○ Logical deductive reasoning
Chapter 1: Introduction to Personality Theories
What is personality?
● Latin word “persona” = theatrical mask worn by Roman
actors in Greek dramas.
● Someone’s public image that leaves an impression on
other people.
● Gordon Allport: Personality is something real within an
individual. (totoo sa sarili)
● Carl Rogers: consistent pattern of perception of “I” and
“me” which depends on the individual’s experiences.
(how self views self according to experience)
● B.F. Skinner: “personality” was not necessary to
understand human behavior (focuses on the overt or
actions).
● Freud: Personality is hidden; largely unconscious.
● A pattern of relatively permanent (fluctuates, thus
changes every now and then) traits and unique
characteristics that give both consistency and
individuality to a person’s behavior.
● Traits
○ Contribute to individual differences in behavior,
consistency of behavior over time, and stability
of behavior across situations.
○ Unique to yourself, but somehow shared with
others. It only differs in terms of the patterns
and levels.
○ Example: (levels of) introversion & extroversion
● Characteristics
○ Unique qualities of an individual
○ Example: IQ, temperament, physique.
What is a theory?
● A set of related assumptions that allow scientists to use
logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable
hypotheses. This definition needs further explanation.
● Organized system of beliefs that helps in understanding
human nature.
○ Assumptions
■ Not proven facts but accepted as if
they were true.
○ Set of assumptions
■ No single assumption can make up an
adequate theory. It should be multiple.
○ Related assumptions
■ Internally consistent
comprehensive theory is capable of
■ Tenets of a theory must be stated with
sufficient precision and logical
consistency to permit scientists to
deduce clearly stated hypotheses.
○ Testable
■ Possibility that scientists in the future
might develop the necessary means to
test it.
Theory and Its Relatives
● Philosophy
○ Love (philo) for wisdom (sophia); pursue
wisdom through thinking and reasoning.
○ “Oughts” & “shoulds”
○ Epistemology - nature of knowledge.
○ Theory
■ Built not simply by thinking, but by
employing scientific methods.
■ “If-then”
■ Most closely related to epistemology
(the investigation of what distinguishes
justified belief from opinion).
● Speculation
○ Theories rely on speculation but it's much more
than just mere speculation.
○ Speculation and empirical observation are the
two essential cornerstones of theory building,
but speculation must not run rampantly in
advance of controlled observation.
○ Must be objective, open to different possible
outcomes, open-minded.
○ Theory
■ Tied to empirical gathering of data.
■ Useful tools employed by scientists to
give meaning and organization to
observations.
● Hypothesis
○ Educated guess/prediction specific enough for
its validity to be tested through the use of the
scientific method.
○ Theory
■ Provide fertile ground for producing
testable hypotheses.
■ Too general to lend itself to direct
verification, but a single
generating thousands of hypotheses.
● Taxonomy
○ Classification of things according to their natural
relationships.
○ Theory
■ Mere classification does not constitute
a theory, however, taxonomies can
evolve into theories when they begin to
generate testable hypotheses and to
explain research findings.
■ Example: big 5 personality traits:
Openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness,
neuroticism.
If Theories of Personality are Truly Scientific, Why do we
Have so Many Different Ones?
● Alternate theories exist because the very nature of a
theory allows the theorist to make speculations for a
particular point of view. Theorists must be as objective
as possible when gathering data, but their decisions as
to what data are collected and how these data are
interpreted are personal ones. Theories are not
immutable laws; they are built, not proven facts, but
assumptions that are subject to individual interpretation.
● All theories are a reflection of their authors’ personal
backgrounds, childhood experiences, philosophy of life,
interpersonal relationship, and unique manner of looking
at the world.
● Despite it being scientific, it still includes a bit of
“subjectivity” depending on the theorist.
Perspectives in the Theories Personality (5 Major Theoretical
Perspectives)
● Psychodynamic theory
○ Pioneered by Sigmund Freud
○ Focuses on the importance of early childhood
experience on relationships with parents as
guiding forces to shape personality
development.
○ Sees the unconscious mind as a much more
powerful motivator than the conscious
awareness. Based on the unconscious.
○ Used dream interpretation to uncover the
unconscious thoughts, feeling, and impulses as
 a main form of treatment of neurosis and mental
illness.
● Humanistic-existential theory
○ Abraham Harold Maslow
○ Currently known as “positive psychology”
○ People strive toward meaning, growth, well-
being, happiness, and psychological health.
○ Assumes that not only are we driven by a
search for meaning, but also that negative
experiences such as failure, awareness of
death, death of a loved one, and anxiety (of
being alive right now), are part of the human
condition and foster psychological growth.
● Dispositional theory
○ Unique and long-term tendencies to behave in
particular ways are the essence of our
personality.
○ 5 main trait dimensions in human personality.
Traits serve the function of making certain
behaviors more likely in some people.
○ Gordon Allport: Same people may exhibit the
same characteristic (e.g., stubbornness), but
exhibit it on different levels, therefore, the two
persons showed the difference of the same
characteristic.
● Biological-evolutionary theory
○ David Buss
○ Behavior, thought, feelings, and personality are
influenced by differences in basic genetic,
epigenetic, and neurological systems between
individuals.
○ Human thought, behavior, and personality have
been shaped by forces of evolution over
millions of years.
○ The body, brain, and environment co-exist and
co-evolve, and so what we think, feel, and do is
always an interaction between nature
(biological) and nurture (environmental).
● Learning (Social) and cognitive theory
○ All behaviors are learned through association.
○ Cognitive perspective argues that how we think
about ourselves and other people, as well as
the assumptions we make and the strategies
we use for solving problems, are the keys to
understanding differences between people.
○ The personality we have is shaped by our own explanation of behavior in terms of future goals
thoughts and perception about the world. or purposes.
Theorists’ Personalities and their Theories of Personalities ○ Do people act as they do because of what
● Psychology of science happened in the past or do people act as they
○ Studies both science and the behavior of do because they have certain expectations of
scientists what will happen in the future?
○ Studies the impact of the scientist’s ● 4. Conscious vs. Unconscious
psychological processes and personal ○ Are people ordinarily aware of what they are
characteristics on the development of their doing and why they are doing it, or do
theories. unconscious forces drive them to act without
○ Understanding of their theories lies in knowing awareness of these underlying forces.
the historical, social, and psychological worlds ○ Very Freud
of each theorist at the time of his/her theorizing. ● 5. Nature vs. Nurture
○ Although interpretations are often subjective, ○ Are personal characteristics more the result of
theories of theorists should not only be focused hereditary or are they environmentally
on personal values. determined?
What Makes a Theory Useful? ● 6. Uniqueness vs. Similarities
● Generates research (either descriptive or hypothesis ○ Should the study of personality concentrate on
testing). those traits that make people alike, or should it
● It is falsifiable or verifiable (kayang maprove na tama or look at those traits that make people different?
mali yung concepts) and suggests research that may
either support or fail to support its major tenets.
○ A theory that explains everything explains
nothing.
● A good research must organize data.
● Guide action into solving day-today problems.
● Internally consistent with itself and not with other theories
and lastly.
● It must be simple, straightforward or parsimonious
(simple).
Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity
● 1. Determinism vs.Free choice
○ Are people’s behaviors determined by forces
over which they have no control, or can people
choose to be what they wish to be?
● 2. Pessimism vs. Optimism
○ Are people doomed to live miserable lives, or
can they change and grow into psychologically
healthy, happy, fully functioning human beings?
○ Positive or negative approach of personality to
change.
Chapter 2: Sigmund Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis
● 3. Causality vs. Teleology
Biography
○ Causality holds that behavior is a function of
● May or March 6, 1856 born in Czech Republic (as a
past experiences while teleology is an
tradition, spouses are not allowed to conceive before
marriage, the reason for Freud’s unspecific birth month).
● Most of his concepts are related to sex, childhood; also a
sexist
● Most favorite by the mother which probably helped with
his self-confidence.
● Graduated from Medical faculty, University of Vienna
● Married after graduating medicine school (studied
medicine not because he loves it, but because he is
generally curious about human nature). 6 children,
youngest: Anna, became a psychoanalyst.
● Jean-Martin Charcot: Hypnosis for hysteria (paralysis in
some parts of the body)
● According to Freud: Hysteria for women only: wandering
womb (uterus traveling throughout various parts of
women’s bodies that causes it to malfunction).
● Joseph Breuer: Catharsis (talk them out) for hysteria;
Anna O. (not his daughter, but patient of Breuer); Freud
wanted to publish the story regarding Anna O., but
Breuer was hesitant because of Freud’s concepts.
Although the book Freud wanted got published, they still
had a falling out after some disagreements after the
publishing date..
● From the hypnosis of Charcot and the catharsis of
Breuer, Freud was able to create a concept called “free
association”—saying whatever comes to your mind with
no filter.
● Almost known for discovering cocaine (had a
research/experiment pioneering the discovery of
cocaine, although Freud dropped it after prioritizing his
girlfriend-turned-wife, so somebody continued and
published it instead).
● The possibility of Freud discovering cocaine might lead
him to not discovering other psychological concepts.
● Seduction theory (children seduce their parents and vice
versa)
○ With Wilhelm Fliess
○ Was later abandoned because it never gave
him the recognition he wished to have.
■ Had not allowed him to treat his
patients successfully.
■ Fathers would have to be accused of
sexual perversion.
■ The unconscious might not be able to
distinguish reality from fiction.
■ Unconscious memories of advanced
psychotic patients never revealed
having a history of sexual experiences.
● Passed away due to oral cancer (1939)
Levels of Mental Life
● Conscious level
○ Thoughts, perceptions
○ Only the level of mental life that is directly
available to us.
○ Within mental structure: awareness of our own
mental processes (thought/feeling), sometimes
comes out in a dream state.
○ Perceptual consciousness: awareness of
surroundings; what the senses feel. (behavior)
● Preconscious level
○ Memories, stored knowledge
○ Facts stored in a part of the brain which are not
conscious but are available for possible use in
the future.
○ Comes from two sources:
■ 1. Conscious perception: ever
changing ideas which are anxiety-free;
attention span.
■ 2. Unconscious: some sprout and pass
the censor, but repressed to decrease
anxiety, but some come out in a way
such as dreams, slip of the tongue,
and elaborative defensive measures.
● Unconscious level
○ Fears,violent motives, immoral urges, selfish
needs, irrational wishes, unacceptable sexual
desires, shameful experiences
○ Feelings, urges, or instinct that are beyond our
awareness but it affects our expression, feeling,
action.
○ Mga “hindi sadyang” masabi, o mga gustong
sabihin na possibly aware na hindi appropriate;
dreams
○ Mostly motivates our words, feelings, and
actions.
○ Phylogenetic endowment: using collective
experiences of strangers to fill in the gaps of
inadequate explanation of other individuals.
Structure of Personality
● AKA provinces of the mind
● 3 parts:
○ Id (unconscious) - Pleasure principle
■ Primitive and unconscious part of
personality
■ The “it” (means the not-yet-owned)
that is present when born (das es)
■ Operates on pleasure principle: gain
pleasure or immediate gratification,
avoid pain.
■ Infants are born with id intact.
■ Out of touch with reality.
■ Produces instincts, drives, wishes.
■ Driven by sexual and aggressive
urges.
■ The id operates through the primary
processes: reflex action and wish
fulfillment; survival depends on the
second process: bring in contact with
reality (through ego).
■ Not immoral but amoral.
○ Ego (conscious, preconscious, unconscious) -
Reality principle
■ Mediates between id and superego
(balance)
■ The “I” (das ich)
■ Only the region of the mind in contact
with reality.
■ Rational level of personality.
■ Acts to avoid/reduce anxiety by using
defense mechanisms.
■ Operates on reality principles: does
realistic and logical thinking.
■ Secondary processes:
● Identification: matching id’s
desires to possible ways of
satisfying it.
● Reality principle: the ego’s
capacity to delay gratification.
■ The ego’s energy comes from the id
but it still almost has full control.
○ Superego (preconscious & unconscious)
■ The “over-I” (das uber-ich)
■ Fully developed by age 7.
 ■ Operates on moral principles: able to ● Sadism (inflicting pain and ○ Infants possess a sexual life and go through a
differentiate good and bad, right and humiliation to achieve sexual period of pregenital sexual development.
wrong. pleasure); more dependent ○ Incapable of reproduction and exclusively
■ Two parts: than masochism. autoerotic compared to adult sexuality.
● Conscience (from past ● Masochism (need/want for ○ Three phases are divided according to which of
punishments); guilt pain inflicted by someone or the primary erogenous zones is undergoing the
● Ego ideal (from past themselves in order to feel most salient development:
rewards); inferiority feelings sexual pleasure). ○ Oral stage stage
■ Represents society’s expectations (the ○ B. Thanatos or aggression/destructive drive ■ Ages 0-18 months
shoulds) ■ Aim of the aggression drive is self- ■ Infant achieves through oral activities
■ Produces feelings of pride (right), destruction (turn the organism to such as feeding, thumb sucking, biting
shame and guilt (wrong). inorganic— death). and babbling.
■ If followed superego = feel proud; if not ■ Forms: teasing, gossip, sarcasm, ■ Object-choice is the nipple
= feel guilty and anxious. humiliation, humor, and the enjoyment ■ Oral-receptive phase
Dynamics of Personality of other people’s suffering. ● Infants feel no ambivalence
● 1. Drives ■ To inhibit the strong, injury must be toward the pleasurable
○ Drive’s impetus: amount of force it exerts. inflicted— reaction formation. object; minimum of frustration
○ A. Libido or sex drive ● 2. Anxiety and anxiety.
■ All pleasurable activity is traceable to ○ The ego is the only one producing or ■ Oral-sadistic phase
the sexual drive. experiencing anxiety. ● Engages in biting, cooing,
■ Sex can take many forms including: ○ Ego-preserving mechanism. closing their mouth, smiling
● Narcissism ○ Neurotic anxiety and crying.
○ Primary: infants; ■ Apprehension about unknown danger ● First autoerotic experience is
exclusively on their (may malalim na pinanggagalingan) thumb sucking.
ego (self-centered; ■ Mostly comes out in the presence of ■ Fixation
siya lang dapat an authoritative figure. ● Over stimulated > adult:
inaalagaan, hindi ka ■ The feelings come from the ego but dependent on cigarette or
pwedeng mawala) impulses come from the id. alcohol, chatterbox.
○ Secondary: ○ Moral anxiety ● Under stimulated > adult:
adolescents will ■ Stems from the conflict between ego bitingly sarcastic remarks or
redirect their libido to and superego. being argumentative.
their ego and will ■ From failure to behave consistently ○ Anal stage
focus it to their with what is morally right. ■ Ages 2-3
physical ■ Realistic needs vs. dictations of the ■ Sexually pleasurable zone: anus
appearance; you superego. ■ Pleasure on bowel movement
become more ■ Comes from the superego (withhold/eliminate feces)
focused on yourself; ○ Realistic anxiety ■ The child learns to respond to some of
self-love ■ Closely related to fear (in touch with the demands of society (such as bowel
● Love (when a person invests reality). and bladder control).
their libido to someone other ■ Unpleasant nonspecific feeling ■ Sadistic-anal phase:
than themselves) involving a possible danger. ● Early anal period: satisfaction
○ Love aim-inhibited: ■ Comes from the ego. by destroying of losing
aim of reducing Psychosexual Stages objects, toilet training
sexual tension is ● Infantile period frustration.
repression. ○ 6-7 years old.
 ● Late anal period: friendly ■ The suppression of masturbation plays ○ Begins after a young
interest toward their feces; if a crucial role in their psychosexual boy becomes aware
accepted: grows up open and development. of the absence of
generous; if reject: withholds ■ Fixations: penis on girls
feces, keeps everything ● Oedipus complex in males / ● Once the oedipus complex is
together, leads to: Electra complex in female: dissolved or repressed, the
○ Anal character: the boy will have the desire to boy surrenders his incestuous
keeps and possess possess his mother and desires, changes them into
objects, orderly displace his father and the girl feelings of tender love, and
arrangement. will want to possess the begins to develop a primitive
○ Anal triad: father and remove her superego.
orderliness, mother. ● He may identify with either
stinginess and ● Oedipus complex - The term the father or the mother,
obstinacy. is taken from the Greek depending on the strength of
■ Fixation tragedy by Sophocles in his feminine disposition.
● Anal retentive: over which Oedipus, King of ■ Female oedipus complex
emphasized potty training, Thebes, is destined by fate to ● Electra complex: Freud
anal triad . kill his father and marry his objected to this term for the
● Anal expulsive: negligent mother. reason that it will be
about potty training, expulsive ● Fixated: reckless, proud and paralleled to that of Oedipus
trait— bad temper, cruelty vain, afraid of close complex which is not possible
and messy disorderliness. relationships and weak and should not be.
■ For girls: anal eroticism comes out as sexual identity. ● Penis envy: marks the start of
penis envy furing the phallic stage and ● Freud stated that fixation may the oedipus complex
can be expressed by giving birth to a be a root homosexuality. (castration complex).
baby. ■ Male oedipus complex ● Simple: incentuous feelings
■ Active attitude ● Simple: rivalry toward the with the father and hostility for
Masculine dominance and father and incestuous feelings the mother.
sadism. toward the mother ● May rebel in one of three
■ Passive orientation ● Complete: boy’s feminine ways:
● Feminine qualities of nature leads to display ○ Give up their
voyeurism (someone who affection toward his father sexuality and
receives pleasure through and express hostility toward develop an intense
visual means) and his mother, at the same time hostility toward their
masochism. his masculine tendency mother
○ Phallic stage disposes him toward hostility ○ Cling defiantly to
■ Ages 3-6 years for father and lust for mother. masculinity, hope for
■ The child learns to realize the ● Mixed love-hate relationship a penis and
differences between male and females with both parents. fantasize being a
and becomes aware of sexuality. ● Castration complex man.
■ Pleasure zone is the sex ○ Castration anxiety: ○ May undergo a
organ/genitals. fear of losing the simple oedipus
■ Maturbation is nearly universal. penis; present in all complex and
boys develop normally.
 ● Resolved when a girl
surrenders her sexual desire
for her father, and identifies
once again with her mother
although it is an incomplete
resolve.
● Freud: girls have a weaker,
more flexible, and less severe
superego than the boy’s
(biased).
● Latency stage
○ Ages 6-11 years
○ The child continues his or her development but
sexual urges are relatively quiet.
○ Period of dormant psychosexual development.
○ No fixations occur as the child’s energy is
focused on peer activities and personal mastery
of learning and physical skills (energy is
directed to physical, productive activities).
○ Brought about partly by parental suppression of
sexual activity in their children and phylogenetic
endowment.
○ Successful parental suppression leads to
repression of sexual drive or direction of
psychic energy toward other productive
activities.
○ Remember that sexual drive is still present in
latency, but its aim has been inhibited.
● Genital stage
○ Ages 12 years onwards.
○ The growing adolescent shakes off old
dependencies and learns to deal maturely with
the other sexes.
○ Prompted by the reawakening of sexual aim
during puberty.
○ Sexual interest in opposite sex increase.
○ Children improve their personal identities,
develop caring feelings towards others,
establish loving and sexual relationships and
progress in successful careers.
○ Fixation: frigidity, impotence and unsatisfactory
relationship.
○ Major distinctions between infantile and adult
sexuality:
■ Synthesis of eros.
■ Elevated status of the vagina (for
girls). -equal na tingin when it comes
to perceiving sexuality.
■ Reproductive capacity of the sexual
drive.
■ Ability of people to direct their libido
outward rather than onto the self.
■ However, in several other ways, eros
remains unchanged.
● Maturity
○ Stage attained by everyone who reaches
physical maturity
○ Psychological maturity
■ Stage attained after a person has
passed through the earlier
development periods in an ideal
manner.
■ Can be achieved if no fixation happens
on each stage.
○ Balance among the structure of the mind, with
their ego controlling their id and superego but at
the same time allowing for reasonable desires
and demands.
Defense Mechanisms
● Made by the ego in an attempt to resolve the conflict
between id and superego, so personality can operate in
a healthy manner.
● Protects ego from anxiety (realistic anxiety).
● Deny/distort reality while operating at an unconscious
level.
● If used once a while, the purpose of using it is to reduce
stress, but if used frequently, it means the individual is
trying to avoid facing reality.
● Some theorists have created their own concept of
defense mechanism named differently on how they
wanted it to.
● 1. Repression
○ Basic/master defense mechanism.
○ Unpleasant experiences are stored deep in the
subconscious mind and cannot be accessed by
the conscious mind.
○ Ego pushes unacceptable impulses out of
awareness, back into the unconscious.
○ Example: An accident victim nearly dies but
remembers none of the details of the accident.
○ Comes out in dreams, slips of the tongue, etc.
○ Some other defense mechanisms are rooted
from repression.
● 2. Displacement
○ Redirecting the feelings of hostility and violent
actions from self to another that is less
threatening from the original course.
○ Ego shifts feelings toward an unacceptable
object to another, more acceptable object.
○ Example: Angered by a neighbor’s hateful
comment, a mother punishes her child for
accidentally spilling her drinks.
● 3. Rationalization
○ Providing a reasonable explanation to make
undesirable behavior appear logical/acceptable.
○ Ego replaces a less acceptable motive with a
more acceptable one.
○ Example: A college student does not get into
the fraternity of his choice. He says that if he
had tried harder he could have gotten in.
● 4. Denial
○ Reality is distorted to make it suit the
individual’s wishes.
○ Ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety-producing
realities.
○ Example: Alcoholic beverages fails to
acknowledge that he is addicted to alcohol;
blind when it comes to red flags.
● 5. Regression
○ Returning to a behavior pattern characteristic of
an earlier stage of development.
○ Ego seeks the security of an earlier
developmental period in the face of stress
○ Libido is directed towards primitive and familiar
objects.
○ Usually temporary compared to fixation.
○ Example: After Lucy’s parents' bitter divorce
she refuses to sleep alone in her room and
crawls into bed with her mother.
○ If faced with stress or problems, you crawl to
bed and do a fetal position; another is when you
remain all day in bed staying comfy.
● 6. Reaction formation
 ○ Thinking of behaving in a way that is the
extreme opposite to those that are of real
intention.
○ Ego transforms an unacceptable motive into its
opposite.
○ Example: A woman who loves an obtainable
man behaves as though she hates him.; a
woman who fears her sexual urges becomes a
religious zealot.
○ You like someone and showing them the
opposite of affection towards the person you
like.
● 7. Projection
○ Attribution of one’s unacceptable urges or
qualities to others.
○ Ego attributes personal shortcomings,
problems, and faults to others.
○ Severe type is paranoia: includes delusions of
jealousy.
○ Example: A person in an extremely bad mood
accuses family members of being hard to get
along with; a man who has a strong desire to
have an extramarital affair accuses his wife of
flirting with other men.
● 8. Fixation
○ Remaining in the present comfortably for the
reason that thinking of future events leads to a
certain level of anxiety.
○ Universal.
○ More or less demands permanent expenditure
of psychic energy.
○ Fixation on oral (cigars), anal (neatness).
● 9. Introjection
○ Adopting certain characteristics coming from
other people in order to increase a sense of
self-worth.
○ Example: a person may adopt the lifestyle of a
movie star.
● 10. Sublimation
○ Directing libido to arts.
Therapeutic Process (Basic Techniques of Psychoanalytic
Therapy)
● Maintaining the analytic framework
○ Maintaining therapist’s neutrality and objectivity.
○ Regularity and consistency of meetings.
○ Starting and ending the sessions on time.
○ Clarity on the fees.
○ Explain the basic boundary issues.
● Free association
○ Purpose: arrive at the unconscious by starting
with a present conscious idea and following it
through a train of associations to wherever it
leads.
○ Freely say what is in the mind, regardless of
how painful, silly or irrelevant it may seem.
○ Train of thought: from one thought to another.
○ Flow any feelings and thoughts freely.
○ Used to open the door to unconscious wishes,
conflicts and motivation.
○ Unconscious material will enter the conscious
and the therapist will interpret it.
○ Freudian or unconscious slips (parapraxes)
■ Freud believed that many everyday
slips of the tongue or pen, misreading,
incorrect hearing, misplacing objects,
and temporarily forgetting names or
intention are not chances of accidents,
but reveal a person’s unconscious
intentions.
● Interpretation
○ Analysts will explain the meaning of behaviors
in dreams, free association, etc.
○ Identify, clarify and translate clients’ material.
○ To help clients make sense of their lives and to
expand their consciousness.
○ Analysts must pay attention not only to the
content but also the process of conveying it to
the patient.
○ The patient’s readiness to accept the material is
an important consideration.
○ If the interpretation is too deep, the patient
might not be able to accept it and bring it into
the conscious mind.
○ Therefore, before telling the interpretation to the
patient, the analyst must evaluate the
unconscious material. The closer the material to
the preconscious, the more likely the patient will
accept it.
● Dream analysis
○ Basic assumption of Freud’s dream analysis is
that nearly all dreams are wish fulfillment.
○ Some memories are unacceptable (by the ego)
because they are expressed in symbolic form
(dream).
○ Level of content:
■ Latent content (hidden but true
meaning)
■ Manifest content (obvious meaning)
○ Analyst studies the content of dreams.
● Analysis of resistance
○ Variety of conscious responses used by
patients to block their own progress in therapy.
○ Can be a positive sign because it indicates that
therapy has advanced beyond superficial
material.
○ Decision of when to interpret the resistance and
tell the client depends on the situation.
○ Avoid being judgemental, instead allow them to
address what makes them anxious.
○ Make clients understand their own thoughts,
feelings and actions .
● Analysis of transference
○ Strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or
negative, that patients develop toward their
analyst during the course of treatment.
○ Clients react to therapists as though they were
a significant other.
○ Counselor interprets the positive and negative
feelings of the client.
○ Release of feeling is an emotional catharsis.
○ Clients become aware of the emotions and are
able to move onto another developmental
stage.
○ Transference between client and therapist
occurs on an unconscious level.
○ Projecting feelings towards the therapist from
the client, imagining that the therapist is the
person concerned with the feelings.
● Therapeutic goals
○ Help the client become more aware of the
unconscious material.
○ Enriching the variety of defense mechanisms so
that they are more effective and adaptable.
 ○ To be able to cope with difficulties and ■ Client will have to give commitment in uniqueness versus
demands. the process similarity
○ Strengthening of the ego. ■ The couch: after a few face-to-face ○ 2. Psychodynamic
● Therapist functions and role sessions, the therapist will move on to ■ Evolved from the psychoanalytic
○ analyst/therapist will use a ‘black-screen’ the next stage where the clients are theory but it is more simplified in terms
approach where they will have little exposure needed to lie on a couch and engage of the length of the process and
and maintain a sense of neutrality. in ‘free association.’ focuses on more immediate problems
○ This is to promote a transference relationship ■ Intensive process where clients will (phobia, anxiety problem).
with clients. meet up 4-5 sessions per week. ■ Therapist will pay more attention to
● Transference relationship ■ Develop insight into deep-rooted transference manifestation (when the
○ Process of transferring feelings from an problems that are often thought to patient transfers feelings for others
experience in an early relationship to someone stem from childhood. onto the therapist), the meaning of
important in the present environment. ■ Overview client’s dream.
○ Sexual or aggressive urges are developed and ● Philosophical set of ideas of ■ Transference are encouraged
directed towards the analyst. human nature. ■ To increase a client's awareness and
○ Function ● Both an approach to therapy understanding of how the past has
■ Help client develop the freedom to and theory of personality. influenced present thoughts and
love, work, and play ● Emphasizes unconscious behaviors, by exploring their
■ Help clients in achieving self- motivation— the main cause unconscious patterns.
awareness. of behavior lies in the ■ Seeks to provide a quicker solution.
○ Steps unconscious mind. ■ It can be used in individual
■ Build working relationships with clients. ■ View of human nature psychotherapy, group psychotherapy,
■ Give extra attention to the client’s ● 1. Deterministic family therapy, institutional and
resistance. ○ Life is about gaining organizational contexts.
○ While the client is engaging in ‘free association’, pleasure and ■ Advantage
the analyst will interpret the hidden meaning avoiding pain. ● Client gains insight.
behind their words. ● 2. Human as energy system ● Learn from personal past.
○ The function of interpretation is to speed up the ○ Freud believe that ● Stresses on developmental
process of uncovering unconscious material. humans are growth stages.
○ Later, the analyst will teach their client the motivated by the ● Can be used for a variety of
meaning of the process of interpretation so that unconscious, where disorders (hysteria, phobias,
the client will: the id is found along anxiety, sexual difficulties).
■ Gain insight of their problem. with the aggression ■ Disadvantages
■ Increase awareness of ways to and sex instincts. ● Long term process and
change. ■ Concept of humanity expensive.
■ Gain control over their life. ● Freud’s classical ● Requires client full
○ Negative transference should be explained psychoanalysis falls toward: commitment.
properly to the patient to avoid resistance. ○ Determinism ● Used mostly in psychiatry.
■ Resistance: patient blocking the ○ Pessimistic ● Not designed to help people
progress of therapy. ○ Causality with urgent concern.
● Client's experience in therapy ○ Unconscious ○ 3. Psychoanalytic
○ 1. Psychoanalysis motivation ■ This therapy engages in a more
■ Client must be a voluntary client, not ○ Biological influences supportive intervention.
involuntary. ○ Middle position on ■ Psychoanalytic therapy is based upon
the issue of psychoanalysis, but is less intensive.
 ■ 1-3 sessions per week.
■ It is for individuals who want to
understand more about themselves
and those who have difficulties that
affected them.
■ Clients will talk about their life and the
therapist will listen, this is known as
talk therapy.
■ The therapist will look for patterns that
may have caused the client’s
difficulties. Usually face-to-face
sessions.
■ Similar with psychoanalysis
■ Naproduce na therapy for the
intervention of the issue at hand.
○ Applicable to Psychoanalysis, Psychodynamic,
and Psychoanalytic
■ Clients are advised not to make radical
changes in their lifestyle as it may
disturb the therapeutic process.
● Example of radical change:
filing a divorce, quitting their
job. This therapy also use
other techniques (free
association, dream analysis)
■ Termination can take place when both
therapist and client mutually agree that
the client had:
● Resolve the problem/core
conflict.
● Accepted their remaining
emotional problem.
● Understand the root of their
difficulties.
Chapter 3: Aldred Adler: Individual Psychology
Biography
● Born February 7, 1870 (first born).
● Austrian physician and psychiatrist.
● Childhood was regarded as an unhappy experience. ● Adler emphasized understanding people under different
● Sickly child, led to his ambition to be a doctor. social contexts.
● Competitive with his brother. ● Birth order has a major and predictable impact on a
● Medical degree from Vienna University in 1895. child’s personality.
● In 1902, he joined the psychoanalytic group (nakasama ○ First born
si Freud). ■ Recognized as the larger, stronger,
● Formed the school of thought individual psychology, and older.
concept inferiority feeling and inferiority complex (played ■ They have a lot of personal power and
a significant part in the formation of personality). they hold the concept of power in high
Adlerian Theory regard.
● 1. The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is ○ Second born
the striving for success or superiority. ■ Because of the existence of their older,
○ Aggression is the hidden dynamic power for more powerful sibling, they are
motivation constantly “striving for superiority
● 2. People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior under pressure.”
and personality. ■ Often/always in the shadow of their
○ Idea of life that a person creates despite not older sibling.
having proof in order to be a motivator for the ■ “Black sheep”
lifestyle they will have. ■ If supported, can obtain the “power” or
● 3. Personality is unified and self-consistent. superiority they strive for.
○ Thoughts, feelings, and actions are all directed ○ Youngest
toward a single goal and serve a single ■ Always in a position of inferiority.
purpose. ■ Continuously trying to prove
● 4. The value of all human activity must be seen from the themselves.
viewpoint of social interest. ■ Most likely to become a problem child
○ Gemeinschaftsgefühl - community interest or according to Adler.
social feeling. ■ Two kinds:
○ Ideal community. ● Successful
● 5. The self-consistent personality structure develops into ○ Outperforms the
a person’s style of life. whole family.
○ Three major problems of life ● Unfortunate
■ Neighbourly love ○ Lacks confidence.
■ Sexual love ○ Only child
■ Occupational ■ The lone child becomes “highly
● 6. Style of life is molded by people’s creative power. dependent, waits continually for
○ Movement towards a goal; with direction someone to teach them the way, and
Structure of Personality searches for assistance at all time” as
● “We all share the same basic desire and goal: to belong a result of being the entire focus of
and feel important.” their parents’ attention.
● When we are encouraged, we feel capable and ■ Regard the world as a hostile place.
appreciated, and we respond in a more connected and Dynamics
cooperative manner. ● Behavior is motivated by striving for superiority, but it is
● When we are discouraged, we may compete, withdraw, believed that we are born as inferior.
or give up in harmful ways. ● 1. Inferiority complex
 ○ Every individual suffers from feelings of
inadequacy.
○ Concept of compensation and
overcompensation.
○ “Cenxia na gani2 lng aq”
○ When we focus on insecurity too much.
● 2. Superiority complex
○ Occurs when a person has the need to prove
that he is more superior than he truly is.
○ Child: arrogant and impatient.
○ An inferior person’s way to adapt with the
inferior feeling.
○ Stereotypical bullies (as an overcompensatory
mechanism) in movies where they belittle
others to feel superior.
● 3. Style of life
○ All of us create our own sense of approach to
living.
○ Goals (constant source of motivation) provide
us with security.
● 4. Order of birth
○ Emphasizes on the environment and the
dynamics of family.
Development
● All infants have a sense of inferiority and inadequacy as
soon as they begin to explore the world.
● The child’s unconscious, fictive aspirations are shaped
by these early experiences, such as the drive to attract
the attention of the parents.
● Parents instill in their child a desire to compensate for
weaknesses by enhancing other abilities.
○ In the process of compensation, the child, if
properly compensated, will develop normally,
but may go downhill if otherwise.
● If the child is properly nurtured and cared for, they will be
able to accept the obstacles and learn that they can be
conquered through hard work.
● The compensation process can sometimes go wrong
when the child’s feeling of inadequacy grows
overpowering, and they begin to believe they have no
control over the circumstances.
● Overcompensation = child’s fixation on achieving the
goal becomes exaggerated and pathological.
Psychopathology
● One factor underlying all types of maladjustments is
underdeveloped social interest.
● Neurotics tend to:
○ Set their goals high
○ Live in their own private world
○ Have a rigid and dogmatic style of life
● Maladjusted people set extravagant goals as an
overcompensation for exaggerated feelings of inferiority.
● Their view of the world is not in focus with that of other
individuals and they possess what Adler (1956) called
“private meaning.”
External Factors in Maladjustments
● Adler (1964) recognized 3 contributing factors sufficient
enough to contribute to abnormality:
○ 1. Exaggerated physical deficiencies
■ These subjective feelings may be
greatly encouraged by a defective
body, but they are the progeny of the
creative power.
■ Inborn or caused by a traumatic injury
(physical deficiency) which leads to a
(highly) exaggerated inferior emotion.
■ As being a sickly child, Adler was able
to formulate this factor.
○ 2. Pampered style of life
■ Have weak social interest but a strong
desire to perpetuate the pampered,
parasitic relationship they originally
had with one or both their parents.
■ Prone to severe separation anxiety or
intense fear when separated from
parents that leads to a neglected
feeling.
■ If the mother favors the child more
than the spouse, the child will grow as
“very pampered”, but if the mother
favors the latter more, the child will
grow having a “neglected style”
tendencies.
○ 3. Neglected style of life
■ Children who feel unloved and
unwanted are likely to borrow heavily
from these feelings in creating a
neglected style of life.
■ Abused children will tend to have very
little interest in socializing due to
overestimating life problems, and have
trust and confidence issues, thus see
society as an enemy.
Safeguarding Tendencies
● Adler believed that people create patterns of behavior to
protect their exaggerated sense of self-esteem against
public disgrace.
● Enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to
maintain their current style of life.
● Three common safeguarding tendencies:
○ Excuses
■ Most common.
■ “Yes, but” and “if-only” format.
○ Aggression
■ Used to safeguard their exaggerated
superiority complex, that is, to protect
their fragile self-esteem.
■ Depreciation
● Undervalue/degrade other
people’s achievements and to
overvalue one’s own.
■ Accusation
● Blame others for one’s
failures and to seek revenge
thereby safeguarding one;s
own tenuous self-esteem.
■ Self-accusation
● Devaluing themselves in
order to inflict suffering on
others while protecting their
own magnified feelings of
self-esteem.
● Opposite of depreciation.
○ Withdrawal
■ When people run away from difficulties
or safeguarding from a distance. Some
people unconsciously escape life’s
problems by setting up a distance
between themselves and the problems
(Adler, 1956).
● Moving backward
● Standing still
● Hesitating (procrastination)
 ● Constructing obstacles
Psychotherapy: Inventions for Addressing Personality
Disorders
● Adler began addressing critical contemporary issues
such as equality, parent education, influence of birth
order, lifestyle, and individual holism in the early 1900s.
● We all have the same basic desire and goal: to belong
and feel significant.
● Concerned with people’s attempts to compensate for
their perceived inferiority to others. These feelings of
inferiority may stem from one’s position in the family
constellation, particularly if humiliation occurred early in
life; a specific physical condition or defect existed, or
there was a general lack of social feeling for others.
Seven Critical Ideas
● 1. Unity of the individual
○ Thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior can
only be understood in the context of an
individual’s lifestyle or consistent pattern of
dealing with life.
○ Because it is individual psychology
● 2. Goal orientation
○ Address that there really is a single central
personality dynamic derived from life’s growth
and forward movement.
● 3. Self-determination and uniqueness
○ A person’s fictional goal may be influenced by
hereditary and cultural factors but it ultimately
stems from the individual’s creative power and
is thus unique.
● 4. Social context
○ The human being as an indivisible whole, a
system is also a part of larger beings or
systems such as the family, the community,
humanity as a whole, our planet, and the
natural world.
● 5. Feeling of community
○ Each human has the capacity for learning to live
in harmony with society.
● 6. Mental health
○ A feeling of human connectedness and
willingness to develop oneself fully and
contribute to the welfare of others are the main
criteria of mental health, when these qualities
are underdeveloped, feelings of inferiority may
haunt an individual, or an attitude of superiority
may antagonize others, consequently, the
unconscious fictional goal will be self-centered
and emotionally or materially exploitive of other
people.
● 7. Treatment
○ Adlerian individual psychotherapy, brief therapy,
couple therapy, and family therapy follow
parallel paths. Clients are encouraged to
overcome their feelings of insecurity, develop
deeper feelings of connectedness, and to
redirect their striving for significance into more
socially beneficial directions.
Application: Contribution of the Theory in the Developing
Field
● Adlerian psychology focuses on people’s effort to
compensate for their self-perceived inferiority to others.
These feelings of inferiority may derive from one’s
position in the family constellation, particularly if ealy
experiences of humiliation occurred; a specific physical
condition or defect existed, or a general lack of social
feeling for others was present. Adler stressed the
importance of the relationship and using empathy as a
key strategy for helping, therefore, its approach is at the
root of cognitive-behavioral, family, existential,
phenomenological, schema, humanistic, and person-
centered approaches. Your power as an individual to
succeed.
Masculine Protest
● “In contrast to Freud, Adler (1930, 1956) believed that
the psychic life of women is essentially the same as that
of men and that a male-dominated society is not natural
but rather an artificial product of historical development.”
● “Cultural and social practices influence many men and
women to overemphasize the importance of being
manly.”
Chapter 4: Carl Gustav Jung: Analytical Psychology
Biography
● Born on July 26, 1875, in Kesswil (town on Lake
Constance in Switzerland).
● Believed to be the great-grandson of Goethe sometimes.
● Father: Johan Paul Jung
○ Youngest out of the 13 children
○ A minister in the swiss reformed church
○ A sentimental idealist with strong doubts about
his religious faith.
● Mother: Emilie Preiswerk Jung
○ Youngest out of the 13 children
○ Daughter of a theologian.
○ Had two separate dispositions:
■ Realistic, practical, and warmhearted
■ unstable, mystical, clairvoyant,
archaic, and ruthless (Jung identified
with more)—Jung called it no. 2 or
night personality.
● Religion and medicine were prevalent in his family.
● Parents had three children
○ Son before Jung lived only for 3 days
○ Daughter that was 9 years younger than Carl
○ Because of this, he lived as if he was an only
child.
● Years later his mother was hospitalized, he associated
“woman” with unreliability, and “father” meant reliable but
powerless.
● Gradually became aware of two separate aspects of
himself
○ No. 1 personality or extraverted (objective)
■ Active in his later years
○ No. 2 personality or introverted (subjective)
■ Active in his early years
● Completed his medical degree from Basel University in
1900.
○ Became a psychiatric assistant to Eugene
Bleuler Burghöltzli Mental Hospital in Zürich
(most prestigious psychiatric teaching hospital
in the world at that time).
● In 1903, he married Emma Rauschenbach, a young
sophisticated woman from a wealthy Swiss family.
● In 1906, Jung and Freud began a steady
correspondence.
○ Freud and Jung developed a strong mutual
respect and affection for one another, talking
 during their first meeting for 13 straight hours
and well into the early morning hours.
○ Freud believed that Jung was the ideal person
to be his successor. Freud had warm personal
feelings for Jung and regarded him as a man of
great intellect.
■ Prompted Jung as the first president of
the International Psychoanalytic
Association.
○ An underlying tension between Jung and Freud
slowly began to simmer. This personal tension
was not diminished when the two now-famous
psychoanalysts began to interpret each other’s
dreams, a pastime likely to strain any
relationship.
● Frank McLynn claimed that Jung’s mother complex
caused him to harbor animosity toward his wife, but more
likely, Jung needed more than one woman to satisfy two
aspects of his personality.
○ Emma Jung (wife) resonated more with his no.
1 personality.
○ Antonia (Toni) Wolff (former patient) resonated
more with his no. 2 personality.
● (Probably) the major reason why Jung broke off with
Freud is because of his early experience of the sexual
assault by an older man he once worshipped—which he
somehow associated with Freud.
○ Years later, Jung went through what Henri
Ellenberger called the “creative illness.”
● In 1944, he became a professor of medical psychology
at the University of Basel, although poor health forced
him to resign.
● Died on June 6, 1961
Levels of the Psyche
● Conscious
○ Conscious images are those that are sensed by
the ego, whereas the unconscious elements
have no relationship with the ego.
■ Ego is the center of consciousness,
but not the core of personality yet still
needs to be completed by the more
comprehensive self.
■ Healthy individuals are in contact with
their conscious world, but they also
allow themselves to experience their
unconscious self and thus achieve
individuation, a concept called ‘self-
realization’.
● Personal unconscious
○ Formed by our individual experiences.
○ Embraces all repressed, forgotten, or
subliminally perceived experiences of one
particular individual.
■ Contents of the personal unconscious
are called complexes.
● Complex is an emotionally
toned conglomeration of
associated ideas.
○ Partly conscious and
may stem from both
personal and
collective
unconscious.
● Example: the word “mother”
sparks an emotional
response resulting in blocking
the smooth flow of thought.
● Collective unconscious
○ Results from individual experiences, the
collective unconscious has roots in the
ancestral past of the entire species.
■ Contents of it do not lie dormant but
are active and influence a person’s
thoughts, emotions, and actions.
■ It is responsible for people’s beliefs:
myths, legends, religion.
■ It does not refer to inherited ideas but
rather to humans’ innate tendency to
react in a particular way whenever
their experiences stimulate a ■ Striving to know the shadow is the first
biologically inherited response
tendency.
■ Example: a mother innately reacts
lovingly toward her newborn despite
having previous negative feelings
toward the fetus.
● Archetypes
○ Ancient or archaic images that derive from the
collective unconscious.
○ Similar to complexes in that they are
emotionally toned collections of associated
images, but whereas complexes are
individualized components of the personal
unconscious, archetypes are generalized and
derive from the contents of the collective
unconscious.
○ It cannot be directly represented, but when
activated:
■ It expresses itself through several
modes, primarily in dreams, fantasies,
and delusions.
■ Have their own autonomous
personality which also affects the
personality of a person as a whole.
○ Have biological basis but originate through the
repeated experiences of early ancestors.
○ Some archetypes that are developed enough to
be conceptualized are:
○ 1. Persona
■ Side of personality shown to the world.
■ If identified too closely with it, we
remain unconscious of our individuality
and are blocked from attaining self-
realization.
■ To become psychologically healthy,
Jung believed we must strike a
balance between the demands of
society and what we truly are.
○ 2. Shadow
■ Darkness and repression, represents
those qualities we do not wish to
acknowledge but attempt to hide from
ourselves and others.
test of courage.
■ It is easier to project the dark side of
our personality onto others, to see in
them the ugliness and evil that we
refuse to see in ourselves.
○ Anima
■ Feminime side of men (second test of
courage).
■ Resistant to consciousness.
 ■ Must be comfortable with the shadow
first.
■ Few men become well acquainted with
their anima because this task requires
great courage and is even more
difficult than becoming acquainted with
their shadow.
■ Jung believed that the anima
originated from early men’s
experiences with women—mothers,
sisters, and lovers— that combined to
form a generalized picture of women.
○ Animus
■ Masculine side of women—symbolic of
thinking and reasoning.
■ Whereas anima represents irrational
moods and feelings, the animus is
symbolic of thinking and reasoning.
■ Jung believed that the animus is
responsible for thinking and opinion in
women just as the anima produces
feelings and moods in men.
○ Great mother
■ Derived from anima that is present
among men and women.
■ Represents two opposing forces:
● Fertility and nourishment
(capable of producing and
sustaining life).
● Power and destruction
(devour or neglect the
offspring)
● Fertility and power combined
form the concept of rebirth
(individuation).
■ Symbolized as a godmother, mother of
god, mother nature, mother earth,
stepmother, or witch.
○ Wise old man
■ Derived from animus.
■ Archetype of wisdom, symbolizes
humans’ preexisting knowledge of the
mysteries of life.
■ The danger to society is that people
may become swayed by profound
words despite the hollowness of its
meaning, and call it “wisdom.”
■ Personified in dreams as father,
grandfather, teacher, philosopher,
guru, doctor, priest.
○ Hero
■ Represented in mythology and
legends as a powerful person,
sometimes part god, who fights
against great odds to conquer or
vanquish evil in the form of dragons,
monsters, serpents, or demons.
■ An immortal with no weakness is not a
hero.
■ Touches an archetype within us, as
demonstrated by our fascination with
heroes in movies, novels, plays, and
television programs.
■ In conquering the villain the hero is
symbolically overcoming darkness of
pre human unconsciousness.
○ Self
■ Move toward growth, perfection, and
completion.
■ Archetype of archetypes because it
pulls together other archetypes and
unites them in the process of self-
realization.
■ Mandala
● Ultimate symbol of the self.
● Represents the strivings of
the collective unconscious for
unity, balance, and
wholeness.
● Also represents the perfect
self, the archetype of order,
totality, and unity.
■ Represents both personal
consciousness and collective
unconscious.
● Not to be confused with the
ego which only represents
consciousness.
Dynamics of Personality
● Causality
○ Holds that present events have their origin in
previous experiences.
● Teleology
○ Holds that present events are motivated by
future goals and aspirations for the future that
direct a person’s destiny.
● Progression
○ Forward flow of psychic energy.
○ Inclines a person to react consistently to a given
set of environmental conditions.
● Regression
○ Backward flow of psychic energy.
○ Activates the unconscious psyche, an essential
aid in the solution of most problems.
○ Regression is exemplified in Jung’s midlife
crisis, during which time his psychic life was
turned inward toward the unconscious and
away from any significant outward
accomplishments.
Psychological Types
● Attitudes
○ A predisposition to act or react in a
characteristic direction.
○ Introversion
■ Turning inward of psychic energy with
an orientation toward the subjective.
■ Still has its views on the external world
but does so selectively and
subjectively.
○ Extroversion
■ Turning outward of psychic energy so
that a person is oriented toward the
objective.
■ Pragmatic and well rooted to the
realities of their daily life.
■ Overly suspicious of the subjective
attitude.
○ People are neither completely introverted nor
completely extraverted.
● Functions
○ Both introversion and extraversion can combine
with any one or more of four functions, forming
eight possible orientations, or types.
○ The four functions usually appear in a hierarchy
with one occupying a superior position, another
 a secondary position, and the other two inferior demeanor, unfathomable ○ 1. Birth to adolescence (Childhood)
positions. psyche. ■ The early morning sun is childhood,
○ People who reach self-realization or ● Ignore traditional opinions full of potential, but still lacking in
individuation have all four functions. and beliefs. brilliance (consciousness).
○ Thinking ○ Sensing ■ Divided into three substages:
■ Logical intellectual activity that ■ Receives physical stimuli and ● The anarchic phase
produces a chain of ideas. transmits them to perceptual ○ Chaotic and
■ Extraverted thinking consciousness. sporadic
● People rely heavily on ■ Perception of sensory impulses. consciousness.
concrete thoughts, but they ■ Extraverted sensing ○ “Islands of
may also use abstract ideas if ● People perceive external consciousness” may
these have been transmitted stimuli objectively. exist but there is little
to them. ● Example: proofreader, house or no connection
● Not all objective thinking is painter, wine taster. among these
productive. ■ Introverted sensing islands.
● Example: mathematicians, ● People are largely influenced ● The monarchic phase
engineers, accountants. by their subjective sensations ○ Development of the
■ Introverted thinking of sight, sound, taste, touch, ego and by the
● People react to external etc. beginning of logical
stimuli, but their interpretation ● Example: portrait artist and verbal thinking.
of an event is colored more ● Too much of it may result in ○ Children see
by the internal meaning they hallucinations. themselves
bring with them. ○ Intuiting objectively and often
● Example: inventors, ■ Involves perception beyond the refer to themselves
philosophers. workings of consciousness. in the third person.
○ Feeling ■ Extraverted intuitive ● The dualistic phase
■ The process of evaluating an idea or ● People are oriented toward ○ Ego is divided into
event. facts in the external world. the objective and
■ Valuing. ● Perceive facts subliminally. subjective.
■ Extraverted feeling ● Example: inventors, religious ○ Children refer to
● People use objective data to reformers. themselves in the
make evaluations. ■ Introverted intuitive first person and are
● Guided by external values ● People are guided by aware of their
and widely accepted unconscious perception of existence as
standards of judgement. facts that are subjective. separate individuals.
● Know what to say in social ● Example: mystics, prophets, ○ 2. Adolescence to 35-40 (Youth)
situations (although might surrealist artists, religious ■ The morning sun is youth climbing
appear artificial, shallow, or fanatics. (appear peculiar to toward the zenith, but unaware of the
unreliable). other people) impending decline.
■ Introverted feeling Development of Personality ■ The period from puberty until middle
● People base their judgements ● Stages of development life.
primarily on subjective ○ Jung compared the trip through life to the ■ Young people strive to gain psychic
perceptions. journey of the sun through the sky, with the and physical independence from their
● Have individualized brightness of the sun representing parents, find a mate, raise a family,
conscience, taciturn consciousness. and make a place in the world.
 ■ Realization that the problem-free
childhood era is gone forever.
■ Challenge: desire to live in the past
called conservative principle.
○ 3. 35-40 to 65-70 (Middle life)
■ The sun has passed its zenith and
begins its downward descent.
■ Although this decline can present
middle-aged people with increasing
anxieties, middle life is also a period of
tremendous potential.
○ 4. 65-70 onwards or to death (Old age)
■ As the evening of life approaches,
people experience a diminution of
consciousness just as the light and
warmth of the sun diminish at dusk.
■ If people fear life during the early
years, then they will almost certainly
fear death during the later ones.
■ Fear of death is often taken as normal,
but Jung believed that death is the
goal of life and that life can be fulfilling
only when death is seen in this light.
■ Patients of Jung cling to backward
orientation, clinging desperately to
goals and lifestyles of the past.
● Can be treated by finding
meaning to death.
● Self-realization or individuation
○ Psychological rebirth is the process of
becoming an individual or whole person.
○ Coming to selfhood
○ Analytical psychology is essentially
psychology of opposites, and self-realization is
the process of integrating the opposite poles
into a single homogeneous individual.
Jung’s Methods of Investigation
● Strongly believed that the study of personality was not
the prerogative of any single discipline and that the
whole person could be understood only by pursuing
knowledge wherever it existed.
● “If you call me an occultist because I am seriously
investigating religious, mythological, folkloristic, and
philosophical fantasies in modern individuals and ancient
texts, then you are bound to diagnose Freud as a sexual
pervert since he is doing likewise sexual fantasies.”
● Word association test
○ His purpose in using the word association test
was to demonstrate the validity of Freud’s
hypothesis that the unconscious operates as an
autonomous process.
○ A test based on the principle that complexes
create measurable emotional responses.
■ List about 100 stimulus words chosen
and arranged to elicit an emotional
reaction.
■ Person is instructed to respond to
each stimulus word with the first word
that comes to mind.
■ Certain types of reactions indicate that
the stimulus word has touched a
complex. Critical responses include
restricted breathing, changes in the
electrical conductivity of the skin,
delayed reactions, multiple responses,
disregard of instructions, inability to
pronounce a common word. Failure to
respond, and inconsistency on test-
retest.
● Dream analysis
○ The purpose of Jungian dream interpretation is
to uncover elements from the personal and
collective unconscious and integrate them into
consciousness in order to facilitate the process
of self-realization.
○ Comprehend innumerable things beyond the
a range of human understanding.
○ The Jungian therapist must realize that dreams
are often compensatory; that is, feelings and
attitudes not expressed during waking life will
find an outlet through the dream process.
○ Jung felt that certain dreams offered proof for
the existence of the collective unconscious.
These dreams included big dreams, which have
special meaning for all people; typical dreams,
which are common to most people; and earliest
dreams remembered.
○ First collective dream is big dreams—they have
special meaning for all people.
○ Second collective dream is typical dreams—
common to all people that include archetypal
figures.
○ Third collective dream is the earliest dream
remembered—can be traced back to age 3-4
and contain mythological and symbolic images;
has frequent appearance; possibly cannot be
produced by the mind itself.
● Active imagination
○ This method requires a person to begin with
any impression—a dream image, vision,
picture, or fantasy— and to concentrate until the
impression begins to “move.”
○ The person must follow these images to
wherever they lead and then courageously face
these autonomous images and freely
communicate with them.
○ The purpose of active imagination is to reveal
archetypal images emerging from the
unconscious.
○ As a variation to active imagination, Jung
sometimes asked patients who were inclined to
draw, paint, or express in some other nonverbal
manner the progression of their fantasies.
● Psychotherapy
○ Jung identified four basic approaches to
therapy, representing four developmental
stages in the history of psychotherapy.
■ Confession of a pathogenic secret
● This is the cathartic method
practiced by Josef Breuer and
his patient Anna O. for
patients who merely have a
need to share their secrets,
catharsis is effective.
■ Interpretation, explanation, and
elucidation
● This approach, used by
Freud, gives the patients
insight into the causes of their
neuroses, but may still leave
them incapable of solving
social problems.
■ Education of patients as social beings
● Approach adopted by Adler.
 ● Leaves patients merely
socially well adjusted.
■ Transformation
● The therapist must first be
transformed into a healthy
human being, preferably by
undergoing psychotherapy.
● The ultimate purpose of Jungian therapy
○ Help neurotic patients become healthy and to
encourage healthy people to work
independently toward self-realization. Jung
sought to achieve this purpose by using such
techniques as dream analysis and active
imagination to help patients discover personal
and collective unconscious material and to
balance these unconscious images with their
conscious attitude.
○ Admitted the importance of (positive and
negative) transference on the first three stages
of therapy.
○ Countertransference (therapist’s feelings toward
the patient) could help/hindrance the treatment.
Critique of Jung
● Jung’s theory is nearly impossible to either verify or
falsify.
● The collective unconscious, the core of Jung’s theory,
remains a difficult concept to test empirically.
● Moderate rating on generating research.
● Moderate on its ability to organize knowledge.
● Low on practicality.
● Low on internal consistency.
● Low on parsimony.
Concept of Humanity
● Jung saw humans as complex beings with many
opposing poles. His view of humanity was neither
pessimistic or optimistic, neither deterministic nor
purposive.
● People are motivated partly by conscious thoughts,
partly by images from their personal unconscious, and
partly by latent memory traces inherited from their
ancestral past. Their motivation comes from both casual
and teleological factors.
● No one is completely introverted or totally extraverted; all
male or all female; solely a thinking. Feeling, sensing, or
intuitive person; and no one proceeds invariably in the
direction of either progression or regression.
● The various complexes and archetypes cast their spell
over people and are responsible for many of their words
and actions and most of their dreams and fantasies.
Chapter 5: Melanie Klein: Object Relations Theory
Biography
● March 30 1882 (Vienna Austria) - September 22, 1960
● Emphasized about the nurturing and loving relationship
between parent and child, but is neither towards her
daughter Melitta.
● The youngest out of 4 children. Had unhealthy early
relationships (abuse).
○ Two of her siblings (both of which are her
favorite) died before she turned 21.
■ Never got over grieving her older (4
years) sister Sidonie.
● Gave birth to 3 children—Melitta (1904), Hans (1907), &
Erich (1914)—despite detesting pregnancy.
○ Marriage failed.
● Sandor Ferenczi introduced her to the world of
psychoanalysis.
○ After experiencing analysis and reading Freud’s
On Dreams, she fell in love with
psychoanalysis.
○ Started psychoanalysing her child Erich.
○ Melitta was analyzed by Karen Horney.
● Began the practice of psychoanalyzing children directly
using the play technique
○ In 1919, she established her own
psychoanalytic practice in Berlin and made her
first contribution to the psychoanalytic literature
with The Development of a Child.
● The psycho-analysis of Children (1932)
○ Klein started to become a prominent figure in
the psychoanalytic community. She began to
have many rivals: Anna Freud, Edward Glover,
and Melitta Schmideberg.
Introduction to Object Relations Theory
● Suggests that the infant’s drives (hunger, sex...) are
directed to an object—breast, penis, vagina, etc.
● Klein insisted that the child’s relation to the breast is
fundamental and serves as a prototype of basis for later
relations to whole objects, such as mother and father.
● Motivation comes from interpersonal relationships (not
sexual behaviors); mother-child.
● Maternalistic focus.
● The child associates the mother to an object (hand,
breast), and not yet as a person.
● Klein: Mother of object relations theory; Freud: father of
objects relations theory.
Psychic Life of the Infant
 ● Infants (4-6 months) do not begin life with a blank slate
but with an inherited predisposition to reduce the anxiety
they experience as a result of the conflict produced by
the forces of the life instinct and the power of the death
instinct.
● Phantasies
○ Psychic representation of unconscious id
instincts, or the unconscious images of good or
bad.
○ Black and white view of the surroundings.
● Objects
○ Any person, part of a person, or thing through
which the drive is satisfied.
○ Kung saan dinadirect yung drive ng isang
infant.
Positions
● Ways of dealing with both internal and external objects.
Rather than “stages of development”, Klein chose the
term positions to indicate that positions alternate back
and forth (pwedeng magpabalik balik sa “stage”); they
are not periods of time or phases of development
through which a person passes.
● Life and death instincts.
● Paranoid-schizoid position
○ A way of organizing experiences that includes
both paranoid feelings of being persecuted and
a splitting of internal and external objects into
the good and the bad.
○ Persecutory anxiety
■ Dangers felt by the infant that
threatens the ego.
○ Objects that give the infant satisfaction are
good breasts and otherwise bad breasts.
○ “Black and white” view of the world if fixated.
● Depressive position
○ Begins at about 5-6 months
○ The feelings of anxiety over losing a loved
object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting
to destroy that object.
○ Realization that both the good and bad exist in
one person.
■ Reproach by reparation of attacks for
their previous transgression.
○ Fixation leads to lack of trust, inability to move
on (properly).
Psychic Defense Mechanism
● Children adopt several psychic defense mechanisms to
control anxieties aroused by their own destructive
fantasies.
● Introjection
○ Fantasy of taking into the body those
perceptions and experiences that they’ve had
with the external object.
○ Incorporates the “good and bad” qualities of an
object onto self.
○ Somehow similar to Freud’s, just that its
internalized perceptions come from objects
rather than humans.
○ Example: a “good breast” could lead to the child
becoming a good person, and a “bad breast”
leads otherwise.
● Projection
○ Fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses
actually reside in another person and not within
one’s body.
○ Getting rid of the “absorbed” good and bad
objects.
○ Example: if an infant felt good with the breast, it
may attribute it to the mother feeling good about
the infant.
● Splitting
○ Keeping apart incompatible impulses.
○ Good and bad objects.
○ Positive effect: see both positive and negative
aspects of the self.
○ Negative effect: lead to pathological repression.
■ If a child cannot deal with their “bad
behavior” the only way to do so is by
repressing them.
● Projective identification
○ Splitting off unacceptable parts of themselves,
projecting them into another object, and finally
introjecting them back into themselves in a
changed or distorted form.
○ Example: infants’ split destructive impulse and
project them into the bad breast, then identify
with the breast by introjecting in order to gain
control of both good and bad breast.
Internalization
● The person takes in aspects of the external world and
then organizes those interjections into a psychologically
meaningful framework.
● Ego
○ Developed earlier
○ Strong enough to feel anxiety, to use defense
mechanisms, and to form both phantasy and
reality
○ Although the ego is mostly unorganized at birth,
it is, nevertheless, strong.
■ Managing destructive and loving
behavior through splitting projection
and introjection.
○ As infants mature, their perceptions become
more realistic, they no longer see the world in
terms of partial objects, and their egos become
more integrated.
○ Must become split before unifying.
● Superego
○ Different from Freud’s
■ Emerges earlier in life
■ Not an outgrowth of oedipus complex
■ More harsh and cruel.
○ It produces terror in early superego as young
children fear being cut up and torn into pieces.
○ Rejected Freud’s notion that the superego is a
consequence of the Oedipus complex.
■ Superego is more harsh at first, but
because of Oedipus complex, it will
somehow tone down.
● Oedipus complex
○ Hypothesized that during the early stages, it
serves the need for both genders, that is to
establish a positive attitude with a good or
gratifying object and to avoid the bad or
terrifying object.
○ Took place during and overlaps with the oral
and anal stages and climaxed during the genital
(phallic talaga to, mas trip lang tawaging
genital) stage (3-4 years).
○ A significant part of the Oedipus complex is
children’s fear of retaliation from their parents
for their fantasy of emptying the parent’s body.
○ Two types
 ■ Female oedipus complex (female
oedipal development)
● At the beginning, during the
first months of life, a little girl
sees her mother’s breast as
both “good and bad.”
● Around 6 months of age, she
begins to view the breast as
more positive than negative.
● Later, she sees her whole
mother as full of good things,
and this attitude leads her to
imagine how babies are
made.
■ Male oedipus complex (male oedipal
development)
● Just like the little girl, the boy
sees the mother’s breast as
both good and bad.
● The boy’s oral desires from
his mother’s breast will shift
to the father’s penis (called
feminine position).
● He will move to
heterosexual relationship with
his mother.
● The boy must have a good
feeling for his father’s penis
because he knows he has his
own.
● As the boy matures, he will
develop oral-sadistic
impulses toward his father.
○ Biting off his father’s
penis and vice
versa, which leads
to castration anxiety.
Later Theories in Object Relations
● Margaret Mahler (1879-1985)
○ Born in Sopron, Hungary
○ Received a medical degree in University of
Vienna in 1923
○ Moved to New York where she was a
consultant to the Children’s service of the New
York State Psychiatric Institute.
○ She believed that an individual’s psychological the mother-infant
birth begins during the first weeks of postnatal symbiotic orbit.
life and continues for the next 3 years or so. ○ Independence for
○ By psychological birth, she meant that the child the baby.
becomes an individual separate from their ● Practicing (7-16 months)
primary caregiver. That leads to a sense of ○ Children distinguish
identity. their body from their
○ Mahler is concerned with the psychological birth mothers, establish a
of an individual. specific bond with
○ Stages of development their mother, and
■ First stage - normal autism (0-4 begin to develop an
weeks) autonomous ego.
● A newborn infant satisfies ○ Improvement of
various needs within the all- independence.
powerful protective orbit of ● Rapprochement (16-25
mother’s care. months)
○ Nutritional needs ○ They desire to bring
included. their mother and
● Absolute primary narcissism. themselves back
● We can compare the child together, both
into a bird’s egg. physically and
■ Second stage - normal symbiosis (4-5 psychologically.
weeks) ○ Still carries a bit of
a ● “Infant behaves and functions dependency.
as though he and his mother ○ More likely to show
were an omnipotent system.” separation anxiety
● Infant recognizes the mother. during this substage.
● Not a true symbiosis because ○ Rapprochement
the infant needs the mother, crisis: fight with their
but the mother does not need mother.
the infant. ● Libidinal object constancy (3
■ Third stage - separation-individuation years)
(4-36 months) ○ Children must
● Children become separated develop a constant
from their mothers. They also inner representation
have a sense of individuality of their mother so
and self-identity. that they can tolerate
● Children have to face the being physically
external world alone as a separate from her.
form of realization. ○ Children depend on
● Division: their mother's
● Differentiation (5-10 months) physical presence
○ Marked by a bodily for security.
breaking away from
 ○ Independence is ■ Developed the stages of separation upset, and when their mother
enhanced greatly anxiety (related to abnormal returns, they seek contact
(function alone). psychology). with her but reject attempts at
● Heinz Kohut (1913-1981) ● Protest being soothed.
○ Born in Vienna to educated and talented Jewish ○ When caregivers are ■ Anxious-avoidant theory
parents. out of sight, infants ● With this style, infants stay
○ A neurologist and psychoanalyst. will cry and search calm when their mother
○ On the eve of WWII, he emigrated to England for them. leaves; they accept the
and a year later, he moved to the United States ● Despair stranger and when their
where he spent most of his professional life. ○ As separation mother returns, they ignore
○ Theory continues, infants and avoid her.
■ Emphasized the process by which the will become quiet, Psychotherapy
self evolves from vague sad, passive, ● “Talk therapy”
undifferentiated image to a clear and listless, apathetic. ● A way to help people with a broad variety of mental
precise sense of individual identity. ● Detachment illnesses and emotional difficulties.
● Babies don’t have a sense of ○ Infants in this stage ● Anna Freud
individuality. will be emotionally ○ Children should only be analyzed when they
■ Infants require adult caregivers not detached to other reached the latency period (begins at around
only to gratify physical needs but also people. age six) because young children who were still
the basic psychological needs ● Severe separation anxiety attached to their parents could not profit from
(selfobjects). may also lead to other psychoanalytic therapy, therefore it is best to
■ Infants are naturally narcissistic. disorders. focus on the child’s environment as to support
● Need to exhibit the grandiose ■ Assumptions of attachment theory their psychosexual and emotional development,
self: mirroring approval of its ● A responsive and accessible and prevent neurosis from taking root.
behavior. caregiver (usually the other) ■ Child analysis is only appropriate when
● Need to acquire an idealized must create a secure base for a child develops neurosis—when an
image of one or both parents: the child. individual experiences (great) stress
some else is perfect; “you are ● A bonding relationship (or with no delusions.
perfect, but I am part of you.” lack thereof) becomes ● Melanie Klein
● John Bowlby (1907-1990) internalized and serves as a ○ “Human psych is unstable, fluid, constantly
○ Born in London where his father was a well- mental working model on fending off psychotic anxieties.”
known surgeon. which future friendships and ○ Both disturbed and healthy children should be
○ From an early age, Bowlby was interested in love relationships are built. psychoanalyzed; disturbed children would
natural science, medicine, and psychology— ● Mary Ainsworth receive the benefit of therapeutic treatment,
subjects he studied at Cambridge University. ○ Strange situation (types of attachment) whereas healthy children would profit from a
After receiving a medical degree, he started his ■ Secure attachment prophylactic analysis (parang preventive
practice in psychiatry and psychoanalysis in ● When their mother returns, analysis).
1933. infants are happy and ○ Negative transference was an essential step
○ During WWII, he served as an army enthusiastic and initiate toward a successful treatment.
psychiatrist. contact. ○ Play therapy
○ Attachment theory ● Healthiest form of ■ Form of counseling or psychotherapy
■ Attachment formed during childhood attachment. in which play is used as means of
has an important impact on adulthood. ■ Anxious-resistant theory helping children express or
● When their mother leaves the communicate their feelings that
room, they become unusually involves interpreting their play as a
 window on their unconscious mind,
believing that young children express
their conscious and unconscious
wishes better compared when using
Freudian’s dream analysis and free
association.
■ In addition to expressing negative
transference feelings as a means of
play, Klein’s young patients often
attacked her verbally, which gave her
an opportunity to interpret the
unconscious motives behind these
attacks (1943)
● Anna Freud disagreed and
said that Klein over analyzed
the children too much.
○ Kleinian Therapy
■ Aim: Reduce depressive anxieties and
persecutory fears and to mitigate the
harshness of internalized objects.
■ How: Encouraged patients to
reexperience early emotions and
fantasies but this time with the
therapist pointing out the differences
between reality and fantasy, between
conscious and unconscious. She also
allowed patients’ understanding of how
unconscious fantasies connect with
present everyday situations.
■ Result: Patients feel less persecuted
by internalized objects, experience
reduced anxiety, and are able to
project previously brightening internal
objects in the world.
Relation of Object Relations Theory with Attachment Theory
● Object relations theory
○ Object relations theorists see human
personality as a product of the early mother and
child relationships; the interaction between
mother and infant lays the foundation for future
personality development because the early
interpersonal experience serves as a prototype
for subsequent interpersonal relations.
● Attachment theory
○ Explain that primary caregivers who are Biography
available and responsive to an infant’s needs ● Born (the youngest of five older brothers) on September
allow the child to develop a sense of security. 15, 1885 in Eilbek, Hamburg, Germany
The infant knows that the caregiver is ○ Childhood: felt unwanted and unloved.
dependable, which creates a secure base of the ● Parents: Berndt Danielsen (Father) and Clothilda van
child to then explore the world. Ronzelen Danielsen (Mother)
● Both theories have an effect on future relationships ● Hostile towards her father and labeled him as a religious
whether it is romantic or not. hypocrite, yet idolized her mother.
● Related research ● At age 13, she wanted to become a physician, but no
○ Childhood trauma and adult object relations university in Germany admitted women.
phantasies ○ At age 16, objected by her father, so she
■ People with traumatic childhood entered the gymnasium that would lead her to
experiences see strangers as enter a medical school.
dangerous and rejecting and may ● Her attained independence was superficial as she had
develop shame. the need to be merged with a great man.
■ People find themselves unworthy of ○ Idealization and fear inciting angry rejection
connecting to other people. haunted her during her relationship with a
○ Attachment theory and adult relationships series of men.
■ Anxious individual needs constant ● In 1906, she entered the University of Freiburg (she was
reassurance in terms of (future) plans. one of the first women in Germany to study medicine).
Critique of Object Relations Theory ○ She met Oskar Horney (political science
● The theory does not lend itself to falsifications because it student)
generates very few testable hypotheses. ■ Married in 1909.
○ Attachment theory rates higher on falsification. ● Filled with notable
● Lacks usefulness as an organizer of knowledge. experiences.
● High internal consistency. ○ Parents died less
● Low in parsimony. than a year after
Concept of Humanity each other.
● High on determinism, low on free choice. ○ Gave birth to three
● Either pessimistic or optimistic. daughters in 5 years.
● More on causality than teleology. ○ Received her MD
● High on unconsciousness. degree in 1915
● Biology more than environment. ○ Had several love
● Similarities more than uniqueness. affairs
■ Early years of separation with Oskar
Horney
● Most productive
○ Seeing patients
○ Cared for her three
daughters
○ Involved in writing,
teaching, traveling,
and lecturing
Chapter 6: Karen Horney: Psychoanalytic Social ○ “Culture, not
Theory anatomy, was
 responsible for
psychic differences
between men and
women”
● In 1910, started an analysis with Karl Abraham (an
associate of Freud) that led her to be more acquainted
with other psychoanalysts.
● In 1917, she wrote her first paper on psychoanalysis:
“The Technique of Psychoanalytic Therapy”
○ Reflected the orthodox of Freudian view and
gave little indication of her independent
thinking.
● In 1923, she left Germany for a position as associate
director of the newly established Chicago Psychoanalytic
Institute.
● In 1950, she published her most important work
‘Neurosis and Human Growth’
○ Not a reaction to Freud’s theories but an
expression of her own creative and independent
thinking.
● Died of cancer on December 4, 1952 at the age of 65.
Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory
● Horney and Freud compared
○ Strict adherence to orthodox psychoanalysis
would lead to stagnation in both theoretical
thought and therapeutic practice
○ Objected to Freud’s ideas on feminine
psychology
○ View of psychoanalysis should move beyond
instinct theory and emphasize the importance of
cultural influences in shaping personality
○ “Man is ruled not by the pleasure principle alone
but by two guiding principles: safety and
satisfaction.”
○ Neuroses are not a result of instincts but rather
an attempt to find paths through a wilderness
(created by society and not by instinct or
anatomy) full of unknown dangers.
○ Freud’s views result in a pessimistic concept of
humanity based on innate instincts and
stagnation of personality.
■ Hers is an optimistic one centered on
cultural forces that are amenable to
change.
● The impact of culture
○ Cultural influences as primary bases for both
neurotic and normal personality development
○ Modern culture
■ Competitiveness and basic hostility
spawns feelings of isolation.
■ Feelings of being alone will cause
people to overvalue love that may
result in being love and affection as
the solution to problems.
■ Genuine love can be a healthy,
growth-producing experience, but
desperation for love provides fertile
ground for the development of
neuroses.
● Neurotics strive
pathological ways
○ Self-defeating
attempts result in
low self-esteem,
increased hostility,
basic anxiety, more
competitiveness,
continuous
excessive need for
love and affection.
○ Western society contributes to vicious circle
■ Cultural teachings of kinship and
humility.
● Contrary to prevailing attitude
—aggressiveness and drive
to win or be superior.
■ Society’s demands for success and
achievement.
■ People are liberated, yet freedom is
mostly restricted by genetics, social
position, and competitiveness of
others.
● The Importance of Childhood Experiences
○ Neurotic conflicts stem from any developmental
stage but childhood is from which the vast
majority of problems arise that leaves an
impression on a child’s future development.
■ Sexual abuse, beatings, open
rejection, pervasive neglect
○ Difficult childhood is responsible for neurotic
needs.
○ “The sum total of childhood experiences brings
about a certain character, structure, or rather,
starts its development.”
■ Totality of early relationships molds
personality development.
○ “Later attitudes to others, then, are not
repetitions of infantile ones but emanate from
the character structure, the basis of which is
laid in childhood.”
Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
● Inextricably interwoven.
● Certain conditions are needed in order to potentially
in have a healthy development to provide them safety and
satisfaction that will grow in accordance with their real
self.
○ Warm and loving environment yet not overly
permissive.
○ Genuine love and healthy discipline.
● Multiple of adverse influences interfering with the certain
conditions
○ Parent’s inability or unwillingness to love their
child.
■ Neglect, overprotect, reject,
overindulge.
● If safety and satisfaction is not met by the parents, the
child develops basic hostility.
○ Repressed by the child, this leads to profound
feelings of insecurity and a vague sense of
apprehension called basic anxiety (feeling of
being isolated and helpless in a world
conceived as potentially hostile).
● Hostile impulses are the principal source of basic
anxiety, but basic anxiety also contributes to feelings of
hostility.
● Reciprocal influence intensifies neurosis without
additional outside conflict.
● 4 general ways of defense against basic anxiety
○ 1. Affection
■ Does not lead to authentic love.
■ May try to purchase love with self-
effacing compliance, material goods,
sexual favors.
○ 2. Submissiveness
 ■ Submit to people or institutions in
order to gain affection
○ 3. Power, Prestige, Possession
■ Power: against hostility; takes the form
of a tendency to dominate others.
■ Prestige: against humiliation;
expressed as a tendency to humiliate
others.
■ Possession: buffer against destitution
and poverty; manifests itself as a
tendency to deprive others.
○ 4. Withdrawal
■ Developing an independence from
others or by becoming emotionally
detached from them.
■ By withdrawing, neurotics feel that
they cannot be hurt by other people.
Compulsive Drives
● Neurotics do not enjoy misery and suffering.
● Behavior cannot be changed by their own free will, but
must continually and compulsively protect themselves
against basic anxiety.
● Neurotic needs (10 categories)
○ 1. The neurotic need for affection and approval
■ People pleaser.
■ Live up to the expectations of others
and tend to dread self-assertion.
○ 2. The neurotic need for a powerful partner.
■ Overvaluation of love and a dread of
being alone or deserted.
○ 3. The neurotic needs to restrict one’s life within
narrow borders.
■ Remain inconspicuous, take second
place, and to be content with very little.
■ Downgrade themselves.
○ 4. The neurotic need for power.
■ Power and affection are the two
greatest neurotic needs.
○ 5. The neurotic needs to exploit others.
■ Ways of exploiting others but does not
wish to be exploited.
○ 6. The neurotic need for social recognition or
prestige.
■ Trying to be first, to be important, or to
attract attention to themselves.
○ 7. The neurotic need for personal admiration.
■ To be admired for what they are rather
than what they possess.
○ 8. The neurotic need for ambition and personal
achievement.
■ Striving to be the best.
■ Must defeat other people in order to
confirm their superiority.
○ 9. The neurotic need for self-sufficiency and
independence.
■ The need to move away from people.
■ The playboy who cannot be tied down
by any woman exemplifies this
neurotic need.
○ 10. The neurotic need for perfection and
unassailability.
■ Strive for perfection as proof of their
self-esteem and personal superiority.
■ Dread to make mistakes in front of
other people.
● Neurotic trends
○ 3 categories of the 10 neurotic needs
○ 1. Moving toward people
■ Sees people as source of affection
■ Appear loving, friendly, generous,
unselfish, humble, sensitive.
■ Morbid dependency or codependency.
■ Philosophy of life
● Willing to subordinate
themselves to others.
■ Neurotic need:
● For affection and approval
● For a powerful partner
● To restrict one’s life within
narrow borders.
○ 2. Moving against people
■ Sees everyone as a potential enemy.
■ Appear tough and ruthless
■ Can survive in a competitive society.
■ Neurotic need:
● For power
● To exploit others
● For ambition and personal
achievement
● For social recognition and
prestige
● For personal admiration
○ 3. Moving away from people
■ Need for privacy, independence, and
self-sufficiency.
■ Autonomous and serene.
■ Becomes a neurotic need when people
try to satisfy them by compulsively
putting emotional distance between
themselves and other people.
■ Have an intensified need to be strong
and powerful.
● Self-deceptive belief that they
are perfect and beyond
criticism.
■ Neurotic need:
● For self-sufficiency and
independence
● For perfection and
unassailability
Intrapsychic Conflicts
● Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal
experiences; but as they become part of a person’s
belief system, they develop a life of their own—an
existence separate from the interpersonal conflicts that
gave them life.
● Idealized self-image
○ Human beings are capable of developing a
sense of security and self-confidence, but due
to early negative influences, people become
desperate to acquire a stable sense of identity.
To fight this dilemma, humans create an
idealized self-image.
○ See themselves with infinite powers and
unlimited capabilities (hero, genius, supreme
lover, saint, god).
○ Solidified self-image results in neurotics to
believe it as the reality, therefore they lose
touch with their real self and use the idealized
self as the standard for self-evaluation.
○ Three aspects:
■ Neurotic search for glory
● Incorporates their lives—
goals, self-concept, relations
 with others— from their shouldn’t and are ● Designed to actualize an
idealized self. unapologetic when people inflated self-image.
● Need for perfection call them out. ● “I must not wear nice clothes
○ Drive to mold the ■ Neurotic pride because many people around
whole personality ● Based on an idealized image the world are in rags.”
into the idealized of self and is usually loudly ● “Di q dasurv yon, di q dasurv
self. proclaimed in order to protect yan.”
○ Tyranny of the and support a glorified view of ■ 5. Self-torment
should. one’s self. ● “Self-torture”
■ “Forget ● To prevent the hurt, they ● Main intention is to inflict
about the avoid people who refuse to harm on oneself.
disgraceful yield to their neurotic claims ● Masochistic people attain
creature and instead, they try to satisfaction by anguishing
you actually become associated with over a decision, exaggerating
are; this is socially prominent and pain, self-harm, inviting
how you prestigious institutions and physical abuse.
should be.” acquisitions. ■ 6. Self-destructive actions and
● Neurotic ambition ● Self-hatred impulses
○ Compulsive drive ○ Realization that their real self does not match ● Can be either:
toward superiority. the insatiable demands of their idealized self ○ Physical or
○ Channel energies ○ 6 major ways of expressing self-hatred psychological
into activities that ■ 1. Relentless demands on the self ○ Conscious or
are most likely to ● Tyranny of the should unconscious
bring success. ● Example: not stopping ○ Acute or chronic
● Drive toward vindictive despite achieving a measure ○ Carried out in action
triumph of success. or enacted in the
○ Most destructive ■ 2. Merciless self-accusation imagination
element of all. ● Taking responsibility for ● Example: breaking off a
○ Drive for success by heavy tasks then suddenly healthy relationship in favor of
aiming to put others questioning the virtue of their a neurotic one.
in shame or defeat. own motivations. Feminine Psychology
○ Increase the drive ● “If people only knew me, they ● Horney set her own theory that rejected Freud’s.
with every success would realize that I;m ● Psychic differences between men and women are not
achieved, which pretending to be the result of anatomy but rather cultural and social
raises fear of defeat. knowledgeable, competent, expectations.
■ Neurotic claims and sincere. I’m really a ○ Men who subdue and rule women, and women
● Entitled people that create an fraud, but no one knows it but who degrade or envy men is a result of
illusion of their world that is me.” competitiveness rampant in the society.
inline with their idealized self- ■ 3. Self-contempt ○ Basic anxiety
image. ● Belittling, disparaging, ■ Men’s need to subjugate women.
● Demands of special doubting, discrediting, ■ Women’s wish to humiliate men.
privileges. ridiculing oneself. ● Oedipus complex
● Example: People who cut in ● Prevent self from striving for ○ Due to environmental conditions, not biology.
line to buy movie tickets improvement or achievement. ○ An expression of the neurotic need for love.
despite knowing they ■ 4. Self-frustration
 ○ Clinging to one parent and showing jealousy to result in lack of confidence and having ● Altruism (desire to help
the other is a means of alleviating basic anxiety, zero improvement on it. others)
and despite having sexual aspects to it, the ■ Example: if a boy is expected not to ● Need for relationships
child’s main goal is for security and not sexual show his emotions and to be more ● Self-abasement (subjugation
intercourse. “masculine”, these may result in an of own needs to others’)
● Penis envy inability to express in adulthood. ■ Aggression (against)
○ Girls have no reason to be envious of a male’s ○ In 2005, Hyde issued a warning about the ● Malevolence (evil view of
penis. overinflated claims of gender differences, which others’ motivations)
○ Boys sometimes express desires of having a may harm women’s opportunities in the ● Power (desire to be in
baby, but this is not the result of a universal workplace, couple conflict, communication and command)
male “womb envy.” analysis of self-esteem problems among ● Strength
● Masculine protest adolescents. ■ Detachment (away).
○ Leads to the neurotic desire to be a man for the Psychotherapy ● Need for aloneness
reason that some qualities or privileges are ● Horneyian therapy ● Avoidance (resistance to
prevalent in men as what the society regards. ○ Help patients gradually grow in the direction of personal interactions)
● Janet Shibley Hyde self-realization. ● Self-sufficiency (enjoyment of
○ Analyzed meta-analyses of gender differences ■ Give up their idealized self-image living independently of family
to test the opposite prediction: that males and ■ Relinquish neurotic search for glory and friends)
females are more alike than they are different. ■ Change self-hatred to acceptance of ■ The diagnostic statistical manual
○ “File drawer problem” the self (DSM-5) contains clusters of
■ Possibility that there are more studies ○ Three neurotic trends personality disorders
that are not published due to the result ■ Love, mastery, freedom ● Cluster A: odd or eccentric
not reaching statistical significance, ■ Patients see their behavior in these disorders (paranoid, schizoid,
therefore, more evidence of positive terms that is why they think it schizotypal).
differences between genders is highly is healthy, right, and desirable. ○ Do not exhibit
accessible because these studies are ○ Ultimately successful therapy is built on self- altruistic or
the ones that got published. analysis. sympathetic
○ Hyde examined 46 meta-analyses, and her ■ Understanding the difference between behaviors.
examination of effect sizes supported the their idealized self-image and real self. ● Cluster B: dramatic,
gender similarities hypothesis. ○ Dream interpretation emotional, erratic group
○ Meta-analysis: statistical method of ■ Dreams as a way of attempting to (antisocial, borderline,
systematically combining data from many solve conflicts, but solutions can be histrionic, narcissistic)
studies (published and unpublished). either neurotic or healthy. ○ Aggression
○ Gender differences were unimportant. ○ Free association ● Cluster C: fearful and anxious
○ Persistent belief in gender differences is due to ■ Reveals the patient’s idealized self- group (avoidant, dependent,
thinking that males (Mars) and females (Venus) image. obsessive-compulsive)
come from different planets which appeals to a Related Research ○ Correlated positively
person’s intuition. ● Developing and validating a new measure of Horney’s with compliance.
○ Highly likely that these gender differences will neurotic trends ○ Predicting marital satisfaction in long-term
come true is due to behaving according to the ○ Frederick Coolidge and his colleagues married couples.
structure. developed an instrument called “The Horney- ■ Administered comprehensive marital
■ Example: if a girl is expected not to Coolidge Tridimensional Inventory” or HCTI satisfaction scale (CMSS) and HCTI
excel in math, her parents might not ■ Measures: ● Couples with low scores on
encourage her to study it, which might ■ Compliance (toward) the detachment scale were
 happier than those who ● Born on June 15, 1902 in Germany into a single-parent
scored higher. family
● Moving towards (compliance) ○ Uncertain about his biological father so he
and moving against made guesses about him:
(aggression) were unrelated ■ Theodor Homburger: physician
to marital satisfaction. ■ Valdemar Salomonsen: left his mother
● Can neuroticism ever be a good thing? 4 years before Erik was born
○ Michael Robinson and colleagues asked “how ■ Artistically gifted aristocratic Dane (one
could one be a successful neurotic?” that fits best for his guessed biological
■ People high in neuroticism detect father).
threats which are related to ● Ventured away from home during late adolescence—
experiencing less negative moods in wandering artist and poet.
daily life. ○ 7 years into searching, he came back confused,
Critique of Horney exhausted and depressed (unable to
● Not enough current research to support her suppositions. paint/sketch).
● Falls short to generate research and to submit to the ● Received an invitation letter from Peter Blos to teach
criterion of falsifiability. children in a new school in Vienna.
Concept of Humanity ○ One of the founders was Anna Freud.
● Slightly higher on free choice than on the determinism ● Most difficult problem: searching for his father’s identity.
concept of humanity. ● Met Joan Serson in Vienna, a Canadian-born dancer,
● Difference of a healthy person and a neurotic individual artist, and teacher (underwent psychoanalysis also).
is the degree of compulsivity with which each moves ○ Became coauthor of Erikson’s books.
toward, against, or away from people. ○ Had 4 children: sons Kai, Jon, and Neil (with
● Optimistic than pessimistic—people possess inherent down syndrome), and daughter Sue.
curative powers that lead them toward self-realization. ● Erik’s search for identity took him through difficult
● Stands in the middle in causality vs. teleology. experiences during his adult developmental stage.
● Unconscious than conscious motivation, especially for ○ Take care of children, products, and ideas
neurotic people as they have little understanding of (didn’t meet these standards especially with
themselves and their behaviors. Neil).
● Social influences than biological ones. ○ Placed Neil in an institution and Erik had told
● Highlights similarities rather than uniqueness. his other kids that Neil died at birth.
○ Told Kai (eldest) the truth, but deceived the two
younger children, Jon and Sue.
○ Realized that this deceit might distress his
children (the same way it distressed him about
his father).
● Erikson’s principles: (he violated both)
○ “Don’t lie to people you should care for”
○ “Don’t pit one family member against another”
Chapter 7: Erik Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory ● Sought his identity through the myriad changes of jobs
Biography and residence (lacked academic credentials, just known
● Erik Homburger (changed to Erikson when he went to as artist, psychologist, psychoanalyst, clinician,
America), Erik H. Erikson, Erik Salomonsen, Erik professor, cultural anthropologist, existentialist,
Homburger Erikson. psychobiography, public intellectual).
● In his time in America, during his California period, Erik
evolved a theory of personality separate from but not
incompatible with Freud’s.
● Influence of psychological, cultural, and historical factors
on identity was the underlying element that held various
chapters together.
● Left California and returned to Massachusetts where he
worked as a therapist at Austen Riggs.
● Returned to Harvard and held the position of professor of
human development for the next 10 years.
● After retirement: continued writing, lecturing, and seeing
a few patients.
● Seek his father’s name during all the changes that
happened in his life.
● Died May 12, 1994 (age 91).
The Ego in Post-Freudian Theory
● Ego
○ positive force that creates a self-identity, a
sense of “I.”
○ Defined as the ability to unify experiences and
actions in an adaptive manner.
○ Helps adapt to conflicts and crises of life that
keeps us from losing our individuality to the
leveling forces of society.
○ Weak, pliable, and fragile during childhood.
○ Take form and gain strength during
adolescence.
○ Partially unconscious organizing agency that
synthesizes our present experiences with past
self-identities and anticipated images of self.
○ Interrelated aspects of ego: body ego, ego
ideal, and ego identity. (rapid
changes/alterations during adolescence, but
can still happen at any stage in life).
○ Body ego
■ Experiences with our body.
■ Seeing our physical self as different
from other people.
■ Satisfied or dissatisfied with our body
looks and functions, but recognize that
it is the only one we will ever have
○ Ego ideal
■ Represents the image we have of
ourselves in comparison with an
established ideal.
 ■ Idealized self.
■ Responsible for being satisfied or
dissatisfied with our entire personal
identity (including physical self).
○ Ego identity
■ Image in the variety of social roles we
play.
■ “Facade”
● Society’s influence
○ Ego emerges from and is largely shaped by
society.
○ Ego exists as potential at birth, but must
emerge from within a cultural environment.
○ Prolonged permissive nursing of infants
resulted in “oral” personalities.
○ In European American societies, orality and
anality are considered undesirable traits or
neurotic symptoms.
■ Erikson: this view displays its own
ethnocentric (evaluation of one’s
culture according to another’s
standards) view of other societies.
○ Pseudospecies
■ Illusion perpetrated and perpetuated
by a particular society that it is
somehow chosen to be the human
species.
■ Cultural/societal differences separate
the people.
■ Past centuries: aided the survival of
the tribe.
■ Modern times: threatens the survival of
every nation (as demonstrated by Nazi
Germany).
○ Principal contribution to personality theory
■ Extensions of Freudian early stages of
development (include school age,
youth, adulthood, and old age).
● Epigenetic principle (term borrowed from embryology)
○ Epigenesis: one characteristic develops on top
of another in space and time.
○ Ego develops throughout the various stages of
life.
○ Epigenetic development implies a step-by-step
growth of fetal organs.
■ Embryo does not begin as a ○ 6. Multiplicity of conflicts and events
completely formed little person, but ■ Events in earlier stages are not the
rather it (should) develop according to only cause of later personality
a predetermined rate and in a fixed development.
sequence (if an organ does not ■ Ego is shaped by past, present, AND
develop during that critical period, it anticipated or future (events).
will never attain proper maturity). ○ 7. Identity crisis
○ Ego follows the path of epigenetic development. ■ Not a catastrophic event, but an
■ One stage emerges from a previous opportunity for adaptive or maladaptive
stage but does not replace that earlier adjustment.
stage. (crawling before walking, ■ Developed most especially during
walking before running, running before adolescence forward.
jumping). ■ “A turning point, a crucial period of
○ Anything that grows has a ground plan, and that increased vulnerability and heightened
out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part potential.”
having its time of special ascendency, until all ■ A person becomes susceptible to
parts have arisen to form a functioning whole. major modifications in identity (positive
Stages of Psychosocial Development or negative).
● Basic points: Stages of the Psychosocial Development Theory
○ 1. Growth takes place according to the ● 1. Infancy
epigenetic principle. ○ Parallel to Freud’s oral phase. (infancy to 2
○ 2. Interaction of opposites (conflict) years).
■ Syntonic (harmonious) element ○ Time of incorporation, infants taking in not only
● Example: basic trust through the mouth but through other various
■ Dystonic (disruptive) element sense organs as well.
● Example: mistrust ○ Oral-sensory mode
○ 3. Basic strength ■ Includes infants’ principal
■ Interaction of opposites produces ego psychosexual mode of adapting.
quality or ego strength. ■ Two modes of incorporation:
■ Kapag ang naform ay syntonic. ● Receiving and accepting
■ Example: antithesis between trust and ○ Can receive without
mistrust emerges hope, an ego quality having to manipulate
that allows an infant to move into the others. (Example:
next stage. breathing air)
○ 4. Core pathology ● Social context
■ Too little basic strength at any one ○ Not only must “get”,
stage. but also must get
■ Kapag ang naform ay dystonic. someone else to
■ Example: a child who does not acquire “give.” (will help
enough hope during infancy will them become
develop the antitheses or opposite of givers).
hope—withdrawal. ○ Basic trust vs. basic mistrust
○ 5. Biological aspect of human development ■ Most significant interpersonal relations
■ Despite being called the psychosocial with their primary caregiver—mother.
stages.
 ■ If their pattern of accepting things
corresponds with the culture’s way of
giving, then they will develop basic
trust.
● Too much trust will make
them gullible and vulnerable.
■ If they find no correspondence
between their oral-sensory needs and
their environment, they will develop
basic mistrust.
● Too much mistrust will lead to
frustration, anger, hostility,
cynicism, or depression.
○ Hope: The basic strength of infancy
■ Painful and pleasurable experiences
lead to the expectation of positive and
negative anticipated future events.
■ Core pathology: withdrawal.
● Retreat from the outside
world and go toward serious
psychological disturbances.
● 2. Early childhood
○ Parallel to Freud’s anal stage (2 to 3 years of
life).
○ Young children receive pleasure by mastering
sphincter muscle (example: anus), and other
body functions (urinating, walking, throwing,
holding...).
○ Develops a sense of control with their
interpersonal environment and self.
○ Anal-urethral-muscular mode
■ Control their body in relation to
cleanliness and mobility.
■ May display stubborn tendencies (such
as retain/eliminate feces, snuggle/push
away their mother).
○ Time of stubborn rebellion and meek
compliance, impulsive self-expression and
compulsive deviance, time of loving cooperation
and hateful resistance.
○ Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
■ A time of self-expression.
■ Parents may doubt the child’s ability to
meet their standard.
■ Major psychosocial crisis of early
childhood.
■ Shame: feeling of self-consciousness;
doubt: feeling of not being certain.
○ Will: The basic strength of early childhood
■ Beginning of free will and willpower.
■ Will is developed depending on the
environment the child is in—whether
they are given enough freedom of self-
expression or not.
■ Core pathology: compulsion.
● Forcing or being forced to do
something.
● Too much compulsivity
carries forward into the play
age as lack of purpose and
into the school age as lack of
confidence.
● 3. Play age
○ Parallel to Freud’s phallic phase (3-5 years)
○ Genital-locomotor mode
■ Primary psychosexual mode.
■ The oedipal situation is a prototype of
the lifelong power of human
playfulness.
■ Oedipus complex is the result of a
child’s imagination that includes the
understanding of reproduction, growth,
future, and death.
■ The rudimentary will evolve into
activity with a purpose.
○ Initiative vs. guilt
■ Adopting initiative in their selection and
pursuit of goals such as marrying their
parents or leaving home must be
repressed or delayed.
● Inhibited goals result in guilt.
■ Dominant psychosocial crisis of play
age.
■ Guilt as the dominant element results
in a compulsively moralistic or overly
inhibited child.
○ Purpose: The basic strength of the play age
■ Genital interests have a direction, with
mother or father being the object of
their sexual desires.
■ Children are developing their
conscience and beginning to attach
labels such as right and wrong to
behavior.
● This youthful conscience
becomes the cornerstone of
morality.
■ Core pathology: Inhibition.
● 4. School age
○ Covers about age 6 to 12-13.
○ Matches Freud's latency period.
○ Basic striving for competence—children’s wish
to know (about certain things).
○ Latency
■ School age as a period of
psychosexual latency.
■ Divert energies to learning the
technology of their culture and the
strategies of their social interactions.
■ Image of being competent or
incompetent—origin of ego identity.
○ Industry vs. inferiority
■ Time for tremendous social growth.
■ Industry: willingness to remain busy
with something and finish a job.
■ Sense of industry is developed when
children learn to do things well.
■ Inferiority is developed when work is
insufficient to accomplish a certain
goal.
■ Adler: inferiority can serve as an
impetus (“initiator”) to do one’s best.
○ Competence: The basic strength of the school
age
■ Competence: confidence to use one’s
physical and cognitive abilities to solve
problems.
■ Lays the foundation for cooperative
participation in productive adult life.
■ If either is more favored, children are
likely to give up and regress to an
earlier stage of development.
 ● Preoccupied with infantile
genital and oedipal fantasies.
■ Core pathology: inertia (regression).
● 5. Adolescence
○ Puberty to young adulthood. (about 13 to 19
years).
○ One of the most crucial development stages
because a person must gain a firm sense of
ego identity by the end.
○ Period of social latency.
○ An adaptive phase; a period of trial and error.
■ Experimenting ways, roles, and beliefs
to establish a sense of ego identity.
○ Puberty
■ Genital maturation.
■ Plays a relatively minor role.
■ Important psychologically because it
triggers expectations of adult roles
ahead—roles that can only be filled
through a struggle to attain ego
identity.
○ Identity vs. identity confusion
■ Young people draw from a variety of
earlier self-images that have been
accepted or rejected.
■ The seeds of identity sprout during
infancy, grow through childhood, play
age, and school age, and strengthen
during adolescence.
■ Crisis as a turning point, crucial period
of increased vulnerability and
heightened potential.
■ Identity from two sources:
● Adolescents’ affirmation or
repudiation of childhood
identifications.
● Historical and social contexts
(conformity to certain
standards).
■ Identity confusion: Syndrome of
problems that includes a divided self-
image.
■ Too much confusion leads to
pathological adjustment in the form of
regression.
● Postpone adult
responsibilities.
■ Proper identity ratio leads to:
● 1. Faith in some sort of
ideological principle.
● 2. Ability to freely decide how
we should behave.
● 3. Trust in your peers and
adults who give us advice
regarding goals and
aspirations.
● 4. Confidence in your choice
of an eventual occupation.
○ Fidelity: The basic strength of adolescence
■ Fidelity: faith in one’s ideology.
■ Trust learned in infancy is basic for
fidelity in adolescence.
■ Hope, will, purpose, and competence
are prerequisites for fidelity, just as it is
essential for acquiring subsequent ego
strengths.
■ Core pathology: role repudiation
(rejection).
● Blocks one’s ability to
synthesize various self-
images and values into a
workable identity.
● Takes the form of diffidence
(extreme lack of self-trust or
self-confidence—shyness,
hesitancy to express oneself)
or defiance (rebelling against
authority).
● 6. Young adulthood
○ Fuse identity with another person’s while
maintaining their sense of individuality.
○ Age 19 to 30.
○ Genitality
■ Chief psychosexual accomplishment.
■ Develop only during young adulthood.
■ Mutual trust and a stable sharing of
sexual satisfaction with a loved person
which exists only in an intimate
relationship.
○ Intimacy vs. isolation
■ Intimacy: ability to fuse one’s identity
with another without the fear of losing
it; can only be formed with a stable
ego.
● Infatuation in young
adolescents does not equate
to intimacy.
■ People who are unsure of their identity
may seek intimacy through
meaningless sexual encounters or shy
away from psychosocial intimacy.
■ Intimacy as a requirement in marriage,
although some marry for the sake of
searching for their identity.
■ Isolation: incapacity to take chances
with one’s identity by sharing true
intimacy.
○ Love: The basic strength of young adulthood
■ Love: mature devotion that overcomes
basic differences between men and
women.
■ Core pathology: exclusivity.
● Exclude certain people,
activites, ideas in order to
develop a strong sense of
identity.
● 7. Adulthood
○ People begin to take their place in society and
assume responsibility for whatever society
produces.
○ Longest stage of development (about age 31 to
60).
○ Procreativity
■ Instinctual drive to perpetuate species.
■ Extension of the genitality of young
adulthood.
■ More than genital contact with an
intimate partner.
● Assumes responsibility for the
care of offspring.
○ Generativity vs. stagnation
■ Generativity: generation of new beings
as well as new product of ideas.
● An evolutionary drive to make
contribution to succeeding
 generations and ensure the
continuity of human society.
■ Self-absorption and stagnation: too
self-indulgent.
● Creative people (are
exceptions) must remain in a
dormant stage to generate
new growth.
○ Care: The basic strength of adulthood
■ Care: widening commitment to take
care of persons, products, ideas one
has learned to care for.
● Not a duty but a natural
desire emerging from
generativity vs. stagnation
■ Arises from earlier basic ego strength.
● One must have hope, will,
purpose, competence, fidelity,
and love.
○ In order to generate
care, you have to
generate the basic
strengths of the
earlier stages.
■ Core pathology: rejectivity.
● Unwillingness to take care of
certain persons or groups.
● Manifested as self-
centeredness, provincialism,
pseudospeciation (belief that
other people are inferior to
self).
● Has far-reaching implications
for the survival of the species
as well as for every
individual’s psychosocial
development.
● 8. Old age
○ Age 60 to end of life.
○ Can be a time of joy, playfulness, and wonder;
but also a time of senility, depression, and
despair.
○ Generalized sensuality
■ Final psychosexual stage
■ Take pleasure in a variety of different
physical sensations and genital
stimulation.
■ Dependent on maintaining integrity in
the face of despair.
■ Appreciation for traditional lifestyle of
the opposite sex:
● Men become more nurturant
and acceptant of pleasures of
nonsexual relationships.
● Women become more
interested in politics, finance,
and world affairs.
○ Integrity vs. despair
■ Integrity: wholeness and coherence;
ability to hold together one’s sense of
“I-ness” (despite physical and
intellectual deterioration).
■ Despair: to be without hope.
● Life ceases to have meaning.
○ Wisdom: The basic strength of old age
■ Wisdom: informed and detached
concern with life itself in the face of
death itself.
● Maintain integrity despite
declining physical and mental
abilities.
● Concerns self with ultimate
issues (include
nonexistence).
■ Core pathology: disdain
● Reaction to feeling in an
increasing state of being
finished, confused, helpless.
● Period of very old age
○ Erikson and his wife described/created for
themselves.
○ Feeling pessimistic about old age.
○ When physical and mental infirmities rob people
of their generative abilities and reduce them to
waiting for death.
● Personality always develops during a particular historical
period within a given society. The 8 developmental
stages just transcend the chronological order for an
appropriate development.
Erikson’s Methods of Investigation
● Anthropological studies
○ In 1937, went to Pine Ridge Indian reservation
in South Dakota
■ Apathy: expression of an extreme
dependency as a result of reliance on
various federal government programs.
● Psychohistory
○ Study of individual and collective life with
combined methods of psychoanalysis and
history (defined by Erikson).
○ Originated with an investigation of Leonardo da
Vinci.
○ Refined by Erikson with his study of Martin
Luther and Mahatma Gandhi.
○ Each person is a product of their historical time.
○ Satyagraha: Sanskirt term meaning tenacious,
stubborn method of gathering the truth.
Related Research
● Erikson: one of the first theorists to emphasize the critical
period of adolescence and the conflict revolving one’s
search for an identity.
● Ego Identity Status in Adolescents Across Cultures
● Researchers Holger Busch and Jan Hofer.
○ Whether adolescents from the European nation
of Germany and African nation of Cameroon
develop ego identity in the same way.
○ German teens evidently showed having a
clearer identity; different cultures differ in their
definitions of prosocial behavior.
 ● Does Identity Precede Intimacy? ○ Mother: Rosa Krause Fromm ○ Acquired the facility to reason—a condition.
○ Researchers Wim Beyers and Inge Seiffge- ■ Niece of Ludwig Krause—well-known ○ Existential dichotomies
Krenke (longitudinal study-10 years). Talmudic scholar. ■ Permits people to survive, but forces
○ 1. Intimacy: strong developmental progression ■ Prone to depression. them to attempt to solve basic
from identity and intimacy, increasing ego ● Had very neurotic parents, and that he was probably a insoluble dichotomies.
development. rather unbearable neurotic child. ■ rooted in people’s very existence.
○ 2. Found no indication of postponement of ● Grew up in a traditional Orthodox Jewish world, and the ■ 1. Life and death
identity as suggested by others. modern capitalist world. ● Most fundamental dichotomy.
○ 3. Levels of intimacy were strongly predicted by ○ Generated more than one perspective in ● Negates it by postulating life
ego identity development at age 15. viewing events. after death.
■ New millennium ego development in ● Jewish family life, suicide of a young woman, and the ■ 2. Conceptualizing the goal of
adolescence strongly predicts intimacy extreme nationalism of the German people contributed to complete self-realization, but life is too
in young adulthood. his conception of humanity. short to reach that goal
Critique of Erikson ● Fromm’s humanistic psychology can be traced to the ● Solving this by assuming that
● Theory mostly made on ethical principles rather than reading of these prophets—that nation can do right and their own historical period is
scientific data. wrong; history having its moral laws. the crowning achievement of
○ Saw the world through the eyes of an artist ● Fromm interpreted the young woman’s (who committed humanity.
rather than a scientist. suicide) irrational dependence on her father as a ● Postulates a continuation of
● Generates research higher than average. nonproductive symbiotic relationaship. development after death.
● Average on falsifiability. ● Studied psychology, philosophy, and sociology at the ■ 3. People are ultimately alone, yet we
● Lacks sufficient scope in rating high on organizing University of Heidelberg where he received his PhD in cannot tolerate (total) isolation
knowledge. sociology at age 22 or 25. ● Separate individuals but
● High on internal consistency. ● Married Frieda Reichmann, his analyst who was more depend on uniting with
● Moderate on parsimony. than 10 years his senior in 1926. others.
Concept of Humanity ○ Mother figure to Fromm (even resemblance). ● Cannot be solved, only make
● Anatomy alone does not determine destiny, but anatomy, ○ Not a happy marriage. an attempt or run the risk of
history, and personality does. ○ Separated in 1930 (but divorced later). insanity.
● Middle view of deterministic and free choice. ● In 1930, founded the South German Institute for Human Needs
● More optimistic than pessimistic. Psychoanalysis in Frankfurt along with others. ● Emerged from human culture, growing out their attempts
● High on causality. ● In 1933, accepted an invitation to deliver a series of to find an answer to their existence and to avoid
● Mixed conscious and unconscious determinants. lectures at the Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute. becoming insane.
● More social than biological. ● Renewed his acquintance with Horney (15 years older ● 1. Relatedness
● More emphasis on uniqueness than similarities. than him; they had been lovers), and became a strong ○ Drive to unite with another person.
mother figure and mentor. ○ A. Submission, B. Power (domination)
● In 1944, married Henny Gurland (2 years younger) who ■ Transcends the separateness of
was interested in religion and mystical thought. individual existence by becoming part
○ Wife died in 1952. of somebody or something bigger than
● Fromm died on March 18, 1980 at age 79. himself and experiences his identity in
Chapter 8: Erich Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Fromm’s Basic Assumptions connection with the power to which he
Biography
● Individual personality can be understood only in the light has submitted.
● Born on March 23, 1900, in Frankfurt, Germany (only
of human history. ■ Submissive people seek domineering
child of middle-class Orthodox Jewish parents).
○ Psychology must be based on an people, whereas power seekers
○ Father: Naphtali Fromm
anthropologic-philosophic concept of human welcome submissive partners.
■ Son and grandson of rabbis.
existence. ● Symbiotic relationship
■ Moody.
● Human dilemma
 ○ Gratifying, but
blocks growth
toward integrity and
psychological health.
○ Drawn by the need
of relatedness.
○ More dependent on
partners, and less
individual.
○ C. Love
■ Only way a person can become united
with the world, and still have
individuality and integrity.
■ Union with somebody, or something
outside oneself under the condition of
retaining the separateness and
integrity of one's own self.
■ Two people become one yet remain
two.
■ Genuine love (in Fromm’s book ‘The
Art of Loving’)
● Care: willingness to take care
of the other person.
● Responsibility: willingness
and ability to respond to
physical and psychological
needs.
● Respect: avoids the
temptation of trying to change
them.
● Knowledge: knowing others
by seeing them from their
own point of view.
● 2. Transcendence
○ Urge to rise above a passive and accidental
existence and into the realm of purposefulness
and freedom.
○ Sought positively or negatively.
○ Creating life (or art, religions, ideas, laws,
material production, love) or destroying it
(malignant aggression—kill other than survival).
● 3. Rootedness
○ Establish roots or feel at home again in the
world. (feelings of isolation and helplessness
became unbearable).
○ Sought productively
■ Actively and creatively relate to the
world and become whole or integrated;
wholeness
○ Sought non productively
■ Fixation
● Afraid to take the next step of
birth, to be weaned from the
mother’s breast
● Deep craving to be mothered,
nursed, protected (by a
motherly figure)
● Externally dependent.
○ Seen phylogenetically in the evolution of human
species. (Phylogenetic endowment)
■ Incestuous desires/feelings are
universal and are based in deep-
seated craving to return to the all-
envelopig womb or to the all
nourishing-breasts.
■ Influenced by Johann Jakob
Bachofen’s ideas about matriarchal
societies .
● Mother was the central figure
in ancient social groups.
■ The mother-centered theory of
Bachofen on the Oedipal situation is
consistent with Fromm’s preference for
older women. (Frieda Fromm-
Reichmann, Karen Horney)
■ Oedipus complex as a desire to return
to the mother’s womb or breast or to a
person with a mothering function.
● 4. Sense of Identity
○ Capacity to be aware of ourselves as a
separate entity.
○ “I am I” or “I am the subject of my actions”
○ Primitive people identified more with their clan
than as individuals.
○ Neurotics (without a sense of identity) attach
themselves to powerful people or to social or
political institutions.
○ Healthy people have less need to conform to
the herd.
■ No need to fit in.
● 5. Frame of Orientation
○ A road map to make their way through the
world.
■ Without the map, humans would be
confused and unable to act
purposefully and consistently.
○ Solid frame of orientation
■ Make sense of events and
phenomena.
■ Most probably basing events on
(historical) facts.
○ Lack a reliable frame of orientation
■ Still try to put events into a framework
in order to make sense of them.
■ Example: An American with a shaky
frame of orientation may attempt to
understand the events of Sept. 11,
2001, by blaming them on evil or bad
people.
○ At odds, philosophy is seen as crazy or
unreasonably while consistent ones are simply
seen as common sense.
Burden of Freedom
● Humans as the “freaks of the universe.”
● Historically, as people gained more and more economic
and political freedom, they came to feel increasingly
more isolated.
● As children become more independent of their mothers,
they gain more freedom to express their individuality.
● Burden of freedom results in basic anxiety.
● Mechanisms of escape
○ Driving forces in normal people, both
individually and collectively.
○ Escape feelings of isolation.
○ 1. Authoritarianism
■ Tendency to give up the independence
of one’s own individual self and to fuse
with somebody or something outside
 oneself in order to acquire the strength
which the individual is lacking.
■ Rooted in the feelings of aloneness,
isolation, and powerlessness.
■ Masochism
● Basic feelings of
powerlessness, weakness,
and inferiority.
● Masochistic strivings
disguised as love or loyalty
but never contribute positively
to independence and
authenticity.
■ Sadism
● More neurotic and socially
harmful.
● First: need to make others
dependent on oneself and
gain power over the weak.
● Second: compulsion to exploit
others (taking advantage of
them).
● Third: desire to see others
suffer (physically or
psychologically).
○ 2. Destructiveness
■ Rooted in the feelings of aloneness,
isolation, and powerlessness.
■ Seeks to do away with other people.
■ Escape mechanism
● Destructive people eliminate
much of the outside world by
destroying them and thus
acquire a type of perverted
isolation.
● Sisirain mo na bago pa
mismo “magconnect.”
(relationship speaking)
○ 3. Conformity
■ Giving up their individuality and
becoming whatever other people want
them to be.
● Adopting a non authentic self.
■ The more they conform, the more
powerless they feel; the more
powerless they feel, the more they ■ Aggressively take than passively
conform. receive.
● Positive freedom ■ Example: an exploitative man may “fall
○ A person can be free and not alone, critical and in love” with a married woman, not
yet not filled with doubts, independent and yet because he loves her, but because of
an integral part of mankind. the want to exploit the husband.
○ Successful solution to human dilemma. ■ Negative qualities: egocentric,
○ Love and work are the twin components. conceited, arrogant, seducing.
○ Despite the feelings of isolation, conformity or ■ Positive qualities: impulsive, proud,
fitting in is not the sole “goal.” charming, self-confident.
Character Orientations ○ 3. Hoarding
● A person’s relatively permanent way of relating to people ■ Save which they have already
and things. obtained (because of the sentimental
● Personality: the totality of inherited and acquired psychic value).
qualities which are characteristic of one individual and ■ Hoarding character’s traits are not the
which make them unique. result of sexual drives but of their
● Character (acquired qualities of personality) general interest in all nonliving things,
○ The relatively permanent system of all non feces included.
instinctual strivings through which man relates ■ Negative qualities: rigidity, sterility,
himself to the human and natural world. obstinacy, compulsivity, lack of
○ Acting according to character rather than by creativity.
instinct (actions and behavior become ■ Positive qualities: orderliness,
consistent and efficient). cleanliness, punctuality.
● Relating to the world: ○ 4. Marketing
○ Assimilation: acquiring and using things. ■ Outgrowth of modern commerce in
○ Socialization: relating to self and others. which trade is no longer personal but
● Nonproductive orientations carried out by large faceless
○ Strategies that fail to move people closer to corporations.
positive freedom (but it is not entirely negative). ■ See themselves as commodities with
○ 1. Receptive personal values—ability to sell
■ Source of all good lies outside themselves.
themselves. ■ Empty vessels waiting to be filled with
■ Relating to the world is to receive whatever characteristic is most
(love, knowledge, material marketable.
possessions). ■ “I am as you desire me.”
■ Receive without having the need to ■ Negative qualities: aimlessness,
give to the external world. opportunism, inconsistency,
■ Negative qualities: passivity, wastefulness.
submissiveness, lack of self- ■ Positive qualities: changeability, open-
confidence. mindedness, adaptability, generosity.
■ Positive qualities: loyalty, acceptance, ● Productive orientation
trust. ○ Continuous realization of their potential.
○ 2. Exploitative ○ 1. Work
■ Source of all good is outside
themselves.
 ■ Value work as means of creative self-
expression; producing life’s
necessities.
○ 2. Love
■ Care, responsibility, respect,
knowledge.
■ Biophilia: passionate love of life and all
that is alive.
■ Love of others and self-love are
inseparable but self-love must come
first.
● Capacity for productive love
could not be achieved if they
cannot first love themselves.
○ 3. Thinking
■ Cannot be separated from productive
work and love.
■ Motivated by a concerned interest in
another person or object.
■ See people as they are not by what
they seem they are.
● This can be applied to self; no
need for self-delusion.
Personality Disorders
● Psychologically disturbed people are incapable of love
and have failed to establish union with others.
● 1. Necrophilia
○ Love of death
■ Generalized: any attraction to death.
○ Sexual perversion in which a person desires
sexual contact with a corpse.
○ Alternative character orientation of biophilia.
○ Qualities: hate humanity, racist, warmongers,
bullies; delighted in destroying life (bloodshed,
destruction, terror, torture).
○ Do not behave in a destructive manner, rather
their destructive behavior is a reflection of their
basic character.
● 2. Malignant narcissism
○ Impedes perception of reality so everything
belonging to a narcissist is highly valued;
devalued if it belongs to someone else.
○ Hypochondriasis: obsessive attention to one’s
health.
■ Moral hypochondriasis: preoccupation
with guilt about previous
transgressions.
■ People who are fixated on themselves
are likely to internalize experiences
and to dwell on both physical health
and moral virtues.
○ Narcissistic people possess “neurotic claims”
(Horney).
○ Distorted belief that they are superior to others
because of their extraordinary qualities.
■ Looks, physique, wealth.
○ Overwhelming criticisms, if unable to be
destroyed by them, anger and rage is directed
inwards which results in depression—feeling of
worthlessness.
● 3. Incestuous symbiosis
○ Extreme dependence on the mother or the
mother surrogate (surrogate can be nonliving
things/hosts).
○ Exaggerated form of mother fixation.
○ With this, people are inseparable from the host
(personalities are blended with the other person
and individual identities are lost).
○ Sexual strivings are not the cause of the fixation
to mother, but the result.
● Syndrome of decay
○ When an individual possesses necrophilia,
malignant narcissism and incestuous symbiosis.
○ Opposite is syndrome of growth
■ Possesses qualities of biophilia, love,
and positive freedom.
Psychotherapy
● Humanistic psychoanalysis
○ More concerned with the interpersonal aspects
of a therapeutic encounter.
● Aim of therapy is to know themselves (in order to know
any other person or thing).
● People seek therapy to satisfy basic human needs
(relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, sense of
identity, frame of orientation).
● Personal relationship between therapist and patient
should be the foundation of therapy.
● Although transference and countertransference may
exist, the important point is that two people are involved
with one another.
● Fromm included dream analysis.
● Only with the attitude of relatedness can another person
be truly understood.
Fromm’s Methods of Investigation
● Social character in a Mexican village
○ Marketing character was a product of modern
commerce. For a traditional village, it did not
exist within them.
○ Non productive-receptive type
■ Devote energy trying to please who
they regard as superior; accept pay in
seville fashion, as if they had not
earned it.
○ Non productive-exploitative personality
■ Men most likely get into knife or pistol
fights, whereas women tend to be
malicious gossip mongers.
○ Productive-exploitative personality
■ Those who are considered rich and
powerful in the village.
● A psychohistorical study of Hitler
○ Hitler was the world’s most conspicuous
example of a person with the syndrome of
decay.
○ Fromm believed that each stage of
development is important and that nothing in
Hitler’s early life bent him inevitably toward
syndrome of decay.
○ Hitler’s realization of his failure as an artist
blunted the outbreak of World War I.
Related Research
● Testing the assumptions of Fromm’s marketing character
○ Differentiating the self from others by what we
possess rather than by who we are.
○ More nonproductive orientation, associated with
cultural individualism (motivated in serving their
own interest).
● Estrangement from culture and well-being
○ The more a person reported that their values
were discrepant from society in general, the
more likely they were to have a strong feeling of
estrangement.
 ○ The more estranged from society people felt in
general, the more anxious and depressed they
were.
● Authoritarianism and fear
○ Freedom is frightening.
○ Political and social threats, not personal threats,
are most strongly related to authoritarianism.
■ Certain cultural stimuli lead to fear
which creates the motivation for an
authoritarian belief system.
Critique of Fromm
● Lowest of the empirically validated theorists (covered in
the book).
● Too philosophical to be falsifiable or verifiable.
● Enables to organize and explain much of what is known
about human personality.
● Neither researcher nor therapist receives much practical
information from Fromm’s essays.
● Low on parsimony.
Concept of Humanity
● Human species can be defined as the primate who
emerged at that point of evolution where instinctive
determinism had reached a minimum and the
development of the brain a maximum.
● Both pessimistic and optimistic.
● In between free choice and determinism.
● Favors teleology a bit more than causality.
● More emphasis on conscious motivations than
unconscious.
● More on history, culture, and society than biology.
● Moderate emphasis on similarities, but still allowed room
for some individuality.