CHAPTER 2: SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM

SYSTEMS – FREE VIBRATORY SYSTEMS

 Outline
2

 Introduction
 Vibration Model
 Newton’s Method
 Energy Method
 Viscously Damped Free Vibration
 Logarithmic Decrement
 Problems

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 Vibration Model
3

 Simple vibrating systems consists of:

 An inertial element (a mass)
 Connected to
 An elastic element (a spring)
 The spring supporting the mass is assumed to be of negligible mass

 The viscous damping, generally represented by a dashpot

(will be considered in the later stages)
 Hence known as “mass/spring/damper system”

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 Co-ordinates
4

 We will require only one independent

coordinate to describe the position of every
particle in any given system. Hence known
as “A single degree of freedom system”
 The co-ordinate will be either a linear
displacement ‘x’ or an angular displacement
‘θ’.
 We need to decide on a displacement
coordinate.
 Let us say ‘x’

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 Nomenclature
5

 If we have assumed the symbol ‘x’ represents the displacement of

the mass ‘M’ at any time ‘t’ and that it positive in the direction
shown then:
 The velocity ‘dx/dt’ of the mass is represented by ‘ x ’, which is
assumed to be positive in the same direction as ‘x’
 The acceleration ‘d2x/dt2’ of the mass is represented by ‘ x ’ which is
assumed to be positive in the same direction as ‘x’

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 Stiffness and Mass
6

 Vibration is caused by the interaction of two different forces one

related to position (stiffness) and one related to acceleration
(mass)
 If it is assumed that we examine the system when it possess a
positive displacement ‘x’ we may draw a Free Body Diagram
(FBD) for the mass
 Apply Newton’s 2nd law to this FBD to obtain the Equation of
Motion (EoM)
 Net force = mass x acceleration, or kx M

 F  Ma or  F  Mx x positive in this direction

 In this case the only force applied to the system is the spring force
which acts in the negative direction
 F  kx
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 Newton’s Method
7

 Simple un-damped spring-mass system, which is assumed to

move only along the vertical direction
 Newton’s second law is the first basis for examining the motion
of the system. As shown deformation of the spring in the static
equilibrium position is  and the spring force k is equal to the
gravitational force mg acting on mass ‘m’

k  W  mg
 By measuring the displacement ‘x’ from the static equilibrium
position, the forces acting on ‘m’ are ‘ k (  x)’ and ‘mg’.

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 Newton’s Method
8

 Apply Newton’s 2nd law of motion to the mass ‘m’:

mx   F  w  k (  x)

 The above equation may be re-arranged to give

mx  kx
(1)
or mx  kx  0

 This is an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) of the second

order with constant coefficient

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 Simple Harmonic Motion
9

 We recognise this equation as representing simple harmonic

motion and therefore a solution is of the form:
x  A sin nt  B cosnt
where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are two constant. These constants can be
evaluated from the initial conditions xo (0) and xo (0)
 The equation will reduce to the following form
xo (0)
x sin nt  xo (0) cosnt
n
 The natural period of the oscillation will be of the form:
m
n  2 or   2
k 1 1 k
fn  
and the natural frequency is  2 m
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 Simple Harmonic Motion mx  kx  0
10

 Substituting the values into Eqn. (1) and rearranging the terms,
we obtain:
m( n ) x  kx  0
2

 or,  m n2  k  0

 Hence k
n 
m

 This is telling us that the frequency at which the system will

vibrate freely (no external forces) is determined solely by the
system parameters. In this case the spring stiffness and the
system mass.
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 General Form of EoM
11

 If we return to the EoM as developed in Eqn. (1):

mx  kx  0
 This may be re-written: x   n2 x  0
or:
x  k x  0
m
 This is the general form of the EoM for the vibrating system. Our
aim is to reduce ALL such systems to an equation of this form.
 Note that in this particular example we have identified  n with the
system stiffness and mass. In general we will have:
displacement _ coefficient
n 
acceleration _ coefficient
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 Does gravity matter in spring problems?
12

 Let  be the deflection caused by hanging a

mass on a spring ( = x1-x0 in the figure)

 Then from static equilibrium:

mg  k
 Next sum the forces in the vertical for some point x > x1
measured from 
mx  k  x     mg  kx  mg  k 
0

 mx(t )  kx(t )  0
 So no, gravity does not have an effect on the vibration
(note that this is not the case if the spring is nonlinear)
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 Problem 1: THE PENDULUM
13

 Sketch the structure or part of interest

 Write down all the forces and make a “FBD”

 Use Newton’s Law and to find the EoMs

 o o
M  J , J  ml 2
 o

 2 
J o  mgl sin   ml   mgl sin   0
 
restoring
force 13

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 Problem 1: THE PENDULUM
14

 This is a second order, nonlinear ODE. We can linearize the

equation by using the approximation sin  

g
 m  (t )  mg  (t )  0   (t )   (t )  0
2

 Requires knowledge of  (0) and  (0) the initial position and

velocity

14

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 Problem 2
15

 A manometer used in a fluid mechanics laboratory has a uniform

bore of cross-section area ‘A’. If a column of liquid of length ‘L’
and density ‘ρ’ is set into motion as shown in Figure, find the
frequency of the resulting motion.
 Solution: Using Newton’s law of motion

 F  mx

 Total mass of the fluid in motion,

m  AL
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 Problem 2
16

Restoring force = -2Aρgx

 Using Newton’s 2nd law

mx  2 Agx
ALx  2 Agx
or ALx  2 Agx  0
2g
or x  x0
L
2g
 Giving a natural frequency,  n  rad/s
L
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 Problem 3
17

 The uniform circular disk of mass ‘m’ and radius ‘r’ is suspended
by the two wires of length ‘l’ from two fixed points on the same
horizontal line and a distance ‘2r’ apart. Determine the expression
for the period ‘τ’ for small oscillations about the central axis O-O.
Neglect torsional resistance in the wires.

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 Problem 3
18

 Let the tension in each wire be ‘T’ and assume

that this doesn’t change significantly during
small rotations and that the plate does not rise
significantly during the rotational oscillations.
2T - mg = 0

Therefore, T = mg/2

 When the plate rotates through the angle ‘ϕ’

the wires will move through an angle ‘θ’ as
shown. From the geometry
lθ = rϕ from which θ = rϕ/l
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 Problem 3
19

 The tension force ‘T’ in each wire is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the
vertical. Thus there is a restoring force ‘Tsinθ’ from each wire
trying to return the plate to its rest position.

 Newton’s 2nd law for moments about the disc centre gives
2Tr sin   I
1 2
 And for a uniform disc, I  mr
2
 For small angles, sin  
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 Problem 3
20

 Thus the EoM becomes

I  2Tr  0

 Substituting for T, θ and I from above:

1 2  mg r
mr   2  r   0
2 2 l
 Which reduces to:
  2 g   0
l

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 Problem 3
21

 If compare with the standard form we find the natural frequency

2g
n  rad / sec
l
 The time period is

2 2 2l
   sec
n 2g g
l
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 Problem 4
22

 The string is under tension ‘T’ which can be assumed to remain

constant for small displacements. For small oscillations, find the
natural frequency of the vertical vibration of the string.

 Solution: Applying Newton’s 2nd law to the FBD noting that the
positive direction of displacement is opposite to that of the
applied forces and that the tensions in the strings are unchanged
by the application of the small displacement
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 Problem 4
23

T sin  T sin   mx

 For small oscillations it may be

assumed that ‘x’ is small and that
the lengths of the strings are
unchanged when the extension is
applied
x x
sin   and sin  
a La

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 Problem 4
24

 The EoM becomes:

x x
T  T  mx
a La
 Hence
1 1 
mx  Tx 
   0
 a La 
 L 
or mx  T  x  0
 a( L  a ) 
 
TL
 Giving natural frequency of, n  rad / sec
ma(L  a)
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 Problem 5
25

 A circular cylinder of mass ‘m’ and radius ‘r’ is connected by a

spring of modulus ‘k’ as shown in figure. If it is free to roll on the
rough horizontal surface without slipping, find its frequency.

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 Problem 5
26

 Draw FBD, and applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion

 F  ma  mx kx
mx   kx  Ft Ft
Jo  Ft r

where Ft is the friction force

 Using the torque equation  M  J o Eqn. 1

where Jo is the cylinder mass moment of inertia and 1 2
J o  mr
2
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 Problem 5
27

1
 Hence mr 2  Ft r Eqn. 2
2

 From geometry, x = rθ or θ = x/r

 x  x
 and  
r r
 Substituting in Eqn. 2, we get
1 2 x
mr   Ft  r
2 r
1
or Ft  mx
2
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 Problem 5
28

 Substituting in Eqn. 1, we get

 1 
mx  kx  mx
2
3 
or mx  kx  0
2
 2k
or x  x0
3m
and so, 2k
n 
3m
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 Problem 6: A mass supported by a beam
of negligible mass
29

 Beam is massless
 Beam has Young’s modulus ‘E’
 Beam cross-section has second moment of area ‘I’.
This is not its mass moment of inertia

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 Problem 6: A mass supported by a beam
of negligible mass
30

 From Mechanics of Material: Deflection ‘y’ at the end of a cantilever

beam length ‘L’ due to a point load ‘W’ at the end is:
WL3
y
3EI
in this case W = Mg
 Spring stiffness ‘k’ is defined as load/displacement k  W  3EI
y L3
 Thus this system may be modelled as a mass supported by a known
linear spring and oscillating vertically in a gravitational field. The
problem is identical to that of the simple mass/spring system considered
earlier. Therefore the natural frequency of this system is:

3EI
n 
ML3
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Problem 7:Effect of fuel on frequency of an
airplane wing
 Model wing as transverse beam
 Model fuel as tip mass
 Ignore the mass of the wing and see
how the frequency of the system
changes as the fuel is used up
 Mass of pod 10kg empty 1000kg full
 I = 5.2x10-5 m4, E = 6.9x109 N/m,
E, I m
l=2m
l
x(t)
31

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 Problem 7:Effect of fuel on frequency of an
airplane wing
32

 Hence the natural frequency changes by an order of magnitude

while it empties out fuel.

3EI 3(6.9  10 9 )(5.2  10 5 )

 full  
ml 3
1000  2 3
 11.6 rad/s=1.8 Hz
3EI 3(6.9  10 9 )(5.2  10 5 )
 empty  
ml 3
10  2 3
 115 rad/s=18.5 Hz
This ignores the mass of the wing

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 Problem 8: Similarly for a point mass located in
the centre of a simply supported light elastic
33 beam

 Again from Mechanics of Materials, the deflection at the centre

of the beam resulting from the point load is:

giving

 Hence
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 A Torsional System
34

 It’s represents the torsional vibrations of a disc of mass moment

of inertia ‘I’, attached to an elastic shaft of torsional stiffness, k
which is built in at one end

 The form of vibration is that the disc makes small angular

displacement about its polar axis

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 Torsional System – Free Body Diagram
35

 Newton’s 2nd law for a torsional system

T  I
where  T represents the sum of the torques
acting on the disc and ‘α’ represents its
angular acceleration

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 Torsional System - Derivation
36

 As for the mass/spring system the acceleration is not constant and

we define it as the second derivative of the angular displacement
i.e.
d 2 
  2 
dt

 Thus, Newton’s second law becomes

T  I

 Which when applied to our system is written
k  I
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 Torsional System – Derivation (Cont.)
37

 After rearranging I  k  0

which is identical in form to that of mass/spring system.

 k
 Further:     0 compare with   n2  0
I

k
 Thus n 
I

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 Torsional System - We can develop this
equation further from Strength of
38 materials
 If the shaft has a length ‘L’ has a cross section with
polar second moment of area ‘J’ and shear modulus
‘G’, the theory of torsion tells us
T G

J L
 Torsional stiffness k is defined as ‘T/θ’ where ‘T’
is an applied torque and ‘θ’ is the resulting angular
deflection. (Compare with linear stiffness k=F/x)
T GJ
k  
 L
 Thus, the natural frequency may be express in terms
of the physical parameters of the system
GJ
n 
LI
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 Example: Compute the frequency of a
shaft/mass system [J=0.5 kg-m2]
39

 M  J  J (t )  k (t )  0
k
  (t )   (t )  0
J
k GJ p d4
 n   , Jp 
J J 32
For a 2 m steel shaft, diameter of 0.5 cm 
GJ p (8 1010 N/m 2 )[ (0.5 10 2 m) 4 / 32]
n  
J (2 m)(0.5kg  m 2 )
 2.2 rad/s
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