nanomaterials

Article
Effects of Chemical Compositions on Plating
Characteristics of Alkaline Non-Cyanide
Electrogalvanized Coatings
Thanyalux Wanotayan 1 , Pongsakorn Kantichaimongkol 2 , Viriyah Chobaomsup 1 ,
Sirikarn Sattawitchayapit 3 , Klaus Schmid 4 , Martin Metzner 4 , Tongjai Chookajorn 3, * and
Yuttanant Boonyongmaneerat 1, *
1 Metallurgy and Materials Science Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan,
Bangkok 10330, Thailand; thanyalux.w@chula.ac.th (T.W.); viriyah.ch@student.chula.ac.th (V.C.)
2 Nanoscience and Technology Interdisciplinary Program, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University,
Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; 6288308020@student.chula.ac.th
3 National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC), National Science and Technology Development
Agency (NSTDA), Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand; sirikars@mtec.or.th
4 Department of Electroplating, Fraunhofer Institute of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation IPA,
Stuttgart 70569, Germany; klaus.schmid@ipa.fraunhofer.de (K.S.); martin.metzner@ipa.fraunhofer.de (M.M.)
* Correspondence: tongjai.cho@mtec.or.th (T.C.); yuttanant.b@chula.ac.th (Y.B.)




Received: 21 September 2020; Accepted: 20 October 2020; Published: 23 October 2020


Abstract: The effects of zinc and sodium hydroxide concentrations in an alkaline non-cyanide
zinc bath on the electrodeposition characteristics of zinc deposits are systematically investigated.
Using microstructural and phase analyses of specimens with specifically designed geometries,
the study indicates that the bath formulations critically control the electrogalvanizing characteristics
and affect the coating surface morphology, deposition rate, throwing power, coating uniformity,
and residual stresses developed during and after electrogalvanizing. The coatings produced from
baths with a moderate Zn-to-NaOH ratio of 0.067–0.092 appear to provide uniform and compact
deposits, moderately high deposition rate, and relatively low residual stresses.

Keywords: electrodeposition; zinc; nanostructures; characterization

1. Introduction
Owing to their relatively simple fabrication process and ten to hundred times higher corrosion
resistance than ferrous materials depending on the environment, electrogalvanized zinc coatings have
been widely employed to protect steels from corrosion in many industries ranging from automotive
and machine elements to construction [1–3]. Among the plating electrolyte systems available,
including the acid-based and alkaline-based baths [4–6], the alkaline non-cyanide zinc bath has gained
increasing interest due to its simple bath composition (merely two main chemicals), low internal stress,
and low tendency for hydrogen embrittlement (less than 1 ppm critical hydrogen concentration) [7–9].
Nevertheless, fundamental studies aiming to understand the influencing factors of plating quality and
to establish a process–property relationship of electrogalvanized coatings plated from the alkaline
non-cyanide bath have been very limited.
Several process parameters and variables such as chemical compositions of plating baths can
potentially play a critical role in influencing the characteristics of electrogalvanized coatings, including
the plating coverage, throwing power, and uniformity of coating thickness [10,11]. Moreover,
these factors could also affect the development of internal stresses, which could subsequently result in
the failure of deposited films, by mechanisms such as blistering or delamination. The effects of process

Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101; doi:10.3390/nano10112101 www.mdpi.com/journal/nanomaterials

Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 2 of 12

variables on residual stress and how it, in turn, affects the properties of the deposits have been examined,
primarily focusing on copper and nickel films [12–15]. However, the study on electrodeposited zinc is
very limited and has been largely focused on the acid bath and the effects of organic additives [16–20].
Among various process parameters, plating temperature, pH of plating baths, and current density are
found to influence the morphology and corrosion behavior of zinc deposits [21–25].
In this work, the effects of zinc and sodium hydroxide concentrations on the electrodeposition
characteristics of electrogalvanized zinc coatings of the alkaline non-cyanide system are systematically
investigated. Particularly, deposition rate, thickness uniformity, and internal stresses developed during
and after plating are analyzed with respect to the bath composition. The understanding gained from
this study provides fundamental knowledge for further development of the electroplated zinc coatings
and also benefits practical uses and controls of the electrogalvanized plating system.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Electrodeposition Setup

Zinc layers were electrodeposited onto low-carbon steel substrates using a 5 L alkaline non-cyanide
zinc bath. The zinc electrolytes were prepared by dissolving zinc oxide (ZnO) powder and
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets (Carlo Erba Reagents, Bangkok, Thailand) in deionized water.
The concentrations of Zn and NaOH were varied systematically for different baths, to be termed A–G,
as listed in Table 1. Practically, for the alkaline non-cyanide zinc bath, the normal operating range for
Zn was 8–11 g/L, and for NaOH, it was 120–150 g/L. The bath composition was designed herein to
study the effect of both Zn and NaOH concentrations within the operating range and also when they
are out of range from both ends. Cationic polyamines-based, aldehyde-based, and thiourea-based
additives (Columbia Chemical, Bangkok, Thailand) were added into the bath with a corresponding
concentration of 15, 0.25, and 1 mL/L to produce coatings with good appearance and uniform thickness.
Prior to electrodeposition, the substrates were pretreated by soak cleaning in 50% NaOH at 70 ◦ C for
3 min, electro-cleaning in 5% NaOH at 5 V for 30 s, and pickling in 5% HCl (Carlo Erba Reagents,
Bangkok, Thailand) for 10 s. The electrodeposition was conducted with a current density of 2 A/dm2
for 30 min at room temperature, using low-carbon steel anodes surrounding the specimens.

Table 1. Experimental bath compositions.

Zn (g/L) NaOH (g/L) Zn:NaOH Ratio

A 5 120 0.042
B 8 120 0.067
C 11 120 0.092
D 14 120 0.117
E 11 90 0.122
F 11 150 0.073
G 11 180 0.061

2.2. Plating Characteristics

2.2.1. Plating Uniformity Assessment

The plating uniformity assessment is designed to realistically simulate typical industrial working
conditions, in which work pieces are inevitably exposed to nonuniform electric fields and bath agitation.
By introducing these effects in a controlled manner, this assessment can therefore be used to examine
the throwing power and hydrodynamic effects in a plating session. Figure 1 shows a specially designed
corrugated specimen with outer dimensions of 80 mm × 38 mm × 10 mm and a total surface area of
1 dm2 . The corrugated specimens are divided into nine zones with two different groove depths that
experience different local current densities. Thus, the throwing power, which is the ability to apply
coating with a uniform thickness over an irregularly shaped cathode, can be determined by measuring
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, x 3 of 12

the ability to apply 2020,

Nanomaterials coating
10, 2101 with a uniform thickness over an irregularly shaped cathode, 3 of 12 can be
determined by measuring the coating thickness inside the grooves with respect to that on the outside
the coating
surface. During the thickness
plating inside the grooves
process, with respect also
the specimen to thatrotates
on the outside
in a surface. Duringdirection
clockwise the plating at 100 rpm
process, the specimen also rotates in a clockwise direction at 100 rpm (Figure 1). This results in a
(Figure 1). This results in a variation in fluid velocities in different zones.
variation in fluid velocities in different zones.

Figure 1. Corrugated specimen as a rotating cathode.

Figure 1. Corrugated specimen as a rotating cathode.

2.2.2. Structural Examination
Optical microscopy (OM) was used to determine the coating thickness from a cross-sectional view
2.2.2. Structural
of the Examination
corrugated specimens. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JSM-IT500HR, JEOL Ltd., Tokyo,
Japan) was employed to analyze the surface morphology at zone 5 of the electrogalvanized corrugated
Opticalsamples.
microscopy
The phase (OM) was used
identification to determine
was carried the zone
out at the same coating
using thickness from a(XRD,
X-ray diffractometry cross-sectional
view of thePW3710,
corrugatedPhilips,specimens. Scanning
Almelo, Netherlands) with aelectron microscopy
Cu radiation source and a (SEM,
scan rateJSM-IT500HR,
of 0.02 ◦ /min. JEOL Ltd.,
Tokyo, Japan) was employed to analyze the surface morphology at zone 5 of the electrogalvanized
2.3. Stress Measurements
corrugated samples. The phase identification was carried out at the same zone using X-ray
2.3.1. In-Situ Stress Measurement
diffractometry (XRD, PW3710, Philips, Almelo, Netherlands) with a Cu radiation source and a scan
rate of 0.02 °/min.Steel test strips with a size of 8 mm × 180 mm × 50 µm were used for the in-situ (during plating)
stress measurement and the post-plating stress measurement of deposits from the baths listed in Table 1.
The internal stress of the electrodeposits was determined using the change of length method. The strip
2.3. Stress Measurements
was aligned by fixing one end and attaching the other end to a dial gauge. During the electroplating
process, the length of the strip would change in response to the stress build-up inside the test strip.
The reading
2.3.1. In-Situ Stress from the gauge was then converted to the stress of the deposits, such that the internal
Measurement
stress of the zinc coating, σ (MPa), was estimated using Equation (1),
Steel test strips with a size of 8 mm × 180 mm × 50 µm were used for the in-situ (during plating)
Em tm + 2Ep tp
stress measurement and the post-plating σ = −stress measurement × 1000 × ∆m of deposits from the baths (1) listed in
2lp tp (1 − ν)
Table 1. The internal stress of the electrodeposits was determined using the change of length method.
where Em and tm are respectively the elastic modulus (185 GPa) and thickness (50 µm) of the measuring
The strip was aligned by fixing one end and attaching the other end to a dial gauge. During the
strip, Ep and tp are the elastic modulus (200 GPa) and thickness of the plating, respectively, lp is the
electroplating process,
plated length ofthe
thelength
measuringof strip
the (180
stripmm),
would changeratio
ν is Poisson’s in response
(0.3), and ∆mtois the stresslength
the signed build-up inside
the test strip. The ofreading
change fromstrip,
the measuring the with
gauge was then
a negative valueconverted
indicating anto the stress
increase of the
in the strip deposits,
length. From such that
each bath, three specimens were electroplated, and an average value is used to represent the internal
the internal stress of the zinc coating, σ (MPa), was estimated using Equation (1),
stress obtained during electroplating.
σ= − × 1000 × 𝛥 (1)
( )

where Em and tm are respectively the elastic modulus (185 GPa) and thickness (50 µm) of the
measuring strip, Ep and tp are the elastic modulus (200 GPa) and thickness of the plating, respectively,
lp is the plated length of the measuring strip (180 mm), 𝜈 is Poisson’s ratio (0.3), and Δm is the signed
length change of the measuring strip, with a negative value indicating an increase in the strip length.
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 4 of 12

2.3.2. Ex-situ Stress Measurement

Following the electrodeposition and the in-situ stress measurement, surface residual stress
measurements were performed on the electroplated test strips using a µ-X360s X-ray residual stress
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, x 4 of 12
analyzer (Pulstec Industrial Co.,Ltd., Hamamatsu, Japan) with Cr radiation. A single incident angle
X-ray exposure, or in other words, the cos α method, was performed by analyzing a Debye ring
X-ray exposure, or in other words, the cos α method, was performed by analyzing a Debye ring from
from the diffraction cone associated with the Zn (112) plane using an incidence angle of 35◦ and an
the diffraction cone associated with the Zn (112) plane using an incidence angle of 35° and an
irradiation time of 30 s. The residual stress was then estimated based on the distortion of the Debye
irradiation time of 30 s. The residual stress was then estimated based on the distortion of the Debye
ring in stressed specimens using the Young’s modulus of 200 GPa and the Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. Three
ring in stressed specimens using the Young’s modulus of 200 GPa and the Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. Three
specimens from each bath were measured and an average value was used to represent the surface
specimens from each bath were measured and an average value was used to represent the surface
residual stress resulting from each bath formulation.
residual stress resulting from each bath formulation.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
The samples from different baths (A–G) were successfully prepared with good uniformity, bright
The samples from different baths (A–G) were successfully prepared with good uniformity,
appearance, and strong adhesion. The scanning electron micrographs obtained for all samples and a
bright appearance, and strong adhesion. The scanning electron micrographs obtained for all samples
cross-sectional view of the representative sample from bath C are shown in Figure 2, which exhibit
and a cross-sectional view of the representative sample from bath C are shown in Figure 2, which
nanostructures, and their morphology can be classified largely into two types, according to their Zn and
exhibit nanostructures, and their morphology can be classified largely into two types, according to
NaOH ratio: (i) Compact structure, as developed from baths A, B, C, F, and G, with a low-to-moderate
their Zn and NaOH ratio: (i) Compact structure, as developed from baths A, B, C, F, and G, with a
Zn:NaOH ratio of 0.04–0.1, and (ii) porous dendritic structure, as developed from baths D and E, with
low-to-moderate Zn:NaOH ratio of 0.04–0.1, and (ii) porous dendritic structure, as developed from
a relatively high Zn:NaOH ratio above 0.1. Among the samples with compact morphology, samples
baths D and E, with a relatively high Zn:NaOH ratio above 0.1. Among the samples with compact
from baths B and C show a woven structure comprising elongated rice-shaped grains, whereas others
morphology, samples from baths B and C show a woven structure comprising elongated rice-shaped
are composed of coalesced platelet crystallites with hexagonal shape. In terms of crystallographic
grains, whereas others are composed of coalesced platelet crystallites with hexagonal shape. In terms
orientation as assessed by XRD (Figure 3), the deposits are generally characterized by planes (100),
of crystallographic orientation as assessed by XRD (Figure 3), the deposits are generally characterized
(101), and (110). Strong preference of the (110) orientation is observed in some groups of the samples
by planes (100), (101), and (110). Strong preference of the (110) orientation is observed in some groups
(B, F, and G). Some prior works have pointed to deposition conditions, including current density,
of the samples (B, F, and G). Some prior works have pointed to deposition conditions, including
plating bath formulation, and plating duration as factors influencing the morphology developments
current density, plating bath formulation, and plating duration as factors influencing the morphology
of electrogalvanized deposits [11,26,27]. Surface morphology of zinc coatings is found to play an
developments of electrogalvanized deposits [11,26,27]. Surface morphology of zinc coatings is found
important role controlling their corrosion properties [28,29].
to play an important role controlling their corrosion properties [28,29].

Figure
Figure 2. Scanning electron
2. Scanning electron micrographs
micrographs of of electroplated
electroplated zinc
zinc surface
surface with
with different
different Zn/NaOH
Zn/NaOH ratios:
ratios:
(A) 0.042, (B) 0.067, (C) 0.092, (D) 0.117, (E) 0.122, (F) 0.073, (G) 0.061, and (C’) a representative
(A) 0.042, (B) 0.067, (C) 0.092, (D) 0.117, (E) 0.122, (F) 0.073, (G) 0.061, and (C’) a representative cross-
cross-sectional view of the coating prepared from bath C.
sectional view of the coating prepared from bath C.
 Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 5 of 12
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, x 5 of 12

Figure 3. XRD profiles of specimens from different plating baths formulations.

Figure 3. XRD profiles of specimens from different plating baths formulations.
3.1. Effects of Zinc Concentration
3.1. Effects ofFigure
Zinc 4Concentration
shows the thickness of the Zn layer on the corrugated specimens obtained from baths
A, B, C, and D. To put the coating thickness results in perspective, according to Faraday’s law,
Figure 4 shows the thickness of the Zn layer on the corrugated specimens obtained from baths
the electroplating of zinc with 100% cathodic current efficiency at 2 A/dm2 for 30 min will produce a
A, B, C,coating
and D. To with
layer put antheaverage
coating thickness
thickness results
of 17.1 in perspective,
µm. According according
to the thickness to Faraday’s
profiles in Figure 4, law, the
electroplating
the overallof thickness
zinc with 100%
of the cathodic
deposits current
increases efficiency
with the at 2 A/dm
Zn concentration in the for
2 30This
baths. mincould
willbeproduce a
coating layer with an average thickness of 17.1 µm. According to the thickness profilesions
due to the increment in the efficiency of zinc deposition as the concentration of electroactive in Figure 4,
increases [30,31]. On the other hand, the increase in Zn content appears to adversely affect the throwing
the overall thickness of the deposits increases with the Zn concentration in the baths. This could be
power and uniformity of the coating. When the concentration of Zn is low (viz. baths A and B),
due to the increment in the efficiency of zinc deposition as the concentration of electroactive ions
the deposition rate, especially at the high-current-density area (e.g., edges or nongroove areas) is slow,
increases [30,31].
resulting in a On the other
relatively hand,coating
more uniform the increase
thickness in Zn
in all content
areas. appears
For baths C and D,toa high
adversely
variationaffect the
throwing powerthickness
in coating and uniformity of the coating.
is present between When
the surface the concentration
and groove of Znzinc
areas. With a higher is low (viz. baths A and
concentration,
the deposition rate is faster and is promoted preferentially on the surface as
B), the deposition rate, especially at the high-current-density area (e.g., edges or nongroove compared to the groove, areas) is
leading to a reduced throwing power. Nevertheless, in practice, baths C and D could be favored over
slow, resulting in a relatively more uniform coating thickness in all areas. For baths C and D, a high
baths A and B due to a higher deposition rate.
variation in coating thickness is present between the surface and groove areas. With a higher zinc
concentration, the deposition rate is faster and is promoted preferentially on the surface as compared
to the groove, leading to a reduced throwing power. Nevertheless, in practice, baths C and D could
be favored over baths A and B due to a higher deposition rate.
 Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 6 of 12
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, x 6 of 12

Figure 4. Thickness of coatings at different areas in the corrugated specimens of baths with different
Figure 4. Thickness of coatings at different areas in the corrugated specimens of baths with different
zinc concentrations. Three measurements were made for each sample and small standard deviations
zinc concentrations. Three measurements were made for each sample and small standard deviations
below 5% are observed for all data points.
below 5% are observed for all data points.
Additionally, the results in Figure 4 indicate the hydrodynamic effect on the deposit thickness,
Additionally,
especially the results
for those with ainhigh Figure 4 indicate
content of zincthe in hydrodynamic
the electrolyte (batheffectCon andtheD).
deposit thickness,
Particularly,
by considering
especially for those thewith
clockwise-rotating
a high content corrugated
of zinc specimens, the electrode
in the electrolyte (bathportion
C andthat D).moves toward by
Particularly,
the electrolyte (zone 1 and 3) tends to a have higher coating thickness,
considering the clockwise-rotating corrugated specimens, the electrode portion that moves whereas the portion that moves
toward
away from the electrolyte (zone 7 and 9) shows a thinner deposit. This is because
the electrolyte (zone 1 and 3) tends to a have higher coating thickness, whereas the portion that moves the local velocity of
awayelectrolyte
from the adjacent
electrolyteto the cathode surface is fostered in the former case, resulting in the promotion
(zone 7 and 9) shows a thinner deposit. This is because the local velocity of
of the rate of mass transport of the ions [32]. In the groove regions (zone 2 and 8), however, such an
electrolyte adjacent to the cathode surface is fostered in the former case, resulting in the promotion
agitation effect is minimal and so is the hydrodynamic effect.
of the rate of mass transport of the ions [32]. In the groove regions (zone 2 and 8), however, such an
A closer inspection of the XRD profiles reveals a decreasing trend in the (110) peak intensity with
agitation effect is minimal
the increasing and so is of
bath concentration the hydrodynamic
zinc from bath B toeffect.
C and D. From the higher surface density of
A closer inspection of the XRD profiles reveals a
(110) compared to (100), the change in surface morphology from a relativelydecreasing trend in densethe (110)statepeak intensity
to a more
withporous
the increasing
nature ofbath concentration
specimens from bathofBzincto C from
and Dbath B to C2 and
in Figure could D.beFrom the higher
attributed to thesurface
decreasedensity
in
of (110)
the compared
(110) texture. to Figure
(100), the change
5 shows in surface
the internal morphology
stress from
of the deposit, a relatively
which dense state
was developed duringto the
a more
electrogalvanizing
porous nature of specimens sessionfromand measured
bath B toin-situ
C andfor baths
D in A to 2D.could
Figure The stress is tensile and
be attributed is reduced
to the decrease in
the (110) texture. Figure 5 shows the internal stress of the deposit, which was developed low
with the increasing Zn concentration in the plating baths. Particularly, samples from bath A of duringZn the
content (with a relatively thin coating layer) exhibit a higher tensile stress
electrogalvanizing session and measured in-situ for baths A to D. The stress is tensile and is reducedlevel than those with higher
with thickness, such as the sample obtained from bath D of high Zn content. This may be rationalized by
the increasing Zn concentration in the plating baths. Particularly, samples from bath A of low
the influence of crystallization and coating layer formations. It is known that tensile stresses could
Zn content (with a relatively thin coating layer) exhibit a higher tensile stress level than those with
be established in the electrodeposits in the early stages, as grain boundary formation and crystallite
higher thickness, such as the sample obtained from bath D of high Zn content. This may be
coalescence proceed [30,33–35]. According to Hoffman et al. [33], tensile stress is generated due to
rationalized by the
the attractive influence
force betweenof crystallization
adjacent grains that and coating
impinge on layer formations.
one another, It is known
as the grain boundariesthatare
tensile
stresses could be
developed established
to form a continuousin the electrodeposits
polycrystalline film.in the early[35]
Abermann stages,
reportedas grain
that theboundary
degree offormation
stress
and after
crystallite coalescence
crystallite coalescenceproceed
depends [30,33–35].
largely on theAccording to Hoffman
mobility of the depositing et atomsal. and
[33],the
tensile stress is
deposition
generated
rate. Asduethe to the attractive
deposited film grows,force between
tensile stressesadjacent
could begrains
relaxed,that impinge
partly owing toon anone another, of
incorporation as the
grainatoms at the grain
boundaries boundary and,
are developed therefore,
to form accommodation
a continuous or relaxation
polycrystalline film.of Abermann
stresses by the [35]newly
reported
grown, relatively unstressed portion of the coating away from the interface
that the degree of stress after crystallite coalescence depends largely on the mobility of the depositing between the substrate
atomsandandthethe
coating. Thus, this
deposition rate.explains
As the the relativelyfilm
deposited highgrows,
tensiletensile
stress instresses
the thincould
deposit befrom bath A,
relaxed, partly
as opposed to the decreased tensile stress in the thick deposit from bath D.
owing to an incorporation of atoms at the grain boundary and, therefore, accommodation or
relaxation of stresses by the newly grown, relatively unstressed portion of the coating away from the
interface between the substrate and the coating. Thus, this explains the relatively high tensile stress
in the thin deposit from bath A, as opposed to the decreased tensile stress in the thick deposit from
bath D.
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, x 7 of 12
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 7 of 12

Figure 5. Effect of zinc concentration on the in-situ internal stress of samples from baths A, B, C, and D.
Figure 5. Effect of zinc concentration on the in-situ internal stress of samples from baths A, B, C, and
D. Now, turning to the results from the ex-situ stress measurement presented in Figure 6, overall,
the deposits from baths A to D exhibit compressive stresses. Furthermore, the samples from bath
ANow,
appear to haveto
turning a relatively
the results high
fromcompressive
the ex-situ stress magnitude
stress measurementcompared to otherin
presented sample
Figure groups.
6, overall,
The compressive residual stress typically arises due to the incorporation of secondary atoms or
the deposits from baths A to D exhibit compressive stresses. Furthermore, the samples from bath A
molecules in the films, for example, at the triple junction or grain boundaries [36]. In this case, it is
appear to have a relatively high compressive stress magnitude compared to other sample groups.
likely that hydrogen, which is primarily produced by the reduction reaction of water molecules at the
Thecathode,
compressive residual
is the key stress
driver for stresstypically arisesSpecifically,
development. due to the incorporation
during of secondary
a plating session, the generatedatoms or
molecules
hydrogen in could
the films,
adsorbfor example,
and desorb from at the
the triple
surfacejunction or grain
of the working boundaries
electrode [36].rate
at a certain In according
this case, it is
likely that hydrogen, which is primarily produced by the reduction
to thermodynamic equilibrium. However, once the plating session was finished and the sample reaction of water molecules
was at
the taken
cathode, is the
out of theplating
key driver
bath, thefordesorption
stress development. Specifically,
process was limited and the during
molecular a plating
hydrogen session,
was the
generated hydrogen could adsorb and desorb from the surface of the working electrode at a certain
mostly trapped in the deposit films [37,38]. Such occluded hydrogen could permeate to the grain
rateboundaries,
according to giving rise to the compressive
thermodynamic equilibrium.stressHowever,
in the depositsoncethat
thecould continue
plating session developing after and
was finished
the electrolytic part of the manufacturing process. This result in fact matches
the sample was taken out of the plating bath, the desorption process was limited and the molecular well with the common
observation
hydrogen made bytrapped
was mostly plating plants
in the that blistering
deposit films is one of Such
[37,38]. the major defectshydrogen
occluded of electrogalvanizing
could permeate
deposits, and that after each deposition session, additional annealing is recommended to release the
to the grain boundaries, giving rise to the compressive stress in the deposits that could continue
post-plating compressive stresses [39]. This is also in line with the observed relative magnitude of
developing after the electrolytic part of the manufacturing process. This result in fact matches well
compressive stresses in Figure 6. Particularly, the low zinc content in bath A would result in a low
withcathodic
the common
efficiencyobservation made
and a relatively highbyevolution
plating rateplants that blistering
of hydrogen instead,iswhich
one of thesubsequently
could major defects of
electrogalvanizing
be adsorbed in thedeposits,
deposit films.andThe that after
results each 5deposition
in Figures and 6 thereforesession,
hint thatadditional
the specimens annealing
from is
recommended to release the post-plating compressive stresses [39]. This
bath A, which have low zinc content and exhibit a relatively thin layer, are more prone to peeling-off is also in line with the
observed
duringrelative magnitude
plating and of compressive
to blistering after the plating stresses in Figure
session, as compared6. Particularly,
to other groupsthe low zinc content in
of specimens.
bath A would result inofathe
A consideration low cathodic
texture of the efficiency
zinc deposits and a relatively
in Figure high to
3 also points evolution
a possiblerate of hydrogen
contribution
from which
instead, the lattice mismatch
could betweenbe
subsequently theadsorbed
steel substrate
in the and the zinc
deposit deposit.
films. TheThe coatings
results produced
in Figures 5 and 6
from all bath formulations in the present work show a preferred prismatic
therefore hint that the specimens from bath A, which have low zinc content and exhibit a relatively (110) and (100) surface
thintexture
layer, of
arezinc,
moreindicating
prone to that these planes
peeling-off are oriented
during platingparallel
and totoblistering
the coatingafter
surface, which implies
the plating session, as
that the (001) planes are oriented normal to the deposit surface. Therefore, lattice matching at the
compared to other groups of specimens.
interface involves the basal plane of zinc, with the interplanar spacing dZn(001) of 4.947 Å. As the
lattice constant of body-centered cubic iron is only 2.8655 Å, lattice accommodation between the film
and the substrate would cause the steel substrate to be in tension, whereas the zinc film would be
in compression. Given the larger contribution from the substrate, the length change of the overall
substrate-film assembly would slightly increase during the deposition and, hence, the measured in-situ
 Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 8 of 12

tensile internal stress. As the film thickens, the stress could be relaxed in the upper portion of the
newly deposited film, resulting in a lower level of tensile internal stress from the length change method.
The residual stress measured ex-situ using X-ray-based measurement would reflect the surface residual
stress from the film and, hence, the compressive nature. As the film thickens, the stress measured at
Nanomaterials 2020,would
the surface 10, x be lower as the measured region is further away from the interface between the8 of 12
substrate and the film, in line with the results in Figures 5 and 6.

Figure 6. Effect of zinc concentration on the ex-situ stress of samples from baths A, B, C, and D.
Figure 6. Effect of zinc concentration on the ex-situ stress of samples from baths A, B, C, and D.
3.2. Effects of NaOH Concentration
While zinc oxide
A consideration of isthe
the texture
source ofofzinc theinzinc
the electrogalvanizing
deposits in Figure deposition
3 also frompoints thetoalkaline
a possible
non-cyanide
contribution bath,
from thesodium
latticehydroxide
mismatchisbetweengenerallytheresponsible for improving
steel substrate and theelectrolytic
zinc deposit. conductivity
The coatings
during from
produced the deposition, which in turn,
all bath formulations in promotes
the present thework
coating thickness
show uniformity
a preferred of the(110)
prismatic films and
[40].(100)
Figure 7 shows the effect of the concentration of NaOH on the coating thickness of the corrugated
surface texture of zinc, indicating that these planes are oriented parallel to the coating surface, which
specimens from bath C, E, F, and G. The high-NaOH specimens (bath G) exhibit a uniform but relatively
implies that the (001) planes are oriented normal to the deposit surface. Therefore, lattice matching
thin coating. Further reduction in NaOH concentration from 180 to 150 g/L (bath F) appears to
at the interface
improve theinvolves
cathodic the basal plane
efficiency, of zinc,
resulting with the
in a much interplanar
improved spacing
deposition rate,dZn(001)
whileof 4.947 Å. As the
maintaining
lattice
goodconstant of body-centered
uniformity and leveling of cubic ironon
coating is only 2.8655 and
the surface Å, lattice
in theaccommodation
groove areas. High between the film
degrees
andof thenonuniformity
substrate would cause
of the the steel
coatings substrateintothe
are observed be specimens
in tension,from
whereasbathsthe zincEfilm
C and withwould
lower be in
compression. Given the larger contribution from the substrate, the length
contents of NaOH. Furthermore, baths C and E experience the hydrodynamic effects more significantly, change of the overall
substrate-film
as comparedassembly would
to baths F and slightly
G. This increase
is in line with theduring
previoustheobservation
depositiononand, hence,hydrodynamic
the higher the measured in-
effects induced in the baths with a high Zn-to-NaOH ratio. Regarding the effect on
situ tensile internal stress. As the film thickens, the stress could be relaxed in the upper portion of the crystallographic
newlyorientation,
depositedwithfilm,
the constant
resulting zincinconcentration
a lower level of 11
ofg/L, an increase
tensile in the
internal NaOH
stress frombaththeconcentration
length change
can be correlated to an increase in the (110) peak intensity. Again, the
method. The residual stress measured ex-situ using X-ray-based measurement would reflect the increase in (110) orientation
is found to accompany a denser surface morphology from specimens produced from bath E to C, F,
surface residual stress from the film and, hence, the compressive nature. As the film thickens, the
and G.
stress measured at the surface would be lower as the measured region is further away from the
The in-situ internal stress results of specimens from baths C, E, F, and G as presented in Figure 8
interface between the substrate and the film, in line with the results in Figures 5 and 6.
are generally correlated well to the measured thickness of the deposits, and hence, are in line with
those observed from baths A–D. The relatively thick coatings as in those obtained from baths E and F
3.2. exhibit
Effects relatively
of NaOH lowConcentration
tensile stress, whereas the relatively thin coating of bath G shows higher tensile
stress.
WhileLikewise,
zinc oxidetheisex-situ stressof
the source results of the
zinc in specimens from baths C–G
electrogalvanizing are also in
deposition the compressive
from the alkaline non-
regime, as observed previously from baths A–D. Interestingly, those from bath F exhibit the highest
cyanide bath, sodium hydroxide is generally responsible for improving electrolytic conductivity
magnitude of compressive stress among the seven groups considered. This should be attributed
during the deposition, which in turn, promotes the coating thickness uniformity of the films [40].
to its relatively low in-situ tensile stress to start with, and the relatively high NaOH concentration
Figure 7 shows the effect of the concentration of NaOH on the coating thickness of the corrugated
specimens from bath C, E, F, and G. The high-NaOH specimens (bath G) exhibit a uniform but
relatively thin coating. Further reduction in NaOH concentration from 180 to 150 g/L (bath F) appears
to improve the cathodic efficiency, resulting in a much improved deposition rate, while maintaining
good uniformity and leveling of coating on the surface and in the groove areas. High degrees of
 Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 9 of 12
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, x 9 of 12

that promotes
orientation the to
is found electrolysis
accompany reaction and,surface
a denser hence,morphology
the generation andspecimens
from occlusion of hydrogen
produced at the
from bath
electrode’s surface
E to C, F, and G. [41].

Figure 7. Thickness of coatings at different areas in the corrugated specimens of baths with different
NaOH concentrations. Three measurements were made for each sample and small standard
deviations below 5% are observed for all data points.

The in-situ internal stress results of specimens from baths C, E, F, and G as presented in Figure
8 are generally correlated well to the measured thickness of the deposits, and hence, are in line with
those observed from baths A–D. The relatively thick coatings as in those obtained from baths E and
F exhibit relatively low tensile stress, whereas the relatively thin coating of bath G shows higher
tensile stress. Likewise, the ex-situ stress results of specimens from baths C–G are also in the
compressive regime, as observed previously from baths A–D. Interestingly, those from bath F exhibit
the highest magnitude of compressive stress among the seven groups considered. This should be
attributed to its relatively low in-situ tensile stress to start with, and the relatively high NaOH
Figure 7. Thickness of coatings at different areas in the corrugated specimens of baths with different
concentration that promotes the electrolysis reaction and, hence, the generation and occlusion of
Figure
NaOH7. concentrations.
Thickness of coatings at different areas
Three measurements were in the for
made corrugated specimens
each sample ofstandard
and small baths with different
deviations
hydrogen at the electrode’s surface [41].
belowconcentrations.
NaOH 5% are observed Three
for all data points.
measurements were made for each sample and small standard
deviations below 5% are observed for all data points.

The in-situ internal stress results of specimens from baths C, E, F, and G as presented in Figure
8 are generally correlated well to the measured thickness of the deposits, and hence, are in line with
those observed from baths A–D. The relatively thick coatings as in those obtained from baths E and
F exhibit relatively low tensile stress, whereas the relatively thin coating of bath G shows higher
tensile stress. Likewise, the ex-situ stress results of specimens from baths C–G are also in the
compressive regime, as observed previously from baths A–D. Interestingly, those from bath F exhibit
the highest magnitude of compressive stress among the seven groups considered. This should be
attributed to its relatively low in-situ tensile stress to start with, and the relatively high NaOH
concentration that promotes the electrolysis reaction and, hence, the generation and occlusion of
hydrogen at the electrode’s surface [41].

Figure 8. Effect of NaOH concentration on the in-situ internal stress of samples from baths E, C, F,
Figure
and G. 8. Effect of NaOH concentration on the in-situ internal stress of samples from baths E, C, F,
and G.
Figures 8 and 9 show the effect of NaOH concentration on in-situ and ex-situ stresses respectively.
There is a good correlation in the trend of stress measured during and after the electroplating process.
Overall, the tensile stress increases with the concentration of NaOH, except for at 150 g/L of NaOH,
as seen in Figure 8. Deposits with thinner films have higher stresses. A similar trend of stress can be
seen for the ex-situ stress in Figure 9. The compressive stress increased as the concentration of NaOH
increased except for 150 g/L of NaOH. The mechanism explaining the development of tensile and
compressive stress is as explained in the zinc part above.

Figure 8. Effect of NaOH concentration on the in-situ internal stress of samples from baths E, C, F,
and G.
 respectively. There is a good correlation in the trend of stress measured during and after the
electroplating process. Overall, the tensile stress increases with the concentration of NaOH, except
for at 150 g/L of NaOH, as seen in Figure 8. Deposits with thinner films have higher stresses. A similar
trend of stress can be seen for the ex-situ stress in Figure 9. The compressive stress increased as the
concentration of NaOH increased except for 150 g/L of NaOH. The mechanism explaining the
Nanomaterials 2020, 10, 2101 10 of 12
development of tensile and compressive stress is as explained in the zinc part above.

Figure 9. Effect of NaOH concentration on the ex-situ stress of the samples from baths E, C, F, and G.
Figure 9. Effect of NaOH concentration on the ex-situ stress of the samples from baths E, C, F, and G.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
A systematic study to analyze the effects of the concentration of Zn and NaOH on the plating
characteristics in an alkaline
A systematic study tonon-cyanide
analyze thezinc bathofhas
effects thebeen performed. of
concentration Overall,
Zn and the study on
NaOH demonstrates
the plating
that bath formulations
characteristics in an crucially
alkaline control electrogalvanizing
non-cyanide zinc bath has in many
beenaspects, including
performed. coating
Overall, thesurface
study
morphology, deposition rate, throwing power, coating uniformity, and residual stress
demonstrates that bath formulations crucially control electrogalvanizing in many aspects, including developments in
the plating
coating session
surface and post-plating.
morphology, Therate,
deposition moderate
throwingZn-to-NaOH ratiouniformity,
power, coating of about 0.067–0.092 (groups
and residual stress
B,developments
C, and F) appears to provide uniform and compact coatings, moderately high
in the plating session and post-plating. The moderate Zn-to-NaOH ratio of about deposition rate,
and relatively low residual stresses. The lower and higher Zn-to-NaOH ratios,
0.067–0.092 (groups B, C, and F) appears to provide uniform and compact coatings, moderately highon the other hand,
generally
depositionlead to higher
rate, compressive
and relatively stress after
low residual platingThe
stresses. andlower
the issues
and with coating
higher buildups.ratios,
Zn-to-NaOH Practically,
on the
electrogalvanizers
other hand, generally lead to higher compressive stress after plating and the issues with plating
therefore need to carefully maintain the bath formulation for optimum coating
characteristics, especially
buildups. Practically, for a long or continuous
electrogalvanizers thereforeplating
need tosession as zinc
carefully is plated
maintain out steadily.
the bath In this
formulation for
regard,
optimumbath C could
plating be favored over
characteristics, other formulations
especially for a long ordue to its larger
continuous processing
plating sessionwindow.
as zinc is plated
out steadily.
Author In thisConceptualization,
Contributions: regard, bath C T.W.,couldK.S.
beandfavored over
Y.B.; data otherT.W.;
curation, formulations due T.W.
formal analysis, to its
andlarger
T.C.;
processing window.
investigation, T.W., P.K., V.C. and S.S.; methodology, T.W. and K.S.; project administration, Y.B.; resources, K.S.
and M.M.; software, K.S.; supervision, M.M.; validation, T.C. and K.S.; visualization, T.W.; writing—original draft
Author Contributions:
preparation, Conceptualization,
T.W. and P.K.; writing—review T.W., K.S. and
and editing, Y.B.;
T.C. anddata
Y.B.curation, T.W.;
All authors formal
have read analysis,
and agreedT.W. and
to the
T.C.; investigation,
published version ofT.W., P.K., V.C. and S.S.; methodology, T.W. and K.S.; project administration, Y.B.; resources,
the manuscript.
K.S. and M.M.;
Funding: software,
This research wasK.S.; supervision,
funded M.M.; validation,
by the TRF-IRN ProgramT.C. and K.S.;
granted to thevisualization,
InternationalT.W.; writing—original
Research Network on
draft preparation, T.W. and P.K.;
Electroplating Technology (IRN61W0002). writing—review and editing, T.C. and Y.B. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the TRF-IRN Program granted
toFunding:
the International Research
This research Network
was funded on Electroplating
by the TRF-IRN Program Technology
granted to (IRN61W0002).
the InternationalThanyalux
Research Wanotayan
Network on
sincerely thanksTechnology
Electroplating the Ratchadapisek Somphot Fund for Postdoctoral Fellowship, Chulalongkorn University.
(IRN61W0002).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the TRF-IRN Program
granted to the International Research Network on Electroplating Technology (IRN61W0002). Thanyalux
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