Arch 577 – Fall 2021

Name: NITHYASHREE BALACHANDAR IYER

Section Instructor: Prof. STALLMEYER

Section Number:

Reading notes for Week # 1

 Reading notes Week 1

NESBITT: INTRODUCTION

• The introduction starts off with the definition of theory. Theory is like a conversation and
assesses architectural practice and production.
• Theory overlaps with history because it describes past work. But it is different from history and
the works of the past because in history there is lesser space for judgement and critiquing. It
draws alternate solutions from present time to solve problems and encourages new thought
patterns to approach an issue in design.
• While history usually talks about and criticizes accomplishments of the past, theory also deals
with goals of the profession, its relevance culturally and in the present works.
Throughout history, there have been problems that are either physical or conceptual which need
resolution. While physical difficulties can be resolved architecturally, conceptual ones are raised
through philosophy.

• Recurring theoretical questions can be regarding cultural relevance, its relationship with
history, origin, etc.
• New theoretical questions might be due to a fairly new discipline with aspects that are yet to be
explained or assessed.
Nesbitt then talks about the need for postmodernism and how in the last 30 years there was not just a
single issue but many issues that needed attention during the postmodern period. The era started see
the following as limitations of the modern era: the radical shift from history, the simple and honest
expression of materials, the idea of “form follows function”. After 1960’s, Theory of architecture
truly became interdisciplinary because it started revising modernism from various aspects- political,
ethical, aesthetic, linguistic.

• Nesbitt intends the whole book to be about postmodernism. She mentions that
postmodernism isn’t just a style but includes a period with variety.
• The following essays in the anthology express multiple points of view rather thana single
standpoint.
• The book is an amalgam of several texts. It has 14 chapters and 50 essays which provide the
skeleton to decipher the complexities of postmodernism.
• The chapters address recurrent issues. The themes and paradigms are meant to be interrelated
and sketch the trend in architecture since 1965.
Types of Theory:
Theory can show several attitudes towards its main subject: prescriptive, proscriptive, affirmative or
critical. There is a definite opinion about the subject matter and unlike history, it does not have a
neutral standpoint. History on the other hand is only descriptive. It describes without having a
personal view about a design.

• Prescriptive theory functions by providing solutions to a problem. It could me new and radical
or it could be conservative and revive old methods. (An example of prescriptive method is
Michael Graves’s suggestion to return to humanist ideas and William Mcdonough’s
ecological manifesto.)
• Proscriptive theory is like prescriptive but is different in that it talks about avoiding and
omitting negative attributes. For example: the town planning code for Seaside, Florida
restricts certain materials, setbacks, massing and styles.
 • Critical theory examines the relationship of the users and the built forms. It questions,
criticizes, speculates and is sometimes utopian toward design.
Purpose of Theoretical treatise: Scope of Theory
The author says theory often goes back to the origin of art and practice. In Vitruvius’s Ten Book of
Architecture, he talks about how humans went from consulting buildings to other forms of applied
arts. Nesbitt says that treatises sometimes show a clear difference between architecture and
mathematics; that it is the starting point to Fine Arts.
Apart from origin, architectural treatises are being classified to 5 points:
1. The personality, qualities, and experience of architect. Alberti’s definition of an architect talks
about how he equipped with thought and invention.
2. Qualities of architecture like in Vitruvius’s triad- utilitas, firmitas and venustas. These have
been difficult to replace.
3. Technique, constituent parts, classification, materials all form an important part of theory.
The author provides an example of “Essay on architecture”- importance of the parts.
4. An author’s opinion or attitude towards history. Like Robert Venturi’s Complexity and
Contradiction of Architecture which argues his style.
5. The attitude between theory and practice: As seen in the contrast of beliefs by Architects
Bernard Tshumi (believes role of theory is to provoke and interpret) and Vittorio Gregotti
(Research in theory is the foundation for application in design).

• It is widely debated whether theory is knowledge before taking action or that it results in
predictable outcomes- which would mean that it is either prescriptive or provocative
• Alberto Perez Gomez (a postmodernist) challenges by stating theory is against myth and
preconceived notions and that it is concerned with domination of the ‘material world’.
• Drawings of Zaha Hadid, Daniel Libeskind and even Boullee’s ‘architecture of the shadows’
drew attention due to their spatial qualities. Perez-Gomez writes about this in his essay for
“paper architecture”. Whether it still comes under the corpus of architecture is debated.
• Nesbitt organizes her book, so it addresses topics like meaning. Theories of history, nature of
site, city, technology, and aesthetic issues in subsequent chapters.
• While talking about origin- the meaning of architecture and definition of its limits is
questioned.
• Meaning in architecture raises questions like – Is meaning of a form dependent on repetition?
Then how do you find meaning to a new innovation? Is meaning found only in form or only
in content?
• Theory also addresses historic architecture as it is inherently long standing and raises
questions about the relationship the present has with it. Theory questions if copying historic
form is the only way to attain beautiful architecture or if it just become a mere mime without
meaning.
• Theory addresses relationship between nature and built form- if the form dominates the land
or if it is engulfed by the land. It talks about how the site becomes landscape and what it says
about human’s place in that surrounding.
• Theory talks about site in an urban context too. What physical, economic, political and social
quality a city has. It is also assessed by its scale and many similar elements scatters across the
city to form a whole.
• The use of human body in architecture to derive proportions for spaces and in turn inspecting
scale and proportional harmony in design. Le Corbusier’s modular man and renaissance
theory questions if proportions derived from an abstract idea are really descriptive.
 • Theory talks about aesthetic quality and what qualifies as beauty to architecture. In Alberti’s
Ten books he states that architecture needs to emulate nature such that if one part was taken,
it would be incomplete. It then questions if ornamentation really adds beauty to a building
since it was called ‘a crime’ by Adolf Loos. Then can ornamentation be implemented in such
a way that it adds meaning to a building?
• Technique and technological advance led to mass production of buildings. This raises the
question if technology and the revolution justified by history.
• After this introduction, Part 2 shifts to the meaning of postmodernism.

SKYES, CONSTRUCTING A NEW AGENDA: ARCHITECTURAL THEORY 1993-2009

Towards the end of 20th C Kate Nesbitt and K Michael Hays wrote anthologies dedicated to
architectural theory.
Theory has existed since centuries and originated with Vitruvius. However, Nesbitt and Hays
redefined meaning of architectural theory by describing a movement that started in the 1960.
Theory’s concepts and understanding was derived from anthropology, meaning, philosophy and
psychology in their anthology.
Architectural theory hence has an overlapping and conflicting nature which gives rise to the more
recent deconstructivist ideas.
While Nesbitt talks about multiple issues taking the forefront and states that the lack of a single-issue
lead to postmodernism, Hays feels that “Marxian critical theory and post structuralism with readings
of architectural modernism” dominated all other issues.
The author further describes Nesbitts critical theory and of how the built environment is evaluated by
its effect on the society. The author agrees that in 2009, a combination of Hays and Nesbitt’s
definition of critical theory is most helpful to understand it.
This theory- interrogates, explains and enhances the world.

• The goal for architecture is to improve upon the utopian and modernist beliefs to save the
society from its faults.
• During post-modern era, to expect architecture to achieve wide-ranging and massive tasks set
the building to a course of failure. This was recognized by postmodernists as pluralist
tendencies and sought to proceed in limited terms.
• From 1960’s to 90’s though there were different approaches, theory tried to reformulate the
essence of architecture and provide its own niche.
• In current times, critical architectural theory by itself is changing.
• In the decade before 2009 many architects critique critical theory and see it as irrelevant and
dissociated from it. While attitudes of the many authors are different, they all pose new
methods to define architecture instead of going by critical theory.
• Reinhold Martin and Arie Graafland however argue that critical theory still plays a crucial
role in architecture
• The author asks why the need for questioning critical theory now and explains that while the
present age does not completely disown critical thinking, it urges a more realistic approach to
building and architecture (pro-practice generation).
• An event funded by Skidmore Owings and Merrill sought to discuss the critical architecture
theory from a pro-practice stance. When theory is tied to pragmatism and application of these
theories in practice, it appeals architects that were frustrated with the abstract nature of critical
theory in the 1960s.
• In another such event in 2000, a journal founded by editors Peter Eisenman, Mario
Gandelsonas and Anthony Vidler continued theoretical conversation. The event was meant to
finding solutions to ‘growing pains’ but instead shifted away from theory itself according to
many others.
• In the final issue of The Assemblage, Hays and Kennedy express that the end of the issue
does not mean end of theory and that theory has this quality of historicizing itself. It stresses
that the various branches it has now taken to is not antitheory but that it is a revision of
theory. This is as such the quality of theory- “retooling rather than closing down”.
• The Assemblage raises seriousness of theory’s state. Though it is described as constantly
changing, Theory is being challenged by many as limited by reality of present economic
social, and political pressure of building something.
• But it also mentions that Theory while it might not be relevant in the present might be source
of inspiration for the future.
• According to Hays and Kennedy theory might not give us concrete ideas and answers but will
fill gaps and holes in the discourse that we are unable to see in the present.
• With the end of The Assemblage came the end of the architectural journal- ANY which was
believed by the opposition to be the end of critical theory. This was followed by multiple
architectural journals talking about the shift to practice and theory being re-evaluated.

Since the evaluation of theory’s relevance, many overlapping themes because of technological
advances came to be seen possessing qualities of contemporary architecture. This digital age
resulted in many new possibilities- a few examples being the Guggenheim Museum and the
Yokohoma International Port Terminal.

• Both building have different design approaches- by how differently they use technology.
While Guggenheim Museum first started off as sketches and used CATIA to make the
form possible, the Terminal by FOA uses technology to discover their results.
• While both projects express curvilinearity, the Yokohama Terminal’s form is blob-like
and has smooth corves that defy the traditional forms of architecture. The Guggenheim
Museum on the other hand has sweeping curves that intersect with rectilinear and
straight-edges surfaces.
• Apart from form, the digital age raises questions about Architecture’s role in
globalization, internet, virtual reality and so on. Hence, technology affects architecture
and requires it to tackle reality.
• Apart from Technology, another reality involves the effect of architecture on the
environment and finding ways to correcting the damage caused by society inhabiting it.
Sustainable and Green architecture is being implemented in different ways but bby most
architects.
• Architects like Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Renzo Piano employ technology while
Samuel Mockbee and Glenn Murcutt use local materials, geography, topography, and
vernacular solutions to create sustainable, green and energy efficient buildings.
William McDonough collaborated with a chemist to develop new materials and
technology to reuse waster as raw material for another process.
• Though the methods are different, many architects are moving towards the common goal
of making their building sustainable to be environmentally more responsible.
• Realism encompasses this need for ecological solutions and to grow with technology.
Realism and the everyday go hand-in-hand. Realism is anything that exists and needs to
be dealt with pragmatically.
 • While Guggenheim uses materials like steel to show that the site was initially a steel yard,
the museum has a desire to be monumental. This language is then carried out in other
locations by Gehry. This is unlike everyday architecture which desires to fit into the
context of the place and not be monumental.
• Although New York’s Guggenheim Museum is iconic, the city of New York already has
many buildings of culture and diversity to view. However, the museum in Bilbao has
attracted millions to a city which was once a ‘decaying industrial town’.
• In Charles Jencks’ bool Iconic he talks about how Guggenheim Bilbao, the Chrysler and
Empire State, and the Gherkin have become iconic in themselves but have provided an
iconic identity to the city they’re housed in as well. This has been described as
“commercialization of architecture” and a “marketing technique”.
• The author then talks about ‘starchitects’ like Gehry and Koolhaas, and their involvement
in not only architecture but guest editing, commercials, etc. In “the Bilbao effect”, Witold
Rybczynski talks about how starchitects have now created work with eye-catching
renderings, media publicity and their fame. In this process, designs that are more
thoughtful, subtle and nuanced are neglected. Witold concludes that architecture should
convey more than just have the “wow” or “look at me” factors.
• In recent times due to economic crises iconic architecture has taken a backseat and has
led us to reflect and really analyze what we really want to achieve- Campbell’s notes.
• A few architecture firms have however started to rethink and perhaps expand
architecture’s spectrum. Since architecture has always had “blurred boundaries” with
engineering, art, and other disciplines it has started to reach out to different realms.
• Rem Koohlas and Gehry broadened their scopes with AMO and Gehry technologies
respectively to offer services like software technology for architecture, consulting, and
business strategies. Though they branched to non-architectural practices, the leadership of
the architects bring these realms under the wings of architecture.

Hence, forces like historical, cultural, social, political, economic and current affairs have constantly
dictated, tied and shaped architecture. The author hence concludes by stating that theory cannot take
its previous role and has to change with current times and be in constant transformation. He says that
it has started to shift away from Utopian ideals in some ways. All teexts since 1993 all point in one
direction which is forward toward the future.

JON LANG- CREATING ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

CHAPTER 2- Nature and utility of Theory

• The author states that theory is ambiguous and that it can be system of ideas- positive theory-
to some people.
• Theory can be used in three ways- it could be a philosophical approach, a hypothesis, or a
normative theory.
Positive theory-

• Positive theory is the ability to predict how patterns will occur based on prior observations.
“Elements occur in patterns” as said by the author.
• It is different from scientific hypothesis in that hypothesis comes from an imagination of what
the result could be, but positive theory uses observations of a trend that has taken place in the
past and is used to take an educated guess or prediction of what is going to happen.
• Abraham Kaplan describes theory as means to understand and make sense of a situation that
is uncomfortable and to also tweak or get rid of it should the situation and demand change.
• The author says that successful theories are those that might be simple but are “powerful
generalizations” about the world and its functioning. He mentions that this type if essential for
professions like environmental design.
• Theory is not a collection of facts about the world, but it is merely tentative and will be prone
to revision or even disclaim.
• Unlike science that has techniques to tackle solutions, theory and architecture uses “quasi-
scientific” approaches to build theory and is open to discussion.
• Theory, the author says, should question, evaluate, and address the holes in practice.
• The author points out the fault in practice of environment design and that this is due to the
fear od designers being challenged and opposed if they practiced practical theory. They hence
resort to a beaten road.
Functions of positive theory:

• Since environmental design practice requires greater knowledge, educators developed a

very long curriculum for design students. According to Kenneth Boulding: Educators
think more the students know the better. But to learn less is highly desirable according to
him.
• Boulding further suggests that this “economizing” of learning can be achieved by being
able to apply a single theory to many processes in the world.
• This function is called “economy of thought”- If one understands the basics of territorial
needs in the environment by people then one can easily understand patterns and generate
ways to meet these needs.
• This economization of knowledge is to understand something that might have, at some
point, been meaningless.
• Like in Oscar Newman’s book that is available to everyone to access, he has principles
for design based on territorial control. Due to his description of research, others can
evaluate why his principles are valid and what its limitations can be.
• The thought that design may work in theory but not in practice talks about how theory
creates this utopian world with no obstacles during design. These theories however refine
our understanding.
• According to Kaplan, Theory relates to practice and must rise and fall with it provided, its
implementation is being done suitably. This is true especially for architecture and
landscape architecture.

• Positive theory is sometimes claimed to be value-free, and this is challenged by many

architects and thinkers.

• The author notes that a positive theory is formulated as a response to a concern and is
based on an “ideological position”. Besides, research is also funded by organizations that
follow a way of thinking. This leads to certain explanations developed by a person being
biased.
• However, theory is meant to be unbiased, and it exists so there is an alternative explanation.
Normative Theory-

• ‘Normative’ has two meanings according to the text- It can either mean the norms for a given
time that are mutually agreed upon, or it could mean what must be and what a good world is.
The latter meaning is adopted in the text.
• Normative theory consists of statements that are rife with value. Some people describe it to be
scientific when that is conflicting since scientific methods provide explanation, not creatin
unlike normative theory.
• It is based on worldview. Professions like engineering, architecture, nursing have statements
demanding obligation simply because it is easier to take guidance instead of making decisions.

CONCEPTS OF THEORY IN THE DESIGN FIELD

• The instruction of theory in a design school is based on the ideologies and set of principles the
instructor adheres to while designing an open space or building complex.
• The author states that when human experience is taken into consideration for a design, it is
expected of humans to have that interaction with the space. When people don’t have the
interaction as the designer believed them to have with the space, they are called ill mannered
or poorly educated.
• The author says that lack of knowledge on the user’s part cannot be blamed for a design that
does not meet future needs.
• While designing, their assertions are largely based on what they have observed and leads to
their deciphering based on what they’ve experienced or seen. This can be interpreted based on
their own anecdotes, assumptions, bias which are just the conclusions he draws by his
relationship with the world.
• Environmental Psychologist Harold Proshansky says most designers have a large database of
unrefined data about people and their interaction with space and how it has to be documented.
This quality still has to be honed and tapped in a gradual and organized fashion.
• Until the data is clarified it is not possible to test how accurate the observations are.

THE EATURE OF POSITIVE THEORY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

• Positive theory’s success depends on really judging how the environment is experienced and
utilized by different people.
• It doesn’t come as surprise that people are leaning towards positive theory as it recognizes the
constantly changing nature of the world, diversity and the need to respond to tis diversity.
• Positive theory hence involves understanding the surrounding, the role of people in the it, and
built environment itself.
• Research, practice and theory should be a cycle. This can be done by inspecting a building from
time to time after construction and when it is being used by the users.

CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

Positive theory

• Positive theory has two types: substantive theory and procedural theory.
 • Substantive theory involves getting involved and making observations at a macro and molar
level to bee successful in design. It is divided into two- natural environment theory and person-
environment theory.
• Natural environment theory involves all things surrounding a person- this is to understand how
different elements in the environment behave and how they interact with each other. The best
way to understand this is through natural sciences like chemistry, physics, and biology.
• Person-environment theory like the name suggests is the interaction of the person with the
environment, the habitat that best suits humans- biological, psychological, social and cultural
understanding.
• This understanding is obtained from designers themselves and oftentimes behavioral science
researchers within the design field.
• Procedural theory is the process of trying and testing design by means of quasi-scientific
methods. This procedural theory, to be effective, must include human creativity, nature of
humans, nature of the environment, etc. to be effective and to be able to evaluate the process.
Normative theory

• Normative theory also deals with procedural and substantive issues.

• It considers different opinions on what action needs to be taken on a built environment or what
the design process should be. It looks at the views of different designers who have decided
what is good for the environment and what isn’t, what works and what does not.

CHAPTER 3- BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

• The definition of behavioral science in this book is to deal with the nature of human habit and
their relationship world and values.
• It is also closely related to man-environmental relations and environmental sociology to some
extent. People associated with these subjects do not realize that they are concerned with the
built environment and its design. The author says this shows a disconnect from traditional
concerns from behavioral scientists.
• Psychological research dealt with the environment in a molar way, this has reflected in
architects works in a good and bad way.
• Sociology has not been as concerned with built environment as much as it has been concerned
with people, but they left behind the initial intention of considering the physical environment
around them.
• Anthropology shows a closer connection with behavioral sciences as it studies human
proportion with respect to the built space around them.
Concerns of behavioral sciences:

• The main goal of behavioral science is to develop and build positive theory. As opposed
to this, when a sociologist, anthropologist or psychologist strives to create a normative
theory, they begin to be planners rather than theorists as they sought to their opinions of
what works best.
• While planners want behavioral scientist to int=struct them on what the future should
look like and state is a fact, behavioral scientists become unresponsive in the sense that it
goes against their very role.
• Behavioral scientists practice the scientific method- they emphasize on lab experiments
for psychologists and an empirical process for sociology and psychology.
 • However, these still did not do justice to being related to the built environment. For this
reason, newly designed research techniques are being formulated under the corpus of
architecture which is attracting behavioral scientist to have questions regarding the built
environment.
• Conferences like EDRA that have lacked raising concerns regarding the built
environment has led to conversations regarding the “utility gap” between research and
practice.

The concerns of design

• To be able to contribute to behavioral sciences, one must have an image of what the concerns
in design are.
• To be able to design effectively, the author encourages designers and scientists to question
and not conform to existing theories and practices. Vitruvius emphasis on the three basic
purposes that need to be fulfilled while creating: “utilitas, venustas, firmitas”. Sir Henry
Wotton in his words describes that any building needs to have firmness, commodity and
delight.
• Geoffrey Scott noted that these three terms are in-fact interrelated. That in design, and as w
hole they are intertwined but by themselves they carry their own character.
• However, during modern architecture, designers believed that commodity and firmness alone
were the two sole contributors to design.
• Commodity is described as the function of a design; delight is said to be the aesthetic quality
while firmness is desired for all buildings to endure harsh conditions for a long period of time.
• When commodity and firmness is split from delight, the notion was that it didn’t change
anything fundamentally. The author disagrees and thinks that it is through aesthetic quality
that the owner expresses himself though the design. It talks about the user and his aspirations.
• Fred Steele sees six basic functions in architecture: shelter, social contact, security,
commodity, growth, aesthetic. Growth is the most important aspect of design as it considers
environmental opportunities.
• It is assumed that the above entities are required for human needs and hence it is important to
understand what these human needs are.
• The author mentions that the model of the book is similar to Abraham Maslow’s
interpretation of psychology. – human needs like survival, security, affiliation, esteem,
learning and aesthetics can be achieved if the built environment is understood.
Nature of design problems

• Designing a building is a daunting task since it requires that identify the problems and come
up with an effective solution and spatial program that best suits the context.
• The book is aimed at honing the designer’s sensitivity to fit the user’s needs.
• As much as removing negative barriers is an important task in environmental design, addition
to an environment is just as crucial.
• Solving problems for the future is often described as wicked as they are badly defined.
• It is hard to test all possible solutions to an environmental problem and each of these
problems are unique in their own way demanding a unique solution.
• The author says that it is natural that not everyone agrees with all styles and types of buildings
as there is no one size, or type fits all in this world.
The contribution of behavioral sciences to design
 • Behavioral sciences consist of ‘theories and models’- improve understanding of the design
process, and research.
• Theories and models further have 2 sets: procedural- deals with knowledge of the process of
evaluation, analysis, experimenting, creating, etc.; and substantive theory- based on
observations of the daily.
• Substantive is closely associated with normative in the sense that world views and positions
are shaped by their experience with the culture that they belong to.
• Traditionally, these normative or world views have been the basis of architectural theories.
• Research is the second important contribution to behavioral science- scientists use
observation, interview, and experiment.
• Research is very important and can be of direct help to architectural professionals when
designing.
• However, not all behavioral research techniques are useful for environmental design. Hence,
they have started to build their own techniques to better understand and solve their problems.
• Since observations by tweaking one variable to see how it affects other constants is possible
in a lab setting, environmental and human activities require and more natural experiment to
make observations of human behavior.
• The most used tool is simple observation- where no subjects are manipulated but systematic
recordings are taken.
• One of the main change behavioral sciences can make to an environment is attitudal one.

Behavioral sciences and the Modern Movement

• Behavioral sciences have played a major role in architecture. Modern architects have either
consulted behavioral scientist to check if their normative theory is justified or completely
dismissed them having full trust in their own notion.
• One such example is Alexander Jackson trying to justify his normative theory that different
buildings should be different styles.
• Due to the failure to provide evidence regarding the Beaux-Arts in Paris by Charles Henry- a
French Psychologist, works of cubist artists and architects were justified.
• George Santyana invited Hugo Muntsberg- founder of applied psychology, to Harvard and
used research methods as the basis for educational programs in Soviet schools. This
influenced Nikolai Ladovsky to establish a laboratory that gave birth to the “social realism”.
• Walter Gropius was against old academies because it did not cultivate study of aesthetics. The
focus was on Gestalt theory for aesthetics. This curriculum of the Bauhaus theory invariably
influenced the rest of the world.
• Bauhaus however had no theories of their own and borrowed theoretical ideas from
behavioral sciences. They however did not initiate further development to a positive theory
base for design.
• Sociologist Clarence Perry described a family unit to be important and consisting of- the
family, the lay group of children, and the neighborhood community. He states that this face-
to-face interaction within the institution if the family is very important for children.
• This neighborhood unit was hence applied throughout the world.

RECENT EFFORTS
Behavioral sciences and its relevance were highly fragmented firstly because of the focus on sticking
to normative theory and also because of the underdeveloped state of behavioral sciences itself.
Designers in the modern movement were so involved in their own beliefs that they missed seeing the
evidence that went against this very belief. IIn the 2970’s there was also a lack of human studies. In
recent times, more and more importance to human behavior is being brought to schools of design.

THE FUTURE
There has been concern about the disconnect between the information from environmental sciences
and the ability for designers to catch up. The main reason for designers to questioned of behavioral
science is confusion within their own profession and struggle to break away form t heir own beliefs.
The main aim of this book was to establish a clear difference between positive theory and normative
theory. There are competing explanations for the same issues which leads to competing theories.
Architects, landscape architects and urban designers are dealing with the future which is uncertain by
itself. Behavioral science will help reduce the uncertainty if not eliminate it.

PART II- POSITIVE ARHCITECTURAL THEORY

Concepts of Praxis and Concepts of Environment

• The purpose of positive environmental design theory is quite what it means- to develop a
positive theory about environmental design that will enable designers to better understand the
nature of the design process and the built environment.
• The author has divided the book to two parts- Procedural theory and Substantive theory.
• He states the behavioral sciences do more than simply adding to the corpus of knowledge and
that part 2 demonstrates this.
• It is hard to study the process of decision making in an architectural firm using scientific and
quasi-scientific methods.
• Like the author previously mentioned, since designers are working for the future, they tend to
make decision with uncertainty and must always continue to do so.
• This part outlines the decision-making process with environmental design. We require a well
thought out substantive theory for the process. Substantive theory helps in reducing the
uncertainty regarding many issues.
• However, the hope to one day completely understand and have a clear view of the process of
design is not attainable.

1. Procedural theory
• Procedural theory is concerned with design methodology and the study of design as a
process.
• The author talks about praxis: the need for procedural theory is so we have a more refined
understanding of environmental design and practice.
• If this is used thoughtfully, the environmental designers can first design the ‘process od
design’ in order to deal with different scenarios of a design problem instead of relying on
habitual processes that may be improper for that particular design problem.
• Although it was recognized that there is a lack of positive theory as long back as 100
years, only in the 1970’s were there concerns of it not being positive theory. However,
their idea of solving this was through “scientific methods” due to their belief in normative
theory.
• However, during the last twenty years, a lot of progress has been made ascertain the
process of environmental praxis, but a lot of effort must be put in for the same.
• Longitudinal studies (from inception to present day) is utterly time consuming but might
be the effective way of conducting these studies. And the result is that our knowledge is
fragmented.
• This book attempts at putting it together. Behavioral sciences make contributions to
development of procedural theory at 2 levels- Research findings, and sub-processes.
• Chapter 4 talks about different models of environmental praxis, - architects explore
axioms based on their own experience.
• Chapter 5, 6 and 7 are concerned about the subprocesses- analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
and decision.
• Hence the whole process of design is said to be made up of intelligence and design.
• The author concludes with mentioning that substantive theory is important to the
development of objectives required for solving design problems with design objectives in
mind.