Radiation Intensity in Vacuum

❑ Radiation energy passing at normal angle through area dA1

over the time interval dt and wavelength range dη that will
reach area dA2 at normal angle is
dA2
I λ ( s1 , t1 )dA1dtdλdω1→2 = I λ ( s1 , t1 )dA1dtdλ
( s2 − s1 ) 2
Radiation Heat Transfer ❑ This radiation goes through dA2 at time t2=t1+(s2 – s1)/c
in Participating Media where c is the speed of light.
dA1
I λ ( s2 , t 2 )dA2 dtdλdω2→1 = I λ ( s2 , t 2 )dA2 dtdλ
( s2 − s1 ) 2
dA2 ŝ dA2 ŝ
s2 s2

dω1→2
dA1 dA1
dω2→1
s1 s1
Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 208

Radiation Intensity in Vacuum Participating Medium

❑ Equating these two equations gives ❑ A medium that absorbs, emits and scatters radiation is
called a participating medium.
I λ (s2 , t2 ) = I λ (s1 , t1 ) ❑ Water vapor, CO2, CO, CH4, combustion fuels, fog and cloud
❑ Semitransparent solids such as doped silicon
❑ Since c is very large, t1 ≈ t2 and ❑ Semitransparent liquids such as water Particles

I λ (s2 ) = I λ (s1 )
Scattered
Photons
❑ Radiation intensity in vacuum, along any given direction, is Photons dA
constant along its path.

Absorbed
Transmitted
Photons
Photons

ds

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 Absorption Out-Scattering
❑ The absolute amount of the radiation absorption is directly ❑ A part of the incoming radiation intensity is removed from
proportional to the magnitude of the incident energy and the the direction of propagation;
distance the radiation beam travels through the medium;
(dI λ ) abs = −κ λ I λ ds. (dI λ )out − sca = −σ sλ I λ ds.
❑ κλ is called the absorption coefficient of the medium. ❑ σsλ is called the scattering coefficient into all directions.
❑ It depends on temperature and the number of molecules per unit ❑ It depends on temperature and the number of molecules per unit
volume. volume.
❑ Integrating this equation from 0 to s gives
s ❑ Total attenuation of the radiation intensity by both
I λ ( s) = I λ (0)e −τ λ where τ λ = ∫ κ λ ds is called optical thickness. absorption and scattering is known as extinction.
0

❑ Absorptivity of the medium for the path from 0 to s is ❑ The extinction coefficient is defined as
I λ (0) − I λ ( s ) βλ = κ λ + σ sλ .
αλ ≡ = 1 − e −τ λ .
I λ (0)
Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 211 Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 212

Emission Absorbing, Emitting and Non-Scattering Medium

❑ The rate of emission from a volume element is proportional ❑ Radiation Emission: (dI λ )em = κ λ I bλ ds
to the magnitude of the volume.
❑ The emitted intensity along any path is proportional to ❑ Radiation Absorption: (dI λ ) abs = −κ λ I λ ds
❑ the length of the path and,
❑ the local energy content in the medium. dI λ
❑ Combining the two gives = κ λ ( I bλ − I λ )
(dI λ )em = κ λ I bλ ds ds

❑ Note that the proportionality constant for emission, κλ, is ❑ The solution of this equation for an isothermal gas layer of
the same as for absorption. thickness s is
I λ ( s) = I λ (0)e −τ λ + I bλ (1 − e −τ λ )
❑ If only internal emission is considered, I(0)=0 and
I λ ( s)
I λ ( s ) = I bλ (1 − e −τ λ ) ⇒ ε λ ≡ = 1 − e −τ λ
I bλ
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 In-Scattering Scattering Phase Function
❑ Radiation intensity can be augmented by in-scattering from ❑ The probability that the radiation ray from one direction, si,
all directions. is scattered into a certain other direction, s, is described by
❑ Consider the radiation heat flux impinging on a volume scattering phase function; Φλ(si, s).
element dV=dAds, from direction si. ❑ The amount of radiation energy from the cone dωI that is
❑ The total spectral radiation heat flux impinging on area dA scattered into the cone dω is
from direction si is dω
I λ ( sˆi )(dAsˆi ⋅ sˆ)dωi dλ. σ sλ I λ ( sˆi )dAdωi dλdsΦ λ ( sˆi , sˆ) .
4π
❑ Note that sˆi ⋅ sˆ = cosθ, where θ is the angle between ❑ The total spectral radiation energy that is scattered from
directions si and s. the cone dωi to all directions is
❑ The part of this energy which is scattered away from si dω dω
while passing through the volume element is
∫ π σ λ I λ (sˆ )dAdω dλdsΦ λ (sˆ , sˆ) 4π
4
s i i i = σ sλ I λ ( sˆi )dAdωi dλds ∫ Φ λ ( sˆi , sˆ)
4π 4π
.

ds 1
σ sλ [I λ ( sˆi )(dAsˆi ⋅ sˆ)dωi dλ ] = σ sλ I λ ( sˆi )dAdωi dλds. ❑ Therefore,
4π ∫ π Φ λ (sˆ , sˆ)dω = 1
4
i
sˆi ⋅ sˆ
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In-Scattered Radiation The Equation of Transfer

❑ The total spectral radiation energy that is scattered is ❑ Combining equations for absorption, emission, in-scattering
direction s into the cone dω from all directions is and out-scattering, the equation of transfer of radiation
dω intensity in as participating medium is
∫ π σ λ I λ (sˆ )dAdω dλdsΦ λ (sˆ , sˆ) 4π .
4
s i i i
dI λ = (dI λ )em + (dI λ ) abs + (dI λ )out − sca + (dI λ )in−sca (s).
❑ This is equal to the scattered radiation flux around the
wavelength dλ that impinges upon area dA and passes dI λ σ
through the solid angle dω; ds
= κ λ I bλ − (κ λ + σ sλ ) I λ + sλ
4π ∫ π I λ (sˆ )Φ λ (sˆ , sˆ)dω .
4
i i i

(dI λ )in− sca ( sˆ)dAdωdλ ❑ This is a first-order integro-differential equation for

radiation intensity in direction s.
❑ Therefore, the amount of in-scattering into direction s from ❑ A boundary condition, such as radiation intensity in
all directions is direction s on a surface of an enclosure that surrounds the
σ sλ medium, is needed for complete solution of this equation.
(dI λ )in− sca ( sˆ) = ds ∫ π I λ (sˆ )Φ λ (sˆ , sˆ)dω .
i i i
4π 4

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The Equation of Transfer in Optical Coordinates Non-Scattering Medium
❑ The non-dimensional optical thickness is defined as ❑ For a non-scattering medium, ωλ=0, and the equation of
s s
transfer of radiation intensity becomes
τ λ = ∫ (κ λ + σ sλ )ds = ∫ β λ ds. dI λ
0 0 + I λ = I bλ
dτ λ
❑ The single scattering albedo is defined as
σ sλ σ ❑ The solution of this equation can be written as
ωλ = = sλ .
κ λ + σ sλ β λ τλ
I λ (τ λ ) = I λ (0)e −τ λ + e −τ λ ∫ I bλ (τ λʹ′ )eτ λʹ′ dτ λʹ′ .
❑ It can be shown that the equation of transfer of radiation 0

intensity in terms on optical thickness and single scattering

albedo becomes
dI λ ω
dτ λ
+ I λ = (1 − ωλ ) I bλ + λ
4π ∫ π I λ (sˆ )Φ λ (sˆ , sˆ)dω .
4
i i i

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Radiation Heat Flux Vector Conservation of Radiation Energy

❑ The rate of incident and outgoing spectral radiation heat ❑ The equation of transfer is a radiation balance for an
transfer through an area dA1 is infinitesimal pencil of rays:
dqλ = I λ (sˆ)dA1 cosθdω dI λ σ
where cos θ = sˆ ⋅ nˆ. ds
= κ λ I bλ − (κ λ + σ sλ ) I λ + sλ
4π ∫ π I λ (sˆ )Φ λ (sˆ , sˆ)dω .
4
i i i

❑ The spectral radiation heat flux is ❑ If this equation is integrated over all solid angles, an spectral
qλʹ′ʹ′ = ∫ I λ ( sˆ) sˆ ⋅ nˆ dω. radiation balance for an infinitesimal volume is obtained:
4π
❑ The total radiation heat flux is ∇ ⋅ qλʹ′ʹ′ = κ λ (4πI bλ − Gλ ) where Gλ = ∫ I λ dω
4π
∞
qʹ′ʹ′ = ∫ ∫ I λ ( sˆ) sˆ ⋅ nˆ dωdλ. qz+dz qy+dy
0 4π ŝ
❑ The spectral and total radiation heat flux vectors are dA
qx
s+ds
qλʹ′ʹ′ = ∫ I λ ( sˆ) sˆdω. qʹ′ʹ′ = ∫
∞
I λ ( sˆ) sˆdωdλ. ŝ s qx+dx
4π 0 ∫π
4

qy qz
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 Conservation of Radiation Energy Molecular Internal Energy
❑ A total radiation balance is obtained by integrating this over ❑ The internal energy of atoms and molecules consists of
all wavelengths: ❑ Energy of electrons spinning around the nucleus.
∞
∇ ⋅ qʹ′ʹ′ = ∫ κ λ (4πI bλ − Gλ )dλ ❑ Energy of atoms spinning around one another.
0
❑ For the special case of a gray medium where κλ=κ, ❑ Energy of atoms within a molecule vibrating against each other.

(
∇ ⋅ qʹ′ʹ′ = κ 4σT 4 − G ) ❑ Energy levels for electron orbits and molecular rotation and
vibration are quantized.

❑ The energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency:

❑ It must have a certain frequency to be captured or released.
❑ Spectral lines for absorption and emission are discrete.

Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 223 Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 224

Change in Molecular Internal Energy Rotational Spectra

❑ Changing the orbit of an electron requires a relatively large ❑ The possible rotational energy levels
amount of energy on the order of several eV (1.602×10-19 J). for a diatomic molecule, based on 20 J=4
❑ Absorption and emission of high frequency photons the rigid-rotator model, are
Absorption
❑ Short wavelength spectral lines between UV and near IR h2
(10-2 – 1.5 µm) EJ = J ( J + 1) Emission
8π 2 I J=3
12
where h is Plank constant, I is the
❑ Vibrational energy level changes require energy levels on the

J(J+1)
moment of inertia of the molecule,
order of 0.1 eV.
and J is the rotational quantum 6
J=2
❑ Spectral lines in the IR (1.5 – 20 µm)
number.
❑ The allowed transitions are Δ J= ±1. 2 J=1
❑ Changes in rotational energy levels require small amount of J=0
energy on the order of 10-3 eV. ❑ The frequency of the absorbed or 0
emitted photon is 1 2 3 4
❑ Spectral lines in the far IR (larger than 20 µm) J+1
EJ +1 − EJ h
ν J → J +1 = = 2 ( J + 1)
h 4π I
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 Vibrational Spectra Vibrational-Rotational Spectra
❑  The possible vibrational energy levels ❑ Vibrational energy changes always happen together with
for a diatomic molecule, based on the Absorption many simultaneous rotational energy changes.
harmonic oscillator model, are
1 Emission ❑ The combined rotational and vibrational energy level of a
Eυ = (υ + )hν 0 9/2 υ=4 diatomic molecule is
2
where υ is the vibrational quantum h2 1
number and υ=3 EJ = J ( J + 1) + (υ + )hν 0
7/2 8π 2 I 2
1 k m1m2

(υ+1/2)
ν0 = wher e mʹ′ = υ=2
❑ The allowed transitions are Δ υ = ±1 and Δ J = ±1 and 0.
2π mʹ′ m1 + m2 5/2
is the equilibrium frequency of ❑ The frequency of the spectral lines for υ = 0 to υ = 1 is
oscillation of such a two-body oscillator. υ =1 h
3/2 ν =ν 0 − J if ΔJ = −1
❑  The allowed transitions are Δ υ = ±1. 4π 2 I
❑  The frequency of the absorbed or 1/2 υ=0 h
emitted photon is ν = ν 0 + 2 ( J + 1) if ΔJ = 1
Eυ +1 − Eυ υ0 4π I
νυ = =ν 0 υ
h
Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 227 Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 228

Vibrational-Rotational Spectra Total Emissivity and Absorptivity of CO2 and H2O

❑ Total emissivity of CO2 or H2O at very low partial pressure
pa , total pressure of p = 1 bar, and length L is
j i
⎡ M N
⎛ Tg ⎤
⎞ ⎛ pa L ⎞
ε 0 ( pa L, p = 1 bar, Tg ) = exp⎢∑∑ c ji ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ log10 ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ i =0
⎣
j =0 ⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ ( p a L ) 0 ⎠
⎥
⎦

❑ The emissivity at different pressure p is

2
ε ( pa L, p, Tg ) (a − 1)(1 − PE ) ⎡ ⎛ ( p L) ⎞ ⎤
= 1− exp⎢− c⎜⎜ log10 a m ⎟⎟ ⎥
ε 0 ( pa L, p = 1 bar, Tg ) a + b − 1 + PE ⎢⎣ ⎝ pa L ⎠ ⎥⎦
Vibrational-Rotational Spectra of CO
❑ The absorptivity at pressure p is
1/ 2
⎛ Tg ⎞ T ⎛ ε ⎞
α = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ε 0 ( pa L g , p = 1 bar, Ts )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Ts ⎠ T s ⎝ ε 0 ⎠
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 Correlation Constants for Water Vapor Total Emissivity of Water Vapor

Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 231 Advanced Heat Transfer (ME 211) Younes Shabany 232

Correlation Constants for Carbon Dioxide Total Emissivity of Carbon Dioxide

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