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BRENT BARGERON
HIGH VACUUM
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
AS A TOOL IN SURFACE ANALYSIS
Scanning electron microscopy is discussed as a tool for surface analysis. The fundamental physical
principles of this type of microscopy are presented in a framework that relates the scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM) to other surface investigation techniques. The use of the SEM in corrosion
research and other APL projects illustrates its capabilities.
--""-
I -~
T ransition
~
~
T ransition
Ii
a:
I~
I ~JL~
electron electron
K
leve l
~ ---------1 ,f--A Ii 1.0
a) Excitation b) De-exc itation by c) De-excit ation by
X -ray emi ssion Auger electron
emission
Fig. 4-A schematic energy level diagram describing (a) atomic Fig. 5-A schematic energy distribution of emitted electrons.
excitation by an incoming electron , (b) de-excitation by X-ray Some o f the uses of these va rious kinds o f electrons are describ-
emission, and (c) de-excitation by Auger electron emission. As ed in the text and Table 1.
shown in the three diagrams, there are fo ur resulta nt signals: a
backscattered electro n, a secondary electron , an X ray, and an relatively abundant and easy to collect. The yield
Auger (tertia ry) electro n. All of these signals are used prom-
inent ly in sur face analysis . of secondary electrons depends on material param-
eters such as work functions. Thus images obtained
Common excitation sources are electron beams, by using secondary electrons also reveal contrast
ion beams, electromagnetic radiation (X rays, ultra- between different types of material in the surface.
violet light, etc.), and electric fields whose resultant The second most abundant type of electrons are
signals are electrons, ions, and emitted radiation. the backscattered electrons shown in Fig. 5 with a
As an illustrative example, consider Fig. 4. In Fig. well-defined peak at E/ Eo = 1, where Eo is the
4a, an electron (the excitation source) is scattered primary beam energy. The tails of this peak fre-
from a core electron in an atom in a surface. In the quently reveal secondary peaks as shown. Backscat-
process the incoming (or primary) electron is back- tered electrons can be used for topographical imag-
scattered, the core electron escapes from the atom ing; however, because they are generally less abun-
(and is referred to as a secondary electron), and the dant and more difficult to collect than secondary
atom itself is left in an excited state. The excited electrons, the secondary electrons are usually
atom can decay by emitting an Xray, as shown in preferred for this use. The yield of backscattered
Fig. 4b; this is a one-electron process. In making electrons increases with the atomic number of the
the transition from the L level to the K level, an atoms in a surface. Thus materials contrast will be
electron loses a precise amount of energy that ap- revealed in images using these electrons. The secon-
pears as the Xray. dary peaks in the backscattered electron distribu-
Alternatively, the atom can decay via a two- tion contain information about the surface states of
electron process in which an L-level electron makes the material being bombarded. Most SEM's are not
a transition to the K level and a second atomic equipped with dispersive electron energy detectors.
electron (say, one from the valence band) is ejected However, the information is valuable and electron
with a specific amount of energy. The ejected elec- energy loss spectroscopy has evolved as a result.
tron is called an Auger electron (in honor of the Another use of back scattered electrons is to
man who first described the process). This de-exci- study surface structure. If a beam energy of 20 to
tation process is shown in Fig. 4c. X-ray and Auger 300 eV is used and if the angular distribution of
electron emission are competing processes, with the backscattered electrons can be detected, then (un-
latter being favored by the lighter elements. In this der favorable circumstances) an electron diffraction
simple example the excitation source is an electron. pattern can be obtained from the surface. Thus,
There are four resultant signals, each of which is the surface crystal structure can be identified and
used prominently in surface analysis. Because there quantitated. This research field is also a separate
are usually several excitation sources, other resul- discipline and is known as low energy electron dif-
tant signals, and various signal processing fraction (LEED). Another similar discipline, reflec-
possibilities to obtain the available information, tive high energy electron diffraction (RHEED), is
there is a proliferation of surface methods. used to study structure; however, in this case beam
In order to illustrate a few of the possibilities of- energies are in the 30 to 100 ke V range.
fered by signal processing for obtaining specific In the energy region between the backscattered
types of information, consider the energy distribu- and secondary electrons in Fig. 5 there are relative-
tion of emitted electrons shown in Fig. 5. The large ly smaller peaks in the electron energy distribution.
low-energy peak represents secondary electrons. These are Auger (tertiary) electrons, which are in-
Most of these electrons have energies between 0 valuable for determining surface elemental com-
and 30 eV, with an average value between 3 and 10 position and even the chemical state of atoms in
eV. In the SEM, secondary electrons are especially the surface. They are generally not abundant
useful for topographical imaging because they are enough to obtain a good topographical image;
Table 1
SOME SURFACE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
trolytic solution so that a thicker film of oxide is stage was 45 The local composition as given by SEM micro-
•