM
(MELINJAU)
ANGIOSPERM : FLOWERING, SEED
PLANTS
DIVISION MAGNOLIOPHYTA :
CLASS: Magnoliopsida (dicot) –
250 family
eg: Leguminosae, Compositae,
Moraceae, Malvaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Solanaceae.
CLASS: Liliopsida (monocot) –
50 family
eg: Gramineae, Orchidaceae,
Palmae, Musaceae.
ROOT MORPHOLOGY
Type of roots :
Tap root
Dikot, radikal membesar dan membentuk
sistem akar tunjang
Fibrous root
Monokot, radikal tidak hidup lama.
Diganti oleh akar adventitius, membentuk
sistem akar serabut.
Adventitious
Terbentuk pada selain dari akar
functions:

i) anchor plants into soil

ii) absorb water and mineral

nutrients most uptake occurs
near root tips
iii) Producing plant hormones such
as auxin and gibberillin
In addition – in some plants
carbohydrates that the roots do not
immediately need for energy are stored.
In roots these excess carbohydrates are
usually converted to STARCH and stored
in Parenchyma Cells.
(Carrots, Turnips, and Sweet Potatoes are
stored Starches)

The roots of some plants store large

amounts of water, which helps the plant
to survive during dry periods.
 Origin of root
Plumule (shoot)

Radicle (root)
 Root hairs

Root hairs

Root tip
 Root tip
1. Apical meristem
Meristematic cells ;
actively dividing
and developing
new cells

2. Root cap-Single cells

Protective tissue
for apex
apex Parenchymous
THE FIRST ROOT TO EMERGE FROM A
SEED IS THE PRIMARY ROOT. 

As the plant matures, branches grow from

the Primary Root (lateral /secondary root).

In some Plants the Primary Root Enlarges, If

this first Root Becomes the Largest Root it is
called a TAP ROOT (THE LARGEST ROOT).

Tap roots can grow deep, reaching water far below

the surface of the ground.

Beets and Carrots are plants with Tap roots that

are used for Food.
 Lateral/Secondary (2º) root

• With root cap and hairs

• From pericycle
 A taproot system,
consisting of a large
central root that
formed directly from
the radicle within the
seed and a set of
much thinner lateral
2°&3°
or secondary roots.

Gymnosperms and
dicotyledonous plants
1° are characterized by
the tap root systems
Fibrous root systems
• Many small roots that
spread out laterally from
the base of the stem
• Development of tap root
stop growing leaving fibrous
root
Examples :
Corn (Zea mays)
Banana (Musa sp.)
Grass
These roots grow near the surface and can collect
water in a wide area. Because of the numerous
branches of the roots these plants are excellent
for preventing Erosion (Grasses). Fibrous Roots of
Monocots often develop from the base of the
Stem rather than from other roots.
A Few plants have special roots called
ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS.

ROOTS THAT FORM ON A STEM OR LEAF. 

SOME GROW ABOVE GROUND AND HAVE
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
(Absorb nutrient and also for strong support)

Also known as PROP ROOTS

 ADVENTITIOUS/PROP ROOTS
- Above ground; from nodes

Sorghum sp. Pandanus sp.

 Air root
• Orchids
• Roots on tree branches and spread
along the surface
• White surface = velamen (dead cells)
• Water proof barrier i.e. not
permitting water loss
 Orchid

velamen

Aerial root
Root parts

Root cap
Protection of root end, parenchyma cell

Root hair
Developed from epidermis cell,
non permenant
Secondary roots
Roots developed from pericycle
The Root TIP is covered by a Protective ROOT
CAP, which covers the Apical Meristem.

The Root Cap produces a Slimy Substance that

functions like Lubricating Oil, allowing the root to
move more easily through the soil as it grows.

Cells that are crushed or knocked off the root

Cap as the root moves through the soil are
replaced by new cells produced in the Apical
Meristem, where cells are continuously dividing.
TUDUNG AKAR
Roots do not absorb water and minerals
through a smooth Epidermis.  Tiny, hairlike
projections called ROOT HAIRS on the
epidermis absorb water and dissolved minerals
from the soil.  Root Hairs also INCREASE the
Surface Area of the Plant Roots. 

Akar rerembut – Akar sisi yang

menyerap, terbentuk dari sel epidermis
 Akar
sekunder –

 
Akar sisi
yang
terbentuk
dari perisikel
                                               

      11.

The outermost layer or layers of the Central

Vascular Tissue is termed the PERICYCLE. 
Lateral Roots are formed by the division of
Pericycle Cells.
 Root structural types
1. Tuberous roots
Storage of food, Carbohidrat.
Dessert : water storage

2. Pneumatophore
Root formed from underground roots
for respiration
Eg : Bakau (Rhizophora)
TUBEROUS ROOTS

Cassava - Manihot esculentum

TUBEROUS ROOTS

Carrot – Daucus carota

Bakau - Rhizophora sp.
3. Parasitic root
Used to obtain food from host.
Jarum emas (Striga)

4. Aerial root.
Prop root,
Ficus, jagong, pandan dan
akar banir (buttress root) pada
Ficus.
BUTTRESS ROOTS
Roots with broad-like or
plank-like. Growth on upper
side for support

Base of tree trunk

When soil is wet and unstable

 Aerial/adventitious

Prop root of an
understory palm

Aerial/buttress root

Rain forest palm

–roots

Pandanus root
 STEM MORPHOLOGY

FUNGSI BATANG

STEMS HAVE THREE MAIN FUNCTIONS:

A.  HOLDING LEAVES UP TO THE SUNLIGHT.
B.  TRANSPORTING WATER AND FOOD
BETWEEN ROOTS AND LEAVES.
C. PHOTOSYNTEHSIS IN YOUNG STEMS
In a few plants stems have
additional functions, such as
Food Storage.  Potatoes (tuber)
are Underground Stems that
store large amounts of food as
starch.
•Support leaves-Turgor pressure in stems
provides a hydrostatic skeleton that
supports young plants. Leaves are also
supported by a stem's internal structure
of collenchyma and sclerenchyma.

•Produce carbohydrates-Stems of plants

are green and photosynthetic. Although
photosynthesis in stems is usually not
significant compared to leaves, in some
plants such as cacti it accounts for most of
the plants carbon fixation.
•Store materials-Parenchyma cells in
stems store large amounts of starch and
water. Water accounts for as much as
98% of the weight of many cactus stems.

•Transport water and solutes between

roots and leaves-The vascular system of
stems maintains an aquatic environment in
leaves and transports sugars and other
solutes between leaves and roots. Stems
link leaves with the water and dissolved
nutrients of the soil.
STEM PARTS
 SCAR

Mark indicating the former place of attachment of petiole, bud or vascular bundles

Bud scar

Leaf scar
Vascular bundles scar
 Nodes
Area/point where leaf are attached
Internodes
Stem region between 2 nodes

node

Internode
 STEM MODIFICATION

1. Runners/Stolon
Horizontal stems above grounds
Beneath surface ground
Long and thin internodes
Fragaria virginiana
Family : Rosaceae

(new plant) adventitious buds

Runner/stolon
Spider plant - Chlorophytum comosum
Family : Anthericaceae

Runner/Stolon

New plants
Bermuda grass – Cynodon dactylon
Family : Poaceae

Stolon
 2. Rhizomes
• Horizontal stems that grows below
ground
• Scale-like leaves and axillary buds at
each node
• Adventitious roots along the
rhizome
• Thick, fleshy, food-storage organs
Rhizome – Stem underground Zingiber officinale - Ginge
 3. Bulbs
• Large buds
• Surrounded by fleshy leaves
• Small stem
• Adventitious roots from bottom of
stem
• Fleshy leaves – food storage
Bulb – Undergrounds buds with
thickened fleshy scales (leaf)

Fleshy scales

Roots
Stem

Onion - Allium cepa

Family : Liliaceae
Long, above
ground leaf

Scale-like
leaf base
Bulbel/bulblet
Small bulb/offset
arising form
base (stem) of a
larger bulb
 4. CORMS
• Resembles bulbs
• Composed entirely of stem tissue
• Paper/scale-like leaf
• Adventitious root at the base
• Food storage
Corm – Short, solid, vertical underground stem

Yam - Dioscorea sp
Family : Dioscoreaceae
 5. Culm – Hollow or pithy stalk or stem

Paddy – Oryza sativa

Bamboo – Bambusa vulgaris, Family : Poaceae
Family : Poaceae
 6. Tuber
Thickened portion of a rhizomes;
underground stem for food storage

Potato – Solanum tuberosum

 7. Tendril
A slender, twining organ (modified
stem) to grasp for support and
climbing

Tendril
 8. Thorn
A stiff, woody modified stem with a
sharp end.
 9. Phyllode
A stem with the form and function of a leaf.
Leaflike petiole lacking true leaf

Acasia – Acacia mangium

 10. Cladode/Cladophyll

• Flattened stem or leaf-like

• Having node, very small scale-
like leaves
• Asparagus, cactus
Shoots/spears
Cladode – A modified stem with form
and function of leaf

Asparagus sp.
 CLADOPHYLL

SPINE(LEAF)
 11. Pseudobulb
• Pseudo (false).
• Orchid –epiphyte, canopy plants
• Enlarge stem segments
• Water storage during dry season
Orchids
 Sucker/Tiller
Shoot and stem originating from
below ground

Banana – Musa sp. Paddy – Oryza sativa

FUNGSI DAUN

Most leaves are thin and flat, an

adaptation that helps them capture
sunlight for photosynthesis.  Although
this structure may be typical, it is
certainly not universal.  Like roots
and stems, leaves are extremely
variable. 
1. The Main function of Leaves is to Trap Light
for Photosynthesis, the process of making
Carbohydrates from Carbon Dioxide and
Water in the presence of Sunlight.

2. Besides making food, the leaves of a few

plants can also store food.  An Onion is an
underground stem surrounded by thick, fleshy
leaves that store food.

3. Leaves perform other functions such as

protecting some plants from animals and
storing water.
•Leaf attachment:         
•Petiolate - The blade is attached to the stem by a
petiole.
•Sessile - The blade is attached directly to the stem
without a petiole.
Stipules  - A pair of appendages at
the base of the petiole. They may
protect the young leaf and may be
modified into spines or tendrils.
 Sheath
 Leaf without petiole
 Instead the base of the leaf wraps around the stem
to form leaf sheath
 eg: Rice (Oryza sativa) and corn (Zea mays)
Daun Gramineae
 Pulvinus
 The swollen base of a petiole or petiolule
 Common in legume family (Leguminaceae)

Pulvinus

Golden Shower – Cassia biflora, Family : Caesalpiniaceae

LEAVE TYPES:
•Simple and compound leaf structure:

•Simple leaves have a single blade.

•Compound leaves have more than one blade on a single

petiole. The multiple blades of a compound leaf are called
leaflets.
•Palmately compound leaves have leaflets arranged like
the fingers of a hand.
•Pinnately compound leaves have leaflets arranged on
either side of an axis, resembling a feather.
•Trifoliolate leaves have leaflets arranged in threes,
like clover.
•Compound leaves are sometimes twice divided. These
leaves are called twice-compound.
One leaf with/without
petiole on point of origin

Leaf not divided into

leaflets

Cinnamomum sp
Compound palmate
 Compound pinnate

Jasminum sp
 Compound pinnate

Petiolule Rachis

Leaflets

Petiole
Compound bipinnate
 Compound tripinnate
RACHILLA
PETIOLULE

petiole

LEAFLETS RACHIS
SUSUNAN DAUN
1. Berselang, tersusun secara berpilin
satu daun pada satu buku.

2. Bersetentang, dua daun pada satu

buku.

3. Sepusar, tiga atau lebeh daun pada

satu buku.

4. Dekusat, daun bersetentang dengan

pasangan yang berhampiran
berkedudukan 90 darjah.
•Leaf arrangement:         
•Opposite - Two leaves grow opposite
each other at each node.
•Alternate - One leaf grows at each
node. The leaves alternate sides along
the stem.
•Whorled - Several leaves grow around
a single node.
 Susunan daun

simple, simple, simple,

alternate, opposite, whorled,
pinnately pinnately pinnately
netted netted netted
VENATION is the arrangement of Veins in a leaf.

Veins in Monocots leaves (such as Grasses or Corn

Plants) run Parallel (Parallel Venation) to each other,
while Veins in Dicots leaves form a Branched network
(Net Venation).  The main vein or veins repeatedly
branch to form a conspicuous network of smaller
veins.
 Primary (1º)/midrib vein category

Parallelodromous
2 or more parallel primary veins
originate beside each other at the leaf base
Pinnate Monocots : Corn – Zea mays
Most dicots leaf
Secondary vein

Primary vein

Tertiary vein
ONDARY (2º) VEIN

A B C
A :Brochidodromous leaf venation: second order veins are joined.
B : Craspedodromous leaf venation: second order veins terminate at the margin.
C : Eucamptodromous leaf venation: second order veins diminish and terminate
within the leaf blade.
 Tertiary (3º) leaf vein

Percurrent/Sclariform
Reticulate
•Reticulate : Net-like vein
arrangement
•Sclariform/Percurrent :
Vein arrangement parallel
to each other
 Leaf margin variation
Entire – Not toothed, notched or divided. Continuous
or straight margins.
Dentate : toothed along margin, the
teeth directed outward rather than
foward

Holly – Ilex sp.

Family : Aquifoliaceae
Dissected : Deeply divided into many narrow segments
 Serrate
Toothed along the margin
the sharp teeth pointing
upwards
Crenate : With rounded teeth along the leaf margin
LEAF ARRANGEMENTS
1. Basal
Leaf positioned
at or arising
from the base
of the stem

Tulip – Tulipa sp.

Family : Liliaceae
2. Alternate
Leaf opposite to
each other on
a stem

One leaf per node

3. Opposite
 Leaf opposite
to each other

 Two leaf per

node
4. Whorled
 Three or more
leaf per node

 From one node

 Arrange in whorls

node
 5. Decussate

 Arrange along the stem in pairs

 Each pair at right angles to the pair
above or below
5. Distichous
 One leaf per node
 Arranged in two rows
 Leaves flattened from side to side,
not from top to bottom
Leaf shape variation
1. Acerose – Needled shaped
2. Cordate
Heart shaped,
with the notch
at the base
3. Deltoid
Shaped like a equilateral triangle
4. Elliptic
Oval shape,
broadest in the
Middle and
narrower at two
Equal end
(base and apex)

Mangosteen
Garcinia mangostana
5. Flabellate – fan shaped
Ginkgo biloba
6. Lanceolate
Lance/spear shape.
Much longer than
wide, with the
widest point at
the base

Bamboo
Bambusa sp.
7. Linear
Resembling a line,
long and narrow
with more or
less parallel side

Poaceae
Corn : Zea mays
8. Obcordate
Inversely
cordate,
with the
attachment at
the
narrower end
deeply lobed
apex
Purple orchid tree/tapak unta
Bauhinia purpurea
 9. Oblong
Two or four times
longer than leaf
width.
Parallel sides

Rosemary
Rosmarinus officinalis
10. Oval
11. Ovate
12. Obovate
13. Orbicular
 14. Sagittate

Arrowhead-shaped, with the basal lobes

directed downward
15. Peltate
Sheild-shape:
borne on a stalk
attached to
the lower
surface
rather than
to the base or
margin
16. Spatulate
Like a spatula in
shape, with
round above
gradually
narrowing at the
base

Ketapang
Terminalia catappa
17. Rhombic
Diamond-shaped
 Apex variation

Acuminate Acute
Obtuse : Blunt or rounded at the apex
Mucronate : Tipped with short,
sharp, abrupt point (cusp)

Lupinus sp.
Emarginate Cleft

Crisped
 MODIFIED LEAF

TENDRIL
 BRACT
•Base of flower or flower stalk
•Usually for flower with no petal
(apetalous)
•Function as leaf. Usually
coloured for pollinator attractant
Poinsettia – Euphorbia pulcherrima, Family : Euphorbiaceae
 Leaf

Flower

Bract

Bougainvillea sp.
Insect trapping leaf
Sundew Glandular hair
 Sundew
• Very small plants
• Round to oval leaf covered with
glandular hair
• Sticky fluid containing digestive
enzymes
• Fluid droplets sparkle in sun
• Attracts insects
Fly trap
Pitcher plant – Nepenthes sp.
Reproductive leaf Air plant – Kalanchoe sp.
Thorn
 Specialized leaf parts
• Sheath – Leaf base in Poaceae, surrounding/ wrapping the stem
• Auricle – a small, ear-shaped appendage
• Ligule : an outgrowth or projections from the
top of the sheath. Membrane appendage on the
upper leaf sheath of Poaceae
• Epicalyx – group of leaves resembling sepals below the true calyx
• Family Malvaceae

sepal
 Trichomes
A hair or hairlike outgrowth structure on the surface
of the leaf epidermis. For protection and support
Trichomes
 Trichome shape variation

Glandular Stellate/Bristle/tongue

Fimbriate/hair Lepidote/Scales/Disc
 Leaf descriptions
Leaves : Opposite simple, petiole 15
– 20 mm, Leaf blade, 6.5 – 9.5 cm
long, 3.5–5.5 cm wide; leaf shape
elliptic, apex acuminate, base
cuneate; leaf texture thick and
leathery, abaxial dark green and
glossy, adaxial lighter green and
matte; midrib prominent,
secondary distinct, IMV present,
tertiary vein sclariform.

Garcinia mangostana L.
MODIFIKASI DAUN
1. Tendril, memanjat, menyokong batang
yang lemah.

2. Duri, kaktus dll. mengurangkan

kehilangan air, perlindungan.

3. Penyimpanan, bebawang,
daun berisi.

4. Perangkap serangga
tendril

Perangkap
serangga

Daun berisi

Daun
berduri