IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Research Article

ISSN 1751-8687
Phase-space-based symmetrical fault Received on 14th October 2015
Revised on 6th December 2015
detection during power swing Accepted on 17th January 2016
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2015.1245
www.ietdl.org

Rahul Dubey 1 ✉, Subhransu Ranjan Samantaray 2, Bijay Ketan Panigrahi 1, Vijendran G. Venkoparao 3
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
2
School of Electrical Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
3
Robert Bosch Engineering and Business Solutions Ltd., Bengaluru, India
✉ E-mail: rahul.dubey2011@gmail.com

Abstract: This study proposes an effective symmetrical fault detection technique during power swing in distance relaying
using phase-space (PS) method. This is based on an embedding theorem which shows that a time series can be mapped
to a higher-dimensional space called PS through embedding. Thus, a sampled signal can be transformed into the PS so
that its features can be more clearly viewed. The process starts at retrieving the current signal samples and process
through PS, the original signal is decoupled into two parts such as power swing and symmetrical fault part. The
symmetrical fault detection during power swing is easily achieved as the symmetrical fault part of the signal produces
an irregular shape compared with the shape produced during from the power swing condition. The symmetrical fault
detection signal using PS (FDPS) detects the symmetrical fault during power swing in the transmission line with wide
variations in operating conditions and the results from extensive studies indicate that the proposed FDPS can reliably
detect the faults during power swing.

1 Introduction fault arc is considered. It is easy to detect the unsymmetrical fault

Power system security and stability are the most challenging issues
taking place in our country due to the increasing complexity of the
power system operations. Transmission lines play a vital role in
delivering electrical energy to end users. So, these transmission
lines have to be secured and hence relays are employed.
According to past history, relay misoperation contributes to 70%
of the major disturbances. We have to effectively monitor and
improve distance relay operations for mitigating relay
misoperations on high-voltage transmission lines. Power swing is a
phenomenon of large fluctuations of power between two areas of a
power system and they occur generally when the system is
recovering from a disturbance. Disturbances are such as sudden
removal of faults, loss of synchronism, change in direction of
power flow etc. During power swings, as the rotor angles vary, the
angle between two areas of the power system fluctuates. In a
stable power swing, these fluctuations die down whereas unstable
swings result in progressive separation of angle between the two
areas causing large oscillations of power flows, large fluctuations
of voltages(V ) and currents(I ), and eventually loss of synchronism
between such areas. When two areas are in phase, the voltages are
maximum and currents are minimum and when two areas are out
of phase by 180°, currents are at peak and voltages are close to
zero. As the system frequency is a function of rotor speed, the
frequencies of V and I during power oscillations are not constant.
The frequency of occurrence of V/I maxima mainly depends on
the rate of change of the power angle between two areas and is
characterised by slip frequency. The slip frequency can be as low
as 1–3 Hz (slow swing) and as high as 4–7 Hz (fast swing).
Recent blackouts indicate the involvement of zone-3 of distance
relays during system stressed conditions such as power swings [1–5].
Another important issue is the fault occurrence during power
swing and the distance relay should be able to detect the fault and
operate correctly. The power swing centre voltage, defined as the
voltage at the location of a two-source equivalent system where
the voltage value is zero and the angles between the two sources
are 180° apart, is used to distinguish faults from power swing [6–
10]. However, it is difficult to set the threshold, especially when a
and unblock the distance relay during power swing with the
negative and zero sequence components, which do not exist during
stable power swing [7–12]. Some symmetrical fault detectors are
based on the superimposed components or the rate of change of
measured impedance [12]. These detectors are fast, but cannot
operate sensitively for those faults that cause very small
superimposed components such as those faults that occur at the
power swing centre when the power angle is close to 180°. Thus,
the issue becomes more challenging in case of symmetrical faults
during power swing, because both, power swing and symmetrical
faults are balanced phenomena, resulting blocking of the relay for
faults during power swing.
Even though symmetrical fault detections during power swing
schemes for uncompensated and compensated line [8–20] are
existing; however, the reliability in case of power swing needs
further improvement. This paper proposes an effective symmetrical
fault detection technique during power swing in distance relaying
using phase-space (PS) method. The symmetrical fault detection
signal using PS (FDPS), derived from PS transformation,
effectively detects the symmetrical fault during power swing in the
transmission line with wide variations in operating conditions.
2 Challenges of fault detection during power
swing
Power swing is a phenomenon that creates large fluctuations of
active and reactive powers between two areas of an electrical
system following severe disturbances such as line faults, loss of
generating units, and switching heavy loads. It could affect the
distance relay’s behaviour which may result in relay malfunction.
Mal-operation of zone-3 of distance relay is likely to occur during
system stressed conditions such as power swings [1–5], which is
undesired. Conventional fault detection techniques may fail to
detect fault during the power swing because of large variations in
powers even before the fault. Furthermore, due to the symmetric
nature of phase voltages and currents during the swing,
symmetrical faults are difficult to be detected.

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1947
Fig. 1 Impedance trajectory during power swing enters zone-1 of the relay
a Impedance trajectory during power swing
b Voltage
c Current
d Impedance for phase-a in case of symmetrical (a-b-c) fault during power swing
The impedance trajectory during power swing enters zone-1 of the
relay, as shown in Fig. 1a. Here, the MHO operating characteristics
of distance protections parameterised are same as discussed in [16].
This corresponds to a stable/unstable power swing as the impedance
trajectories enter zone-1 in case of unstable power swing. It gives an
indication of the existence of the electrical centre in the studied line.
However, for stable or unstable swings, relays should not operate, as
they derive a PS analysis-based fault detector based on which trip/
block command can be given to the distance relay. Figs. 1b–d
show the respective voltage, current, and apparent impedance for a
three-phase fault during power swing.
3 Proposed scheme
This paper proposes an effective symmetrical fault detection
technique during power swing in distance relaying using PS
method. This is based on an embedding theorem which shows that
1948
a time series can be mapped to a higher-dimensional space called
PS through embedding [20, 21]. Thus, a sampled signal can be
transformed to the PS and its features can be more clearly viewed.
The embedding theorem was originally proposed for dynamical
systems. In mathematics and physics, a dynamical system is
usually described by a state space, each orthogonal coordinate of
which represents one of the variables needed to specify the
instantaneous state of the system [22]. Hence, all the possible
states of the dynamical system are represented in the state space
and each possible state corresponds to a unique point. However, in
practice, it is usually impossible to measure all the variables of a
dynamical system. However, some studies conducted [20] has
proved that it can be reconstructed from a time series of a
collection of the states using the embedding theorem. It can be
seen further that the d-dimensional dynamical systems is mapped
to a dE-dimensional PS, where dE ≥ 2d + 1. A d-dimensional
dynamical system can be expressed by d-first-order differential
equations. The solution of these equations s ∈ f d is a state in the
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
 Fig. 3 WSCC 3-machine, 9-bus system

corresponding state space, with j denoting the Euclidean space.

Function k : f d → j converts a collection of states s to a scalar
time series x = k(s), where k is called the measure function. The
‘delay’ of the time series is denoted by a positive number ‘t ’. The
evolution of the state ‘s’ at time ‘i’ is denoted by the function F
(si) = si+t. The embedding c : j d → f dE, which is called the delay
coordinate embedding is defined as


  
c(h · F · t)(s) = k (s) · k F t (s) , . . . , k F(dE −1)t (s) (1)
Fig. 2 Flowchart of the proposed method

Fig. 4 Phase-a
a Voltage
b Current waveforms during power swing
c Relay end voltage
d Current waveforms for symmetrical fault during power swing (160° inception angle, 65% line, 50 Ω fault resistance)

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1949
For specific si, (1) becomes



  
c(k · F · t)(s) = k si · k si+t , . . . , k s(i+dE −1)t
 
= xi ·xi+t , . . . , x(i+dE −1)t = Xi (2)

Therefore, the trajectory matrix of dE-dimensional with delay t can

be constructed as follows
⎡  ⎤
⎡⎤ x1 x1+t ... x

X1 1+dE −1 t
⎢x . . . x
 ⎥
⎢ X2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 x2+t ⎥
Q=⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎣ : ⎦=⎢ :
2+dE −1 t ⎥
⎥
⎣ : : : ⎦
XM xM xM+t . . . x

t
M +dE −1
 
= j1 j2 . . . jdE (3)

Thus, for a time series x = x1, x2, …, xN can be embedded directly

from j → f dE by (3). In (3), Θ is an M × dE matrix, X is a 1 × dE
vector, and M = N − (dE − 1)t. M points from dE-PS. The
embedding dimension is one of the crucial factors for valid
embedding and, as suggested by Sauer et al. [23], there are several
ways to calculate the system dimension. The proposed approach
used the most widely used technique [24], where the correlation
dimension is determined from the correlation integral. Thus, using
formulations in [24], the embedding dimension dE is set to 3 for
further considerations. For a sinusoidal signal F(t) = sin(ωt + f),
the corresponding sampled signal is represented as F(k) = sin(kωΔt
+ f), with a sampling rate of Ns = 2π · (ωΔt) samples per cycle.
Thus, the embedding signal to a PS of dimension dE = 3 is given
as shown in (4). Thus j21k + j22k = A2 , j22k + j23k = A2 and j1k
+ j2k = 0, which show that the embedded signal in PS is an ellipse.
Thus, j1, j2, and j3 can be represented in x, y, z coordinates,
respectively, to generalise the embedded signal in PS as follows
(see (4))
x+z=0

x2 + y2 = A2 , y2 + z2 = A2


n+1

FDPS(n) = F x, y (k )
k=n
where F(x, y) is the distance between each point and x–y-plane
origin [8]. The projections of the embedded signal on the xy-plane
and the yz-plane are a circle (for pure sinusoidal signal) whose
radius is the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal and whose centre is
the origin of the plane, while the projection on the xz-plane is a
line segment. However, in case of power swing the radius on the x
and y axes are not same due to oscillation in current waveform so
projection of the embedded signal on the xy-plane and the yz-plane
is an ellipse. The radius of ellipse is constant during power swing
(as shown in Figs. 5a and 11b), whereas in case of fault occurs
during power swing new ellipse with different radius is formed.
This information is effectively used for developing the fault
detector. Fig. 2 shows the flowchart of the proposed method. The
proposed algorithm in steps is given below:
Step 1: Obtain any one phase current information from relay end.
Step 2: Consider moving window of half cycle data.
Step 3: Perform PS transformation.
Step 4: Evaluate the norm of the eigenvector over the defined
window.
Step 5: Extract time-domain information of disturbance.
(5) Fig. 5 Step-by-step results obtained during PS analysis for a WSCC
3-machine, a 9-bus system
a x–y-plane projection of the embedded signal for symmetrical fault during power swing
(160° inception angle, 65% line, and 50 Ω fault resistance)
b x–z-plane projection of the embedded signal for symmetrical fault during power swing
(160° inception angle, 65% line, and 50 Ω fault resistance)
c x–y–z-plane projection of the embedded signal for symmetrical fault during power
swing (160° inception angle, 65% line, and 50 Ω fault resistance)
Step 6: Calculate FDPS.
Step 7: Set threshold.
Step 8: If FDPS > threshold; then symmetrical fault else power
swing.
4 Results and analysis
4.1 Testing and validation in WSCC 3-machine, 9-bus
system
To verify the proposed technique for a larger system Western System
Coordinating Council (WSCC) 3-machine, a 9-bus system [21] as
shown in Fig. 3 is considered. The system is simulated using
Dig-silent power factory software. Transmission lines are modelled





x(k ) = A sin vkDt + w A sin v(k + t)Dt + w A sin v(k + 2t)Dt + w




= A sin vkDt + w A cos vkDt + w −A sin vkDt + w (4)
 
= j1k j2k j3k

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
1950 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 6 PS-based fault detector (FDPS) plot during high resistance fault
a Current waveform
b Symmetrical fault detection signal using FDPS during fast swing
c Current waveform
d Symmetrical fault detection signal using FDPS during slow swing (at different fault instant, 30° inception angle, 75% line, 200 Ω fault resistance)
with distributed parameter in the simulation. Generators are modelled
with one axis flux decay dynamics, and exciters are modelled as an
IEEE type-1 exciter. For this paper, a distance relay is considered at
bus-9 for the line connecting to bus-6. To develop a power swing, a
three-phase fault is created in the line connecting buses 5 and 4 at
1 s. The fault is cleared after 0.3 s (1.3 s from Figs. 4a and b) by
opening the breakers at both the ends of the line. As a result, the
distance relay at bus-9 experiences a power swing. Any fault in the
line between buses 9 and 6 during the power swing is to be
detected by the distance relay immediately. Assume that the relay is
present in bus-6 for detecting the symmetrical fault during power
swing. Figs. 4c and d show the voltage and current waveforms for
symmetrical fault during power swing. To test the proposed
method, three-phase faults are simulated in the line at different
swing conditions. Data are collected at a sampling frequency of 1
kHz. Figs. 5a–c show the step- by-step results obtained during PS
analysis for a WSCC 3-machine, a 9-bus system. Figs. 6a–d present
the PS-based fault detector (FDPS) plot during high resistance
fault; this shows the effectiveness of FDPS.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
4.2 Testing and validation in series-compensated WSCC
3-machine, 9-bus system
Flexible AC transmission systems devices are used increasingly for
improving steady-state and transient stability improvement. Among
those thyristor controlled series capacitor is used for enhancing
power transfer capability by variation of series compensation.
However, variation in series compensation introduces number of
protection challenges for the distance relay operation. Voltage
inversion, current inversion, reach measurement, and relay
coordination are some of the major concerns in series-compensated
lines [25, 26]. Overreaching of distance elements is the most
critical problem with series-compensated lines. Also the distance
function may fail to pick up for low-current faults [27]. The
evaluation and performance assessment of different power swing
detectors for a series-compensated line has been discussed in [28–30].
For evaluation of the proposed PS-based symmetrical fault
detection method’s performance in a multi-machine power system
with series compensation WSCC 3-machine, a 9-bus is considered
1951
Fig. 7 Testing and validation in series-compensated WSCC 3-machine, 9-bus system
a WSCC 3-machine, 9-bus system with series compensation (SC)
b Voltage
c Current waveform during power swing
d Impedance trajectory during unstable power swing
(Fig. 7a) for the study where a modification has been incorporated by
providing 70% compensation at the beginning of line T7–T8 and
developed using Dig-silent power factory software package. The
distance relay R1 for bus-7 is considered for the paper. A
three-phase fault is created in line T5–T7 at 0.2 s. The fault is
cleared at 0.45 s by opening breaker B3 (bus-T5) and B4 (bus-T7).
The removal of the line causes a swing condition for relay R1.
The phase-a voltage and current waveforms at relay R1 during the
power swing are shown in Figs. 7b and c, respectively. Different
faults are simulated on line T7–T8 to test the algorithm. The
results of only two representative test cases are included below.
For power swing study, the relay R1 at bus-7 is considered and its
zone-3 is set at 240% of line 7–8, in order to provide backup
protection to the adjacent line. The impedance trajectory during
1952
power swing enters zone-1 of the relay, as shown in Fig. 7d. This
corresponds to an unstable swing as the impedance trajectories
enter zone-1. It gives an indication of the existence of the
electrical centre in the studied line. However, for stable or unstable
swings, relays should not operate, as they result in no optimal
islanding of the system. Hence, this paper derives a PS-based fault
detector based on which trip/block command can be given to the
distance relay, as shown in Figs. 8a and b.
4.3 Testing and validation in IEEE-39 New England
system
The proposed detector is studied on the IEEE-39-bus test system by
using the commercial Dig-silent power factory software. The test
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 8 PS-based fault detector based on which trip/block command
a Current waveform
b Symmetrical fault detection signal using FDPS during power swing for SC-line

system consists of 10 generators and 18 loads as shown in Fig. 9.

First three-phase fault created on line T26-T29 at t = 5 s fault
cleared by line opening circuit breaker of line at t = 5.5 s (fault
resistance = 10 Ω); this will send line T26-T27 and line T28-T29
in power swing mode. After that symmetrical fault during power
swing has been created at t = 25 to 26.5 s (fault resistance 10 Ω).
Assuming that the relay will be present at terminal T-29 which is
nearest to the generator-9. Figs. 10a–d show the current and
voltage waveform for terminals T-27 and T-19. Figs. 11a–d show
the step-by-step results obtained during PS analysis for an
IEEE-39-bus New England test system.
Fig. 9 IEEE-39-bus New England simulated model
4.4 Different fault study cases during power swing for
WSCC 3-machine, 9-bus, and IEEE-39 New England
system
A three-phase fault with fault resistance of 1 Ω occurs on line
T26-T29 at t = 5 s and cleared at t = 5.5 s by disconnecting the
line. This creates a power swing in the network. Furthermore,

Fig. 10 Current and voltage waveform for terminal T-27 and T-19
a Terminal-27 phase-a voltage
b Terminal-27 current
c Terminal-29 phase-a voltage
d Terminal-29 current waveforms during power swing

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1953
Table 1 Fault situation during power swing tested using FDPS
Number Faults type Fault δ0 Rf (fault Response
of test during distance, resistance in time, cycle
power % Ω)
swing

1 AG 15 90 10 1
2 AG 15 160 100 1
3 BG 15 90 20 1
4 CG 80 90 300 1
5 ABG 35 140 10 1
6 ABG 35 90 100 1
7 BCG 20 45 10 1
8 ACG 50 45 250 1
9 ABCG 75 60 100 1
10 ABC 65 90 20 1
11 AB 50 135 150 1
12 AB 50 60 200 1

Fig. 12 WSCC-3 m/c 9 bus

a Current performance with 30 dB noise symmetrical fault detection during power
swing
b FDPS performance with 30 dB noise symmetrical fault detection during power swing

Fig. 13 Fault detection signals for the load change at 2 s (phase-a increase
in load)

when the system goes to power swing mode, then different kinds of
faults (mentioned in Table 1) with different fault location, different
fault inception angle and different fault resistance on line
T26-T28, have been tested with the proposed algorithm.
According to the results, the proposed method demonstrates its
ability to unblock distance relay in different relevant conditions. It
is found that, for each fault situation, the fault detection index
during power swing, i.e. FDPS is always greater than set
threshold, which clearly identifies the fault situation during stress
condition such as power swing. Table 1 shows the results of
the proposed algorithm in different operating conditions. So the
response time for fault detection does not affect by varying the
operating condition. The set threshold is also found immune to

Fig. 11 Step-by-step results obtained during PS analysis for an

IEEE-39-bus New England test system
a x–y–z-plane projection of the embedded signal
b x–y-plane projection of the embedded signal
c Current waveform for symmetrical fault during power swing (35° inception angle,
50% line, and 100 Ω fault resistance)
d FDPS for symmetrical fault during power swing (35° inception angle, 50% line, and Fig. 14 Fault detection signals for the load change at 2 s (phase-a
100-Ω fault resistance) decrease in load)

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
1954 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016
Fig. 15 Fault detection signals for different swing cycle frequencies
a 1 Hz
b 5 Hz
c 10 Hz

Table 2 Symmetrical fault detection during power swing with different 30 dB noise [19] and detect the high-impedance symmetrical faults
swing cycle frequencies 1–10 Hz tested using FDPS effectively.
The performance assessments of symmetrical fault detection
Numberof Swing cycle Fault Fault Response
test frequency, Hz inception distance, time, cycle during noisy condition for WSCC 3-machine 9-bus are shown in
angle, deg % Figs. 12a and b. Figs. 13 and 14 show the fault detection signals
for load change instances at 2 s for increasing and decreasing
1 1 30 75 1 loads, respectively. It is observed that in the case of load change
2 2 45 55 1 FDPS perform satisfactorily. Fault detection signals in both cases
3 3 60 30 1
4 4 75 70 1
remain steady at base value and do not grow to achieve the
5 5 90 20 1 threshold for fault detection, avoiding false detection. Furthermore,
6 6 105 80 1 the performance evaluation with the variation of swing cycle
7 7 120 35 1 frequency (from 1 to 10 Hz) are shown in Fig. 15a–c and
8 8 135 45 1
9 9 150 15 1 presented in Table 2.
10 10 175 60 1

4.5 Comparative assessments

Table 3 shows the comparative assessment-1 of the proposed

Table 3 Comparative assessment-1 algorithm with existing technique [11–13]. According to Table 3,
the proposed method provides the high-speed accurate and reliable
Method [11] [12] [13] Proposed
method
solution with low sampling frequency, response time, and low
calculation burden compared with existing technique [11–13].
sampling 40.96 10 20 1 Furthermore, seven recent methods in discriminating fault from
frequency, kHz
response time, 1.5 1.5 1.5 1
cycle
calculation very very very low
burden high high high
required post 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
fault data, cycle
high resistance not not not not affected
fault (RF) affected investigated affected

Table 4 Comparative assessment-2

Method Threshold Dead-band, no decision Response time,
setting region cycle

[13] 1 ≤ Thd 0–0.99 1.5

[17] 0.5 ≤ Thd ≤ 1 0–0.499 2
[18] 0.2 ≤ Thd ≤ 1 0–0.199 1.5
[19] 0.1 ≤ Thd ≤ 1 0–0.099 1.75
proposed 0.1 ≤ Thd ≤ 1 0–0.099 1
Fig. 16 Response time of all different methods

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 1955
power swing are considered for comparison. These are proposed in
[11] (method 1), in [12] (method 2), in [13] (method 3), in [17]
(method 4), in [18] (method 5), and in [19] (method 6). The
methods 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 and the proposed method are applied
to WSCC 3-machine 9-bus system and the results are presented in
Fig. 16. From Fig. 16, it is observed that the proposed method
provides least response time for fault detection during power
swing compared with existing method. Again, according to
Table 4, the proposed method provides the least threshold value
and lowest value of dead-band, so it is the most reliable method
compared with existing method.
5 Conclusions
A new technique based on phase-space based fault detector is
proposed for symmetrical fault detection and out-of-step blocking
protection during power swing. This is based on an embedding
theorem which shows that a time series can be mapped to a
higher-dimensional space called PS through embedding, and thus a
sampled signal can be transformed into the PS so that its features
can be more clearly viewed. As the original signal is decoupled
into power swing and symmetrical fault, the symmetrical fault
detection technique during power swing is easily achieved as the
symmetrical fault part of the signal produces an irregular shape
compared with the shape produced from the power swing part of
the signal. The proposed FDPS has been found highly effective for
symmetrical fault detection during power swing in the
transmission line with wide variations in operating conditions
while meeting the speed criteria of one cycle from the event of
inception.
6 Acknowledgments
This research work was supported by the Prime Minister’s
Fellowship for Doctoral Research and being implemented jointly
by Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB) and the
Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), with industry partner
Robert Bosch.
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IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2016, Vol. 10, Iss. 8, pp. 1947–1956
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016