The Teacher and The Curriculum1

CHAPTER 1
The Teacher as a Knower

of the Curriculum
OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 describes the school curriculum in terms of its defini-

tion, nature, and scope which are needed by teachers as knower of
the school curriculum. This chapter also provides a wider perspec- Source: https://
tive for teachers about the school curriculum as to the different images.app.goo.gl/
foundations of curriculum development, the elements and types of
curriculum, as well as the various curriculum development models
and processes.
CONTENTS
LEARNING OUTCOMES Lesson 1.

Definition, Nature, and
Scope of Curriculum ..... 2
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: Lesson 2.

Foundations of Curricu-
lum Development .......... 9
1. Create graphic organizers and write personal essays on the
definition, nature, and scope of the curriculum; Lesson 3.
2. Design graphic organizers and write expository essays on Elements and Types of
curriculum development foundations, proponents and their Curriculum……………… 20
contributions, as well as their influence in developing a
school curriculum; Lesson 4.
3. Prepare graphic organizers and multimedia presentations Curriculum Development
on curriculum elements and types; and Models and Processes. 34
4. Make graphic organizers on different curriculum develop-
ment models and processes, their strengths and weaknesses, TIME ALLOTMENT
as well as their implications on Philippine education system.
10 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, you should be

LESSON 1 able to do the following:
draw a T chart showing the traditional

and the progressive definitions of
Definition, curriculum;
Nature, and devise a star diagram describing
Scope of the nature and scope of curriculum;
and
Curriculum
write a short essay reflecting your
personal definition and description of
curriculum.
Directions: Read carefully the following questions and encircle

CONTENTS
the letter of the correct answer.
Some Definitions 1. According to Joseph Schwab, what is considered the sole
of Curriculum
source of curriculum?
Some Points of a. lesson plan c. knowledge
View of Other b. discipline d. syllabus
Curricularists
2. The word curriculum derives its origin from the Latin word
Curriculum from “curere” which means __________.
Traditional
a. garden c. classroom
Points of View
b. plot d. oval track
Curriculum from 3. Curriculum is defined as “the total learning experiences of
Progressive
Points of View the individual”. This definition adheres to the ________
point of view of the curriculum.
a. traditional c. progressive
b. orthodox d. conservative
TIME ALLOTMENT 4. Philip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely
of knowledge which comes from various disciplines. Based
2 hours
on his viewpoint, Philip Phenix adheres to the _______
point of view of the curriculum.
a. traditional c. neoteric
b. progressive d. liberal
5. Who view curriculum as “all the experiences in the classroom
which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also
learned by the students?”
ASSESSING YOUR a. Colin Marsh and Hollis Caswell
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE b. George Willis and William Stanley
c. Colin Marsh and George Willis
d. George Willis and Ken Campbell
2
The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that
occur in the society. In its narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely
as a listing of subjects to be taught in school. In a broader sense, it re-
fers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools
but in society as well.
Each member of the society seems to view school curriculum
differently, hence there are varied demands on what schools should do
and what curriculum should be taught. Some would demand reducing
content and shifting emphasis to development of lifelong skills. Others
feel that development of character has been placed at the back sear of
some schools. More debates are emerging on the use of languages in
the classroom. Should it be mother tongue, the national language or
GETTING the global language?
STARTED There seems to be confusion about what curriculum should

really be. To have a common understanding of what curriculum really
is, this lesson will present some definitions as given by authors. Like-
wise, you will find in this lesson the description of the nature and scope
of curriculum from several points of view.
“Curriculum is a runway which one has to run to reach a goal or course of study.”
- Brubacher (1965)
Some Definitions of Curriculum
Whether curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a listing of

subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as all learning experiences
that individuals undergo while in school, we cannot deny the fact that
curriculum should be understood by teachers and other stakeholders for
curriculum affects all teachers, students, parents, politicians, business-
men, professionals, government officials or even the common people. FOCUSING
Like many concepts in education, there seems to be no common CONTENT
definition of ‘curriculum’. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is
sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive, and confusing. How-
ever, the word originates from the Latin word curere referring to the oval track upon which Roman
chariots raced. The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course
in an educational institution or by a department while the Oxford English Dictionary defines cur-
riculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means different things to different
people. Sometimes educators equate curriculum with the syllabus while a few regard it as all the
teaching-learning experiences which the student encounters while in school. Numerous definitions
indicate dynamism which connotes diverse interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts,
pedagogies, philosophies, political and cultural perspectives. Here are some of them.
1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended out-
comes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experi-
ences under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth
in personal, social competence (Tanner, 1980).
3
2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned,
objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures, and so
forth (Pratt, 1980).
3. The contents of a subject, concepts, and tasks to be acquired planned

activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of
culture, and an agenda to reform society make up a curriculum
(Schubert, 1987).
FOCUSING
4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners CONTENT
have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad
goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a
framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice (Hass, 1987).
5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far
as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy, 1987).
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool
that aims to bring about a behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and
includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school (Goodlad
and Su, 1992).
7. It provides answers to three questions: What knowledge, skills, and values are most worth-
while? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them? (Cornbleth,
1992).
“Curriculum is a plan of action that is aimed at achieving desired goals and objectives.”
- Sandra Stotsky (2012)
Some Points of View of Other Curricularists
Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person’s point of view, this
has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However when put together, the different defini-
tions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever chang-
ing.
Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to
the person’s philosophical, psychological, and even psychological orientations. These views can
also define what a curriculum is all about.
Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.
 Robert Hutchins (1952) view s curr icu lum as “permanent studies” where rules of
grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics for basic education are emphasized.
The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, and ‘rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education
while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.
4
 Arthur Bestor (1953) as an essen tialist believes that the
mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curricu-
lum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of
grammar, literature, and writing. It should include mathematics, sci-
ence, history, and foreign language.
 Joseph Schwab (1978) thin ks that the so le so ur ce of cur ric-

ulum is discipline, thus the subject areas include Science, Mathemat- FOCUSING
ics, Social Studies, English, and many more. In college, academic dis- CONTENT
ciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences, languages, mathemat-
ics, among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine
for curriculum development.
 Philip Phenix (1977) asser ts that cu rricu lum sho u ld con sist en tir ely o f know ledge
which comes from various disciplines.
Collectively from the traditional views of theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor, and Phe-
nix, curriculum can be defined as a field of study. Curriculum is highly academic and is concerned
with broad historical, philosophical, psychological, and social issues. From a traditional view, cur-
riculum is mostly written documents such as syllabus, course of study, books, and references
where knowledge is found but is used as a means to accomplish intended goals.
“Curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual.”

- John Dewey (1956)
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and specific disci-
pline does not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of curriculum is the
total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how curriculum is defined from a pro-
gressive point of view.
 John Dewey (1956) believes that edu catio n is exper ien cing. Reflective
thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.
 Hollis Caswell an d Kenn Campbell (1935) view cur ricu lu m as “all the experi-
ences that children have under the guidance of teachers.”
 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley, and Harlan Shore (1950) likew ise define
curriculum as “a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking.”
 Colin Marsh an d George Willis (2003) view cur ricu lum as “all experiences in
the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and learned by the stu-
dents.”
The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person’s
philosophical beliefs. Generally, curriculum is what is taught in school, a set of materials, a se-
5
Activity 1.1 Defining Curriculum
Directions: Draw a T chart and label each column head with the
two main points of view of curriculum. Then write down all the defi-
nitions under each of the two main viewpoints. Be guided by the
TAKING sample presented below.
ACTION
TRADITIONAL VIEW PROGRESSIVE VIEW
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
9. 9.
10. 10.
Activity 1.2 Describing Curriculum
Directions: Draw a star and write the word “curriculum” at the center. Write the nature or scope
of the curriculum on the boxes provided for each point of the star. Then provide a short explana-
tion of the nature/scope that you have written. Be guided by the sample diagram presented below.
Nature/
Explanation
Scope
Nature/ Nature/
Explanation Explanation
Scope Scope
CURRICULUM
Nature/ Nature/
Explanation Explanation
Scope Scope
6
Activity
Activity1.3
2.2 Writing a Definitive and Descriptive Essay
Directions: Write a 3-paragraph essay reflecting your personal definition and description of cur-
riculum. Be guided by the rubric provided below.
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
Levels of Performance
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Basic
Content (40%) Thesis statement is Thesis statement is Thesis statement is No established thesis
very well-established. established and the fairly developed. Writ- statement; lacks clari-
Writer takes a clear writer takes somewhat er’s position, while ty of focus.
position in response to clear position in re- stated in some ways,
the articles’ argument. sponse to the article’s lacks clarity.
argument.
Organization (40%) Very clearly and effec- Effectively structured. Somewhat organized. No attempt at organi-
tively structured. Transitions are some- Transitions may not zation; no transitions
Transitions are what smooth and be smooth and there used and/or frequent
smoothly and effec- there are some errors are some errors in errors in usage.
tively used. in usage. usage.
Mechanics (20%) All sentences are well- Mot sentences are well Mot sentences are well Sentences sound awk-
constructed and have -constructed and have -constructed but they ward, are distractingly
varied structures and varied structures and have similar structures repetitive, or are diffi-
lengths; no errors in lengths; few errors in and lengths; several cult to understand
spelling, punctuation, spelling, punctuation, errors in spelling, numerous errors in
capitalization, gram- capitalization, gram- punctuation, capitali- spelling, punctuation,
mar, etc. mar, etc., but they do zation, grammar, etc., capitalization, gram-
not interfere with un- that interfere with mar, etc., that inter-
derstanding. understanding. fere with understand-
RUBRIC
7
Part A. Identification
ASSESSING
Directions: Label the definitions/descriptions of the curricu- THINGS
lum that are written on the left side with either the Traditional
or the Progressive. Use the code (T or P) in answering. LEARNED
Definitions/Descriptions Answers
1. Prerequisites to promotion for the next grade are skills in reading, writing, and arith-
metic only. 1.
2. Teachers provide varied experiences for the children. 2.
3. Learning can only be achieved in schools. 3.
4. It is the systematic arrangement of contents in the course syllabus. 4.
5. Co-curricular activities are planned for all to participate. 5.
6. Teachers are required to teach the book from cover to cover. 6.
7. If the learners can memorize the content, then the curriculum is the best. 7.
8. Children are given opportunity to play outdoors. 8.
9. Parents send children to a military type school with rigid discipline. 9.
10. Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond the written curriculum. 10.
Part B. Spin a Win: Agree or Disagree
Directions: Read each statement and decide whether you Agree or Disagree. Write your answers
on the blanks provided.
1. Curriculum should consist partially of knowledge which comes from various disci-
plines. 1.
2. Curriculum is a written document that systematically describes goals and planned,
objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation, and so forth. 2.
3.
3. Curriculum is viewed as “temporal studies” where rules of grammar, reading, rhet-
4.
4. Curriculum is a sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose
5. Discipline is considered a ruling doctrine for curriculum development 5.
6.
6. Reflective thinking is a means that separates curricular elements that are tested by
7. Arthur Bestor believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training. 7.
8.
8. Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the learner under the guidance of
9. Curriculum originates from the Latin word curere which means oval truck. 9.
10. Educators sometimes equate curriculum with syllabus. 10.
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES

create a mind map showing various

curriculum development foundations,
Foundations of their proponents, and contributions;
Curriculum make a biography graphic organizer of
Development personalities who contributed to the
development of curriculum; and
write an essay explaining how these

foundations influence curriculum
development.

CONTENTS:
Philosophical 1. The following curricularists view curriculum as a science EX-
Foundation of CEPT __________.
Curriculum
a. Hollis Caswell c. Ralph Tyler
Historical b. Franklin Bobbit d. Werret Charters
Foundation of
Curriculum 2. Who assumes that the child is an active agent in his or her
educational process?
Psychological a. Ivan Pavlov c. Jean Piaget
Foundation of
Curriculum b. Edward Thorndike d. Lev Vygostsky
3. Teacher Ben believes that all teachers must act as agents of
Social change and reforms in the society. Considering his view-
Foundation of
Curriculum point, Teacher Ben is a/an _________.
a. perennialist c. progressivist
b. reconstructionist d. essentialist
TIME ALLOTMENT
4. Who suggests the use of home schooling as a delivery mode
3 hours in which parents, having the resources, could teach the pre-
scribed curriculum from home as a result of technology?
a. John Dewey c. Alvin Toffler
b. Carl Rogers d. Abraham Maslow
5. Daniel Goleman strongly asserts that emotion contains the
power to affect action. He calls this as __________.
a. emotional stability c. emotional equilibrium
b. emotional quotient d. emotional maturity
ASSESSING YOUR
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
9
Curriculum development is anchored on a very solid founda-
tion. Although considered to be a new discipline, its significance in
the light of global developments has now been acknowledged. What
philosophical, historical, psychological, and sociological influences
inform the current school curriculum? How do these foundations
GETTING STARTED reflect the development of curriculum in our 2st century classrooms
and learning environment? Who are the identified curricularists
with these foundations? Let us find out!
The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementer, or evaluator reflects his or her life
experiences, common beliefs, social and economic background, and education.
A. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum
Philosophy provides educators, teachers, and curriculum mak-

ers with framework for planning, implementing, and evaluating curricu-
lum in schools. It helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects
are important, how students should learn, and what materials and
methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides the
starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision making.
Let us now look at the four educational philosophies and how
these relate to curriculum. Study each philosophy and match it to the FOCUSING
aim of education, role of education, focus in curriculum, and related
CONTENT
curricular trends as presented in Ornstein and Hunkins (2004).
A. Perennialism
Aim : To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect
Role : Teachers assist students to think with reason (HOTS).
Focus : Classical subjects, literary analysis, and curriculum is constant
Trends : Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and liberal arts
B. Essentialism
Aim : To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
Role : Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
Focus : Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects
Trends : Back to basics, excellence in education, cultural literacy
C. Progressivism
Aim : Promote democratic social living
Role : Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners.
Focus : Interdisciplinary subjects, learner-centered, and outcomes-based
Trends : Equal opportunities for all, contextualized curriculum, and
humanistic education
D. Reconstructionism
Aim : To improve and reconstruct society, education for change
Role : Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
Focus : Present and future educational landscape
Trends : School and curricular reforms, global education, collaboration and
convergence, standards and competencies
10
B. Historical Foundation of Curriculum
Why is it important to know the historical foundations of curric-

ulum? Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place
its beginning in 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit’s book The
Curriculum. Here, we present several curriculum theorists and how
they view curriculum from a historical perspective. They are presented
chronologically from the time of Bobbit in 1876-1956 to Peter Oliva in
FOCUSING
1992-2012.
CONTENT
Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles
 He started the curriculum development movement.

 Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students’
needs.
 Curriculum prepared learners for adult life.
 Objectives and activities should group together
when tasks are clarified.
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is a science

and emphasizes on students’ needs.
 Objectives and activities should match. Subject mat-
ter or content relates to objectives.
Werret Charters (1875-1952)
 Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-

centered.
 The purpose of the curriculum is child development
and growth. He introduced this project method
where teacher and students plan the activities.
William Kilpatrick (1875-1952)
 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is

child-centered.
 With statement of objectives and related learning
activities, curriculum should produce outcome.
 Emphasized social studies and suggested that the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.
Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
“Education is a way of life.”

- John Dewey (1956)
11
B. Historical Foundation of Curriculum

 Curriculum is organized around social functions of
themes, organized knowledge, and learner’s inter-
est.
 Curriculum, instruction, and learning are interrelat-
ed.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is
developed around social functions and learners’ in-
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) terests.
 Curriculum is a science and an extension of school’s
philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and inter-
ests.
 Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject
matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills,
and values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving. Curricu-
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) lum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.
 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical

foundations of curriculum development and critical
thinking in social studies curriculum.
 She helped lay the foundation for diverse student
population.
Hilda Taba (1902-1967)
 He described how curriculum change is a coopera-

tive endeavor.
 Teachers and curriculum specialists constitute the
professional core of planners.
 Significant improvement is achieved through group
activity.
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
FOCUSING
CONTENT
Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back
to our glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has
the greatest influence on our educational system.
12
C. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and

learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process. Questions
which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are:
How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the
optimal level of students’ participation in learning the various contents
of the curriculum? In this lesson, we shall consider three groups of
FOCUSING
learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-
CONTENT information processing theories; and humanistic theories (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 2004.
Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.
C.1 Association and Behaviorism
 He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory

or the S-R Connectionism Theory.
 The key to learning in early years of life is to train
individuals what you want them to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice
called indoctrination.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 He championed the Connectionism Theory.

 He proposed the three laws of learning:
- Law of Readiness
- Law of Exercise
- Law of Effect
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)  Specific stimulus has specific response.
 He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory.

Learning follows a hierarchy.
 Behavior is based on a pre-requisite condition.
 He introduced taking in the formulation of objec-
tives.
Robert Gagne (1916-2002)
“Men are apt to be much more influenced by words than by the actual facts of surround-
ing reality.”
- Ivan Pavlov
13
C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory

 Theories
- Cognitive development has stages from birth to
maturity: Sensorimotor stage (0-2),
Pre-operational stage (2-7), Concrete operational
Stage (7-11), and Formal operational (11-onwards)
 Keys to Learning:
- Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
- Accommodation (learning modification and
adaptation)
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) - Equilibration (balance between previous and later
learning)
 Theories:
- Cultural transmission and development:
Children could, as a result of their interaction
with society, actually perform certain cognitive
actions prior to arriving at developmental stage.
- Learning precedes development.
- Socio-cultural development theory
- Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to
development.
Lev Vygostky (1896-1934) - The child is an active agent in his or her
educational process.
 Multiple Intelligences Theory

- Humans have several different ways of processing
information and these ways are relatively
independent of one another.
- There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico—
mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
Howard Gardner (1902-1967)
 Emotion contains the power to affect action.

 He called this Emotional Quotient.
Daniel Goleman (1992-2012)
“Teaching means creating situations where structures can be discovered.”

- Jean Piaget
14
C.3 Humanistic Psychology
Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles
 Theory
- Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of
the problem.
- Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli
but to an organization or pattern of stimuli.
- Learning is complex and abstract.
- Learners analyze the problem, discriminate
between essential and non-essential data, and
perceive relationships.
- Learners will perceive something in relation to the
Gestalt whole. What/how they perceive is related to their
previous experience.
 Theories:
- He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory and
Classic Theory of human needs.
- A child whose basic needs are not met will not be
interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.
- He put importance to human emotions based on
love and trust.
 Key to Learning:
- Produce a healthy and happy learner who can
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) accomplish, grow, and actualize his or her human
self.
 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning

- He established counselling procedures and
methods for facilitating learning.
- Children’s perceptions, which are highly
individualistic, influence their learning and
behavior in class.
 Key to Learning:
- Curriculum is concerned with process, not
product; personal needs, not subject matter,
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.
“What a man can be, he must be. This need we call self-actualization.”
- Abraham Maslow
15
D. Social Foundation of Curriculum
Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects

and shapes schools and their curricula. The way school buildings are
structured, the way classrooms and students are organized reflect the
cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social foun-
dation of curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the
many institutions that educate society. The home, the family, and the
FOCUSING
community likewise educate the people in the society. But schools are
CONTENT formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies
and the world.
Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles
 Society as a source of change

 Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change
Schools and Society
 Considered two fundamental elements—schools and

civil society—to be major topics needing attention
and reconstruction to encourage experimental intel-
ligence and plurality.
John Dewey (1859-1952)
 Wrote the book titled Future Shock.

 Believed that knowledge should prepare students
for the future.
 Suggested that in the future, parents might have the
resources to teach prescribed curriculum from
home as a result of technology, not in spite of it
(Home Schooling).
 Foresaw schools and students work creatively, col-
Alvin Toffler laboratively, and independent of their age.
“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those
who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.”
- Alvin Toffler
16
Activity 2.1 Mapping Out Curriculum Foundations
Directions: Draw a mind map showing the different foundations

of curriculum development, the proponents, and their contribu-
TAKING tions. Be guided by the sample mind map provided below.
ACTION
Contribution Proponent Proponent Contribution
Contribution Proponent Philosophical Historical Proponent Contribution
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
Contribution Proponent Psychological Social Proponent Contribution
Activity 2.2 Retelling Proponents’ Biographies
Directions: Select two well-known proponents for each of the curriculum development founda-
tions. Then create a biography graphic organizer showing their lives and contributions in curricu-
lum development. Be guided by the sample graphic presentation given below.
Why is he/she Significant

important? contributions
Birth information Proponent’s Name Personal information
Important events Quote
17
Activity
Activity2.3
2.2 Writing an Expository Essay
Directions: Write a 250-word essay explaining how the philosophical, historical, psychological,
and social foundations influence and shape the development of curriculum. Be re-
minded by the rubric provided below.
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
argument.
RUBRIC
18
Part A. Simple Recall
ASSESSING
Directions: Identify what is being asked/referred to in each THINGS
item. Scribble your answers on the spaces provided. LEARNED
____________ 1. An active agent in the educational process.

____________ 2. A philosophy that focuses on classical subjects.
____________ 3. A method which allows both teachers and students to plan the activities.
____________ 4. A process of incorporating new learning experiences.
____________ 5. A philosophy that focuses on the learning of the 3Rs.
____________ 6. A learning modality which allows parents to teach the prescribed curriculum using
the resources at home.
____________ 7. A philosophy that focuses on Outcomes-Based Education (OBE).
____________ 8. A process which allows learning modification and adaptation.
____________ 9. A theorist who considers schools and civil society as major topics needing attention.
____________10. A philosophy that focuses on present and future educational landscape.
Part B. Matching Type
Directions: Match the theories that are found in Column A with their corresponding proponents
listed in Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer on the blank provided before each num-
ber.
Column A Column B
_____ 1. Stimulus-Response Theory a. Abraham Maslow

_____ 2. Connectionism Theory b. Lev Vygostky
_____ 3. Hierarchical Learning Theory c. Carl Rogers
_____ 4. Cognitive Development Theory d. Daniel Goleman
_____ 5. Socio-Cultural Development Theory e. Edward Lee Thorndike
_____ 6. Multiple Intelligences Theory f. Gestalt
_____ 7. Emotional Quotient g. Robert Gagne
_____ 8. Self-Actualization Theory h. Howard Gardner
_____ 9. Nondirective and Therapeutic Theory i. Ivan Pavlov
_____10. Configuration Theory j. Jean Piaget
19
LEARNING OUTCOMES

devise a graphic organizer reflecting

your analysis of curriculum according
Elements and to elements;
Types of design an alphabet organizer indicating
Curriculum a list of curriculum samples classified
according to types; and
create a multimedia presentation

showing samples of curriculum
with their corresponding descriptions.

CONTENTS
Aims, Goals, and
Objectives 1. Which of the following is considered the core or the heart of
the curriculum?
Content/Subject a. aims, goals, and objectives c. experiences
Matter
b. content or subject matter d. evaluation
Experiences 2. The fund of knowledge represents the repository of accumu-
Assessment/ lated discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries
Evaluation due to man’s exploration of his world. This notion reflects
the ______________ view of the curriculum.
Glatthorn’s a. subject-centered c. child-centered
(2000) Types of
b. learner-centered d. problem-centered
Curriculum
3. What form of assessment that can be viewed as an extension
Wilson’s of self-assessment and pre-supposes trust and mutual re-
(2006) Types of spect?
Curriculum
a. teacher assessment c. formative assessment
TIME ALLOTMENT b. summative assessment d. peer assessment
3 hours 4. Peer influence, physical condition, teacher-learner interac-
tion, mood of the teachers, and other factors that transpire in
schools make up the _________ curriculum.
a. taught c. recommended
b. hidden d. support
5. Ideas offered by policymakers, school officials, and politi-
cians, as well as those from professionals involved in concept
ASSESSING YOUR formation and content changes comprise the __________
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE curriculum.
a. concomitant c. rhetorical
b. phantom d. null
20
Curriculum is defined as the totality of experiences a child
experiences in school. It consists of a series of things that learners
should learn and accomplish. What elements or components should
a curriculum have? How should these elements be arranged? The
nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized
GETTING STARTED may comprise which we call a curriculum design. This section will
introduce to you the different elements/components that make up a
curriculum.
“Curriculum usually consists of a statement of aims and objectives indicating the selection
and organization of content.”
- Hilda Taba (1962)
1. Aims, Goals, and Objectives
A formal curriculum is embedded in a formal institution called

schools. Schools are established institutions which are either run by
the government or private sector. In the Philippine educational system,
all primary, secondary, and tertiary schools should be guided by aims.
Aims ar e br oad descr iption s of pur poses o r ends w hich
are stated in general terms without criteria of achievement or mastery.
They relate to educational aims and philosophy. They are programmat- FOCUSING
ic and normally do not delineate the specific courses or specific items
of content. CONTENT
Based on Philippine 1987 Constitution, all schools shall aim to:
1. inculcate patriotism and nationalism;
2. foster love of humanity;
3. promote respect for human rights;
4. appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country;
5. teach the rights and duties of citizenship;
6. strengthen ethical and spiritual values;
7. develop moral character and personal discipline;
8. encourage critical and creative thinking; and
9. broaden scientific and technological knowledge; and
10. promote vocational efficiency.
The constitution mandates that each school therefore should be guided by its vision, mis-
sion, and goals and its curricula should also revolve around these.
The school’s vision is a clear concept of what institution would like to become in the future.
It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff, faculty, and
students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all educational
efforts including curricula should be directed. The school’s vision can be very ambitious but that
is a characteristic of a vision.
Examples of a school’s vision:
1. A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skills,
and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest.
2. Commits to the Exemplary Christian Education for Life and responsive to the needs of
the total person and the world.
21
The school’s mission spells out how it intends to carry out its
vision. The mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students
will become after having been educated over a certain period of time.
Examples of a school’s mission:
1. To produce globally competitive lifelong learners
2. Commits to the total development of individuals for life
FOCUSING adjustment and to the upliftment of the economically
CONTENT deprived but deserving students through quality instruction,
updated facilities, and curricula responsive to the needs of
time
The school’s vision and mission are further translated into goals which are broad state-
ments or intents to be accomplished. Data for the sources of school goals may include the learners,
the society, and the fund of knowledge.
Examples of school goals:
1. Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts
2. Efficient and effective administration responsive to the needs of the university
and community
In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each learn-
er. These are called educational objectives. Benjamin Bloom (1956) and Robert Mager (1962) de-
fined educational objectives in two ways:
1. explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the
educative process; and
2. intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.
Benjamin Bloom and his associates classified three big domains of objectives. These are
cognitive, affective, an d psychomotor do m ain s. Each dom ain is co m po sed o f specific
skills, attitudes, and values which are presented in hierarchy.
A. Cognitive Domain (B lo om et al., 1956) - domain of thought processes
1. Knowledge - recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts,
theories, and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level.
2. Comprehension - ability to grasp the meaning of the material. It indicates the lowest
form of understanding.
3. Application - the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation
4. Analysis - the ability to breakdown material into component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood
5. Synthesis - ability to put parts together to form a new whole
6. Evaluation - ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria
B. Affective Domain (Kr athw o hl, 1964) - domain of valuing and appreciating
1. Receiving - students’ willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimulus,
or classroom activity
2. Responding - active participation on the part of students
“Curriculum is the total effort of the school to bring about desired outcomes in and out of
school situation.”
- Alexander and Saylor (1981)
22
3. Valuing - concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomenon,
object or behavior
4. Organization - concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system
5. Characterization by a value or value complex - developing a lifestyle from a value system
C. Psychomotor Domain (Sim pson , 1972) - domain on the use of psychomotor attributes
1. Perception - use of sense organs to guide motor activities
2. Set - refers to the readiness to take a particular type of action
3. Guided response - concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills. Imitation and
trial and error are some ways of doing
4. Mechanism - responses have become habitual. Performance skills are with ease and confi-
dence.
5. Complex overt responses - skillful performance and with complex movement patterns
6. Adaptation - skill well-developed that the ability to modify is very easy
7. Origination - refers to creating new movement patterns to fit the situation. Creativity is evi-
dent.
“Whatever the mode of expression, the subject matter is the substantive hard core of the
curriculum.”
- Beauchamp (1968)
2. Content or Subject Matter
All curricula have content, regardless of their designs or models.

Content is more than simply information to be learned in school. To
some curriculum specialists, content or subject matter is another term
for knowledge. It is a compendium of facts, concepts, generalizations,
principles, and theories. The fund of knowledge represents the reposito-
ry of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries
due to man’s exploration of his world. This is the subject-centered view
of the curriculum. On the other hand, those who view knowledge as FOCUSING
learner-centered relates knowledge to the individual’s personal and so- CONTENT
cial world and how he or she defines reality. According to Jerome Brun-
er, “knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to
regularities in experience”.
What subject matter will be taught in the different clusters in order to achieve the objec-
tives? What criteria should be used in selecting the content? Content selection is a very crucial
stage in curriculum development.
Here are some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter, content or
knowledge for the curriculum.
1. Self-sufficiency. Accor ding to Scheffler (1970), the pr im e guiding pr in ciple
for content selection is helping the learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning but in
the most economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less
learners’ effort but more results and effective learning outcomes.
23
2. Content or Subject Matter
2. Significance. W hen co n ten t o r su bject m atter w ill

contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles, and generalizations to
achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, then it is significant. It is also
significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes, and atti-
tudes.
FOCUSING 3. Validity. The au then ticity o f the su bject m atter se-
CONTENT lected is validity. With information explosion, oftentimes, knowledge
selected for school content may become obsolete. Thus, subject matter
should be checked or verified at regular intervals to determine if the
content that was originally valid continues to be.
4. Interest. For a learn er -centered curriculum, this is the key criterion. A learner will
value the content if it is meaningful to him or her. Students’ interests should be considered and
adjusted taking into consideration maturity, prior experiences, educational and social value of
their interest among others.
5. Utility. Usefu ln ess of the con ten t o r su bject m atter m ay be r elative to the
learner who is going to use it. Usefulness may either be for the present or future. Questions like
“Will I use it in my future job?” “Will it add meaning to my life or develop my human potential?” or
“Will the subject matter be useful in solving my current problems?”
6. Learnability. Su bject m atter sho u ld be w ithin the ran ge o f the exper iences
of the learners. This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundation of curriculum. There are
ways of presenting the subject matter which can easily be learned. Optimal placement and appro-
priate organization and sequencing of contents are the two ways by which these can be done.
7. Feasibility. Can the su bject m atter be learn ed w ithin the tim e allow ed, r e-
sources available, expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the learners? Content selection should
be considered within the context of the existing reality in schools, society, and government.
There are other considerations that may be used in the selection of the learning content. It
would be of great help if curriculum makers can use them. As a guide, subject matter can be select-
ed for use if these are:
a. frequently and commonly used in daily life;
b. suited to the maturity levels and abilities of students;
c. valuable in meeting the needs and the competencies of a future career;
d. related to other subject areas; and
e. important in the transfer of learning.
“Curriculum is a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated.”
- J. Galen Saylor (1981)
24
3. Experiences
This section will not discuss in detail the different instructional

strategies that provide experiences. Instead it will link teaching strate-
gies to curriculum experiences, the core or the heart of the curriculum.
Instructional strategies and methods put into action the goals and use
the contents in order to produce an outcome. They convert the written
curriculum to instruction. Both the teacher and the learner take actions
to facilitate learning. The actions are based on planned objectives, the
FOCUSING
subject matter to be taken, and the support materials to be used. These CONTENT
will include a multitude of teaching methods and educational activities
which will enhance learning. Among these are the time-tested methods, inquiry approaches, con-
structivist, and other emerging strategies that complement new theories in teaching and learning.
Educational activities like field viewing, conducting experiments, field trips, and other experien-
tial learning will also form part of the repertoire of teaching.
Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some
guides for the selection and use. Here are some of them:
1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objec-
tives into action.
2. There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning
objectives, the learners, and skills of the teacher.
3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive, affec-
tive, psychomotor, social, and spiritual domains of the individual.
4. In the choice of teaching methods, students’ learning styles should be considered.
5. Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three
domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods.
“Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mold his material (student) in
his studio (classroom.”
- Cunningham (1998)
4. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive
information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process by which this infor-
mation is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:
1. Self-assessment, thro ugh w hich studen ts lear n to m on itor an d evaluate
their own learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we
aim to produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and critical.
2. Peer assessment, in w hich stu den ts pr ovide feedback on each o ther ’s learn-
ing. This can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and pre-supposes trust and
mutual respect. Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other’s work as
reliably as staff.
25
4. Assessment/Evaluation
3. Teacher assessment, in w hich the teacher pr epar es

and
administers tests and gives feedback on the students’
performance.
Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the
FOCUSING student learn more) or summative (expressing a judgment on the stu-
CONTENT dent’s achievement by reference to stated criteria). Many assessment
tasks involve an element of both, e.g., an assignment that is marked and
returned to the student with detailed comments.
Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks and grades. This helps the
teacher make decisions about the progress or performance of the students.
Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their work
than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this reason, summative tasks (including unseen
examinations) should include an element of formative feedback, if possible.
Regardless of the methods and material evaluation that will be utilized, a suggested plan of
action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduced. These are the steps:
1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be the subject area, the
grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation.
2. Collect or gather the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding
the object of evaluation.
3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing, and re-
trieving data for interpretation.
4. Analyze the information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized.
5. Report the information. The result of the evaluation should be reported to specific
audiences. Reporting can be done formally in conference with stakeholders, or infor-
mally through roundtable discussions and conversations.
6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification, and adjustments to be
made.
“Curriculum is a strategy by which schools attempt to fulfill the goals of education.”

- Spalding (2000)
26
Glatthorn’s (2000) Types of Curriculum
1. Recommended or Ideal Curriculum. Alm o st all cu rricu la

found in our schools are recommended or ideal. For basic educa-
tion, these are recommended by the Department of Education
(DepEd), for higher education by the Commission on Higher Educa-
tion (CHEd), and for vocational education by the Technical Educa-
tion Skills and Development Authority (TESDA). These three gov- FOCUSING
ernment agencies oversee and regulate Philippine education. The
CONTENT
recommendations come in in the form of memoranda or policies,
standards, and guidelines. Other professional organizations or in-
ternational bodies like UNESCO also recommend curricula in schools.
2. Written Curriculum. This inclu des do cum en ts based on the r eco m m en ded cu r-
riculum. They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional
guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan. The most
recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education.
3. Taught Curriculum. The differ en t plan n ed activities w hich ar e pu t in to action in
the classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented
in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the
learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies according to the learning
styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers.
4. Supported Curriculum. In o rder to have su ccessfu l teaching, o ther than the
teacher, there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a writ-
ten curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as
textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos, and
other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong
learning.
5. Assessed Curriculum. This r efer s to a tested o r evaluated cur ricu lum . At the du -
ration and end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to
determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. Assessment tools like
pencil-and-paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized.
6. Learned Curriculum. This r efer s to the learn ing o u tcom es achieved by the stu -
dents. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior
which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor.
7. Hidden Curriculum. This is the u ninten ded cur ricu lu m w hich is not deliber ately
plan but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curric-
ula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition,
teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers, and many other factors make up the hidden
Curriculum standards recommended by professional organizations are examples of rec-

ommended or ideal curriculum. They are products of their latest researches on the nature of differ-
ent disciplines and the development in various academic fields.
27
Wilson’s (2006) Types of Curriculum
1. Overt, Explicit or Written Curriculum. Is sim ply that w hich is w ritten as part of
formal instruction of schooling experiences. It may refer to curriculum documents, texts,
films, and supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the intentional in-
structional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt curriculum is usually confined to those written
understandings and directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curricu-
lum directors and teachers, often collectively.
2. Societal or Social Curriculum. As defin ed by Cor tes (1981), this curriculum refers
to the massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of the family, peer groups, neighborhoods,
churches, organizations, occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that “educate”
all people throughout their lives. This type of curriculum can now be expanded to include the
powerful effects of social media (YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest, etc.) and
how it actively helps create new perspectives and shape both individual and public opinions.
3. Hidden or Covert Curriculum. Tha t w hich is im plied by the ver y str u ctur e an d
nature of schools, much of what revolves around daily or established routines. Longstreet and
Shane (1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term – the “hidden curriculum,”
which refers to the kind of learning children derive from the very nature and organizational
design of the public school, as well as from the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and admin-
istrators…. ” Examples include the messages and lessons derived from the mere organization
of schools — the emphasis on: sequential room arrangements; the cellular, timed segments of
formal instruction; an annual schedule that is still arranged to accommodate an agrarian age;
disciplined messages where concentration equates to student behaviors were they are sitting
up straight and are continually quiet; students getting in and standing in line silently; students
quietly raising their hands to be called on; the endless competition for grades, and so on.
4. Null Curriculum. That w hich w e do not teach, thus giving students the message that
these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society. Eisner
(1994) first described and defined aspects of this curriculum. He states: There is something of
a paradox involved in writing about a curriculum that does not exist.
Yet, if we are concerned with the consequences of school programs and
the role of curriculum in shaping those consequences, then it seems to
me that we are well advised to consider not only the explicit and im-
plicit curricula of schools but also what schools do not teach. It is my
thesis that what schools do not teach may be as important as what they
do teach. I argue this position because ignorance is not simply a neu-
tral void; it has important effects on the kinds of options one is able to
consider, the alternatives that one can examine, and the perspectives
from which one can view a situation or problems.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
Societal or social curriculum can now be expanded to include the powerful effects of social
media (YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest, etc.) and how it actively helps create new
perspectives and shape both individual and public opinions.
28
From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that

which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are
empowered to make conscious decisions as to what is to be included
and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) curriculum. Since it
is physically impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics and
subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written curricu-
FOCUSING
lum. But Eisner’s position on the “null curriculum” is that when certain
CONTENT subjects or topics are left out of the overt curriculum, school personnel
are sending messages to students that certain content and processes are
not important enough to study. Unfortunately, without some levels of awareness that there is
also a well-defined implicit agenda in schools, school personnel send this type of message via
the hidden curriculum. These are important to consider when making choices. We teach about
wars but not peace, we teach about certain cultures and histories but not about others. Both
our choices and our omissions send messages to students.
5. Phantom Curriculum. The m essages pr evalent in an d thr ou gh expo sur e to any
type of media. These components and messages play a major part in the enculturation of stu-
dents into the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or genera-
tional subcultures.
6. Concomitant Curriculum. W hat is tau ght, o r em phasized at hom e, o r those expe-
riences that are part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family.
(This type may be received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons on values,
ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.)
7. Rhetorical Curriculum. Elem en ts fro m the r hetor ical curr icu lum ar e com pr ised
from ideas offered by policymakers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curric-
ulum may also come from those professionals involved in concept formation and content
changes; or from those educational initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and
state reports, public speeches, or from texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhe-
torical curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical
knowledge.
8. Curriculum-in-Use. The fo rm al curricu lum (w r itten or over t) co m pr ises tho se

things in textbooks, and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However,
those “formal” elements are frequently not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual curricu-
lum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.
9. Received Curriculum. Tho se things that stu dents actually take o u t of classr oom s;
those concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered.
10. Internal Curriculum. Pr ocesses, conten t, kno w ledge com bin ed w ith the experi-
ences and realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of
Null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools (Eisner, 1994). It refers to cer-
tain subjects or topics that are left out of the overt curriculum as school personnel are sending mes-
sages to students that particular contents and processes are not important enough to study.
29
Educators can explore this curricula by using instructional assess-

ments like “exit slips,” reflective exercises, or debriefing discussions
to see what students really remember from a lesson. It is often very
enlightening and surprising to find out what has meaning for learn-
ers and what does not.
11. Electronic Curriculum. Tho se lesso n s learn ed thro ugh FOCUSING
searching the Internet for information, or through using e-forms of CONTENT
communication (Wilson, 2006). These types of curriculum may be
either formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or cov-
ert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on ones’ views. Students who use the Internet
and electronic media on a regular basis, both for recreational and informational purposes, are
bombarded with all types of media and messages. What types of messages are they being ex-
posed to through varied social media and online interactions?
When they are researching subjects and topics online and gathering information they
are often bombarded with all types of ads, images and messages. Much of this information may
be factually correct, informative, or even entertaining or inspirational. But there is also a great
deal of other e-information that may be very incorrect, dated, passé, biased, perverse, or even
manipulative.
The implications of the electronic curriculum for educational practices are that part of
the overt curriculum needs to include lessons on how to be wise consumers of infor-
mation, how to critically appraise the accuracy and correctness of e-information, as well as
how to determine the reliability of electronic sources. Also, students need to learn how to be
artfully discerning about the usefulness and appropriateness of certain types of information.
Electronic curriculum refers to those lessons that are learned through searching the Inter-
net for information, or through using e-forms of communication (Wilson, 2006).
30
Activity 3.1 Dissecting a Curriculum
Directions: Secure a copy of a lesson plan written by an elementary

or high school teacher. Read every detail of the lesson plan and com-
TAKING plete the diagram by looking into the following elements: objectives,
subject matter, strategies/methods, and evaluation procedure. Then,
ACTION answer the questions that follow.
OBJECTIVES STRATEGIES/METHODS
LESSON
PLAN
SUBJECT MATTER EVALUATION PROCEDURE
Follow-up Questions:
1. Do the four components fit or match with one another? Explain.
2. Can you consider a lesson plan as a curriculum? Why?
Activity 3.2 Designing a Curricular Alphabet
Directions: Draw and complete the following grid with as many words as you can think that
would fit to each letter in the grid based on the given topic. Be guided by the sample grid given be-
low.
Curriculum Type
A B C D E F G
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
H I J K L M N
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
O P Q R S T U
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
V W X Y Z
________ ________ ________ ________ ________
________ ________ ________ ________ ________
31
Activity 3.3 Designing a Multimedia Presentation
Directions: Collect at least 5 samples for each type of curriculum.

Take a digital copy (picture) of each sample. Then create a multimedia
TAKING presentation of these digital copies with their corresponding descrip-
tions and uses. Consider also using appropriate design elements such
ACTION as sound, animation, transition, and others. Be guided by the rubric
provided below.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Content and Organ- Concept is very rele- Concept is relevant to Concept is relevant to Concept is somewhat
ization (50%) vant to purpose. Video purpose. Video is fair- purpose. Video is fair- relevant to purpose.
shows spontaneity of ly well-documented ly well-documented Portions may be poorly
ideas and tells a com- and organized. Format and organized. Format documented and/or
plete, easily followed is easy to follow. Good is easy to follow. Good organized. Progressions
presentation. Well- explanation shows explanation shows are hard to follow. Ex-
documented and orga- good effort. good effort. planation shows some
nized. effort.
Creativity and Ele- Excellent use of video Good use of graphics Minimal use of design Use of elements detracts
ments of Design design. Video and and/or other design elements. No transi- the video. Too many or
(30%) pictures are of good elements. Some tran- tions. Some pictures too gaudy graphics;
quality. Smooth transitions are inappropri- or video clips may be transitions, too many
sitions are appropriate ately placed. Video out of focus or clips. Pictures or video
and aid in delivery of clips or pictures are “shaky”. clips may be out of focus
the content. clear and in focus. or “shaky”.
Audio Editing The audio is clear and The audio is clear and The audio is incon- The audio is cut-off,
(20%) effectively assists in assists in communi- sistent in clarity (too inconsistent, and over-
communicating the cating the main idea, loud/too soft/too dis- powering.
main idea. Back- torted) at time and/or
ground audio is kept the background audio
in balance. overpowers the prima-
ry audio.
Mechanics (10%) Grammar, spelling, Includes 2-3 gram- Includes 3-4 gram- Includes 5 or more
punctuation, and capi- matical, spelling, and matical, spelling, and grammatical, spelling,
talization are correct; punctuation errors; punctuation errors; and punctuation errors;
sources are all proper- sources are properly some sources are doc- sources are not docu-
ly documented. documented. umented but not cor- mented.
rectly.
RUBRIC
32
ASSESSING
item. Scribble your answers on the spaces provided before LEARNED
each number.
____________ 1. These are intents communicated by statements describing a change in learners.

A kind of learning that children can derive from the very nature and organiza-
____________ 2. tional design of schools.
____________ 3. These are indicated by the results of tests and changes in behavior.
____________ 4. This refers to the concepts and contents that are truly learned by the students.
____________ 5. These are established institutions that are run by government or private sector.
____________ 6. A compendium of facts, concepts, generalizations, principles, and theories.
____________ 7. This refers to the planned activities which are put into action in the classroom.
____________ 8. This pertains to the ideas offered by policymakers and school officials.
____________ 9. These are considered the core or heart of the curriculum.
____________10. It is considered an extension of self-assessment and pre-supposes trust.
Directions: Match the behavioral levels listed in Column A with their corresponding descriptions
written in Column B. Write your answers on the blanks provided before each number.
Column A Column B
_____ 1. Application a. ability to put parts together to form a new whole

_____ 2. Analysis b. refers to creating new movement patterns to fit the situation
_____ 3. Synthesis c. students’ willingness to pay attention to an event or stimulus
_____ 4. Evaluation d. concerned with the worth a student attaches to an object
_____ 5. Receiving e. developing a lifestyle from a value system
_____ 6. Responding f. concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills
_____ 7. Valuing g. refers to readiness to take a particular type of action
_____ 8. Organization h. ability to use learned material in new situation
_____ 9. Characterization i. responses have become habitual
_____10. Perception j. ability to pass judgment on something based on criteria
_____11. Set k. concerned with bringing together different values
_____12. Guided response l. skill well-developed that the ability to modify is very easy
_____13. Mechanism m. ability to break down material into component parts
_____14. Adaptation n. use of sense organs to guide motor activities
_____15. Origination o. active participation on the part of the students
33
LEARNING OUTCOMES

develop a sequence chart indicating

the processes involved in developing a
Curriculum curriculum;
Development design a persuasion map reflecting
Models and one’s argument on the use of curricu-
lum models; and
Processes
create a diagram showing the
strengths and weaknesses of various
curriculum development models.

CONTENTS
Linear Models of
Curriculum 1. Also called the backward design, which of the following mod-
Development el puts emphasis on starting with the goals and objectives in
designing the curriculum?
Cyclical Models a. Rational-Linear c. Systematic Design
of Curriculum b. Understanding by Design d. Grassroots Rational
Development 2. Which of the following models stresses the inclusion of situa-
tional analysis as a valuable principle in curriculum develop-
Dynamic Models
ment?
of Curriculum
a. Nichols and Nichols Curriculum Development Model
Development
b. Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
Processes for c. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
Developing a d. Walker’s Naturalistic Model
Curriculum 3. Which of the following processes involves the study of differ-
ent curriculum sources and careful examination of various
TIME ALLOTMENT influences that affect curriculum development?
3 hours a. implementation c. monitoring
b. evaluation d. situational analysis
4. Which of the following models identifies platform, delibera-
tion, and design as three phases of curriculum development?
a. Print’s Model c. Naturalistic Model
b. Systematic Design Model d. Rational-Linear Model
5. Which of the following ideas of Print that recognizes the im-
ASSESSING YOUR portant role and influence of various curriculum workers in-
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE volved in different curriculum activities?
a. instructional evaluation c. situational analysis
b. curriculum presage d. learning activities
34
Curriculum development models are based on a clear and
consistent understanding of various scholars of the nature of curric-
ulum as a discipline and as a field of study. Different models are de-
scribed based on the different views and processes of curriculum
development they offer. In this context, well-known models that are
found in major curriculum books are analyzed. These models have
been recognized and accepted by curriculum scholars as effective
and appropriate for developing curriculum in any level. In this les-
GETTING son, the analysis points out various strengths and weaknesses of dif-
ferent models. A brief background and description of the processes
STARTED involved in each model are presented. The models are treated as in-
imitable since each represents various ideas or theories on how to
develop curriculum.
Curriculum planning is the first phase of the curriculum development process which considers
the school vision, mission, and goals. It also includes the philosophy or strong educational belief of the
school. All of these will eventually be translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.
Linear Models of Curriculum Development
The linear models of curriculum development prescribe a rational step-by-step procedure

for curriculum development starting with objectives.
A. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model
Society Students Subject Matter
Philosophy of Education Psychology of Learning

Selecting Objectives
Selecting Learning Experiences
Organizing Learning Experiences
Evaluation
Figure 1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model
Ralph Tyler, at the University of Chicago, developed the first

model of curriculum development. This model was presented in his book
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949. Tyler ar-
gued that curriculum development should be logical and systematic. FOCUSING
CONTENT
35
His model, as shown in Figure 1, presents a process of curricu-

lum development that follows a sequential pattern starting from select-
ing objectives to selecting learning experiences, organizing learning ex-
periences, and evaluation.
Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum work-
FOCUSING ers should respond to four basic questions:
CONTENT 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?
3. How can these experiences be organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources: society,
students, and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study these sources care-
fully in order to develop a curriculum. He also pointed out the importance of philosophy of educa-
tion and psychology of learning to screen the objectives that are included in the curriculum.
B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model
A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba presented her model in
her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is a modified version
of Tyler’s model. Taba argued that curriculum development should follow a sequential and logical
process, and she suggested for more information input in all phases of curriculum development.
She also claimed that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements.
In her model, Taba outlined seven steps that should be followed when developing a curric-
ulum:
1. Diagnosis of needs;
2. Formulation of objectives;
3. Selection of content;
4. Organization of content;
5. Selection of learning experiences;
6. Organization of learning experiences; and
7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it.
Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities and the
selection of the assessment procedures and tools to measure desired learning outcomes.
36
Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made

successful if there was a diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum
workers in understanding the needs of the learners. It would also help in
the selection of the goals and objectives, and in the selection of contents.
She pointed out that the nature of the objectives determines what learn-
ing is to follow.
FOCUSING
C. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model CONTENT
The standards-based curriculum development model was developed by Allan Glatthorn.

The model was intended for developing curriculum standards for any discipline from basic educa-
tion to higher education. As shown in Table 1, Glatthorn identified three phases to be followed in
developing standards-based curriculum.
Table 1 is an example of a linear model. It includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum
development activities to develop standards.
Table 1. Standards-Based Curriculum Development Model
Phase I. Develop standards.

1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards using multiple sources.
2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combining.
3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.
4.Use data to develop final draft of standards divided into Essential Standards and En-
richment Standards.
Phase II. Develop benchmarks.
1. Review decisions about content emphases.
2. Identify standards for continuing development (standards that will not be bench-
marked).
3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified—by taskforce or by teachers.
4. Develop initial draft of benchmarks, evaluating with criteria provided, and secure
teacher review; revise benchmarks if needed.
Phase III. Develop final products.
1. Use standards and benchmarks to produce the scope and sequence chart.
2. Decide on curriculum guide content.
3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives.
Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum
design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. Implementing the curriculum is where
the action takes place. It involves activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learn-
ing becomes an active process.
37
Glatthorn’s model is an example of a linear and rational curriculum development model.

The model is rational and descriptive, stressing on the development of standards as the first activ-
ity in curriculum development. The model recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in
developing curriculum standards. This model also recognizes teacher’s input in the development
of standards, which are often neglected in curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the
top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation.
The use of benchmarks to improve, refine, and validate curriculum standards is an equally
good practice in curriculum development. The model extends itself up to the development of
scope and sequence, which is important for planning instruction and deciding on specific con-
tents and objectives. Another important feature of Glatthorn’s model is its relevance and applica-
bility in any educational institution in developing curriculum standards for various courses. This
model can e very useful in the development of curriculum standards that is one of the major pur-
poses of this book. The linear nature of Glatthorn’s model is also one of its weaknesses.
Roberts (2003) stressed that in curriculum studies, as in many other domains of human
activity, one of the few constants is change. Roberts further explained his idea that as a field of
inquiry, curriculum should allow new theories to emerge and new insights to flourish to make the
curriculum field more vibrant and dynamic.
In Glatthorn’s model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the over-
all curriculum developmental process. This makes the model incomplete. The model should rec-
ognize that developing curriculum standards is an integral part of the curriculum development
process. This model does not include situational analysis or needs analysis. Unlike in other curric-
ulum development models, situational analysis or diagnosis of needs is included as an important
process. While the model specified the development of standards using multiple sources, it can-
not replace the important function of situational analysis in the curriculum development process.
Situational analysis is helpful in understanding the context in which the curriculum is developed.
Analyzing the different curriculum sources and influences will lead to the development of curricu-
lum standards that are not just focused on a specific discipline, but will also consider the im-
portant role of the learners and society in curriculum development.
D. Understanding by Design Model (UbD)

The Understanding by Design model was developed by Wiggins
and McTighe (2002). It has become a byword in the Philippine educa-
tional system because it was used to design the current basic education
curriculum. As of School Year 2010-2011, first year and second year high
school are using UbD.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been
achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning (formative) or mas-
tery of learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hin-
dered or supported the implementation.
38
The model is also called backward design for putting emphasis on starting with the goals
and objectives in designing curriculum. The model puts emphasis on designing curriculum to en-
gage students in exploring and deepening their understanding of important ideas and the design
of assessments (Wiggins & McTighe, 2002). Figure 1 shows the three stages in the backward de-
sign process.
Stage 1: Identify
desired results.
Stage 2: Determine
acceptable evidence. Stage 3: Plan the
learning experiences
and instruction.
Figure 1. Stages in the Backward Design Process
Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able to do. It also asks the
questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring understandings are desired
for the learners. This calls for examining current curriculum goals and established curriculum
standards, and reviewing curriculum expectations. Stage 2 calls for designing assessment evi-
dence ford documenting or validating whether the desired learning has been achieved. This model
encourages the use of authentic assessment for assessing and evaluating students’ learning. Stage
3 includes planning learning experiences that are useful in implementing the curriculum. In this
stage, teachers decide on the type of activities that the students will do and the materials that will
be needed for the planned activities.
The UbD model is prescriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as the
starting point of the curriculum development process. The model is currently popular in the Phil-
ippines because of its advocacy in focusing on enduring understandings or central ideas (Wiggins
& McTighe, 2002) as the central goal of the curriculum.
The model stresses on the six facets of understanding as a frame-
work for identifying the results or goals of learning. If this model is used
in the Philippines, it can help the CHED, particularly various teacher
education institutions, to revise their existing curricula to focus on
higher understanding rather than just prescribing subjects and course
descriptions. The UbD calls for the development of higher and more
relevant curriculum standards in the country.
UbD’s advocacy of planning for authentic assessment before
planning learning experiences is essential in connecting the assessment
FOCUSING
CONTENT
The “backward design” puts greater emphasis on starting with the formulation of school
goals and objectives in designing the curriculum.
39
with the goals and learning experiences of the curriculum. Analyzing

what the learners should know and understand is an important feature
of the model. This principle will make the content of the teacher educa-
tion curriculum more learner-centered. Like Glatthorn’s model, it also
recognizes the important role of teachers in curriculum development
process, which is a good practice in curriculum development.
While the UbD model puts emphasis on analyzing what the
FOCUSING learners need to know and understand in formulating curriculum goals,
CONTENT the school authority or the government already fixes the standards. The
model is fixed at accepting what standards are prescribed by the govern-
ment agency on education. Consequently, the goals are most likely to
follow the prescribed content standards set by the government.
E. Systematic Design Model

Robert Diamond originally developed the Systematic Design model in the early 1960s.
Since then, it has undergone major revisions but its structure is unchanged (Diamond, 1998). The
model, as shown in Figure 2, has two basic phases: (1) project selection and design; and (2) pro-
duction, implementation, and evaluation. Like some of the previous models, it follows a linear
process of curriculum development. Diamond (1998) explained that ideally, some actions must
precede others, and certain decisions should not be made until all relevant facts are known. It is
imperative that all data must be complete before proceeding to the next step.
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/CHcPWVXAiR3Cugo17
Figure 2. Systematic Design Model
Project Selection and Design, and Production, Implementation, and Evaluation are the
two basic phases of Systematic Design Model.
40
The Systematic Design model is prescriptive and rational. It pre-

sents a systematic and linear view of curriculum development. The use
of diagrams is an excellent way of helping curriculum workers to visu-
alize the entire curriculum development process. As shown in its first
phase, some curriculum influences and sources are also acknowledged
in the process of curriculum development. These curriculum sources
FOCUSING
and influences are used to determine the objectives of the curriculum.
CONTENT
The model relies heavily on data; therefore, it is important to
gather necessary information before proceeding to each of the process-
es. This curriculum practice allows research to influence curriculum processes and encourages a
team approach to curriculum development.
The second phase of the model allows curriculum workers to design for the production and
implementation of the curriculum and on the importance of the evaluation of instructional mate-
rials to ensure the smooth implementation of the curriculum. The model involves a series of tasks,
which, if carefully followed, may result in a relevant and effective curriculum.
Similar to the weaknesses of linear models presented earlier, Diamond’s model ends in
Phase II. It assumes that the product, which is the curriculum, is final and good as planned. There
is no provision where curriculum workers can review their actions and decisions in relation to the
factors identified in Phase I. Probably, the data gathered were assumed to support the curriculum
and are sufficient to ensure that the curriculum is relevant and effective. Evaluation and revision
are only done in Phase II but in the level of instruction or the implemented curriculum.
The model, if applied in the Philippines, will probably be difficult to adapt because of the
lack of research culture in our education institutions. Having a research culture among faculty
members can improve the way higher education curricula are planned. The results of these re-
searches can serve as basis for developing curricula and in proposing necessary changes in the
curriculum. Print (1993) and Doll (1992) considered curriculum development as a decision-
making process, emphasizing for faculty members to conduct researches as a basis for making
curricular decisions.
F. Murray Print Model for Curriculum Development

Murray Print published his model in his book Curriculum Development and Design in
1993. His model, as shown in Figure 3, prescribes a sequential and logical approach to curriculum
development to provide a useful and easy-to-understand process in developing curriculum.
The first phase of Print’s model recognizes the nature of the curriculum workers involved
in the development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is important to pose the fol-
lowing questions that may influence curriculum development:
Curriculum development is a decision-making process which emphasizes that faculty

members must conduct researches as a basis for making curricular decisions (Print, 1993; Doll,
1992).
41
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/Af8vz2MC1hmqKeUH9
Figure 3. Print’s Curriculum Development Model
1. Who are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything, do they repre-
sent?
2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them?
3. What underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers’ thinking?
The answers to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of curriculum that
will be developed.
The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum. The procedure is
cyclical, which begins with a situational analysis, and continues with the aims, goals, and objec-
tives, content, learning activities, and instructional evaluation, and then continuing to situational
analysis again.
The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates
three major activities: (1) implementation of the curriculum, (2) moni-
toring of and feedback from the curriculum, and (3) the provision of
feedback data to the presage group.
Print’s model is also prescriptive and rational. The model starts
with identifying the aims, goals, and objectives of the curriculum. It also
embraces the principles of cyclical and dynamic models in its proce-
dures. Curriculum workers can examine their functions as they go
through the process of curriculum development. Print’s idea of curricu-
FOCUSING lum presage recognizes the important role and influence of various cur-
CONTENT riculum workers involved in different curricular activities. It also recog-
Curriculum presage acknowledges the important role and influence of various curriculum
workers in different curricular activities (Print, 1993).
42
nizes the myriad of curriculum conceptions and ideas that various curriculum workers bring to
the curriculum development process which may influence them in making important curricular
decisions.
The inclusion of instructional evaluation in the development process makes this model
unique. Evaluation provides necessary data regarding the implementation of the curriculum. The
result of the evaluation is valuable in examining whether the curriculum is applicable to the stu-
dents or whether the goals of the curriculum have been achieved. The inclusion of a monitoring
and feedback system in curriculum development is also useful when there is a need to do some
revisions. Lastly, this model can be used in any level of curriculum development—local, college-
wide, or national. Hence, it is very practical to apply this model in the Philippines.
Print’s model describes the process of curriculum development on a macro level; however,
it is not clear where the philosophy of the institution and philosophy of the curriculum will come
into play. Philosophy is very influential in curriculum processes. The philosophy of the school and
of the curriculum embodies or reflects the kind of curriculum offered in a particular situation.
Philosophy should precede selection of objectives.
Furthermore, Print’s model should establish a stronger link between the curriculum pres-
age and the situational analysis. The model gives an impression that curriculum presage has no
direct effect or relationship with situational analysis. Curriculum presage is part of situational
analysis since the various curriculum workers are also part of the context or environment of the
curriculum.
Curriculum development is a cyclical or continuous process (Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978).
Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development
The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or continuous process of curriculum development.

Cyclical models usually start with situational analysis that serves as the basis for all the succeed-
ing process.
A. Audrey Nicholls and Howard Nicholls Model for Curricu-
lum Development
An example of a cyclical model for curriculum development was
developed by Nicholls and Nicholls (1978). The model emphasizes the
cyclical nature of curriculum development. According to Nicholls and
Nicholls (1978), curriculum development is a continuous process.
As shown in Figure 4, the model prescribes five logical and inter-
dependent stages that are continuous curriculum development process.
The model starts with a situational analysis in which curricular decisions
FOCUSING
are made, followed by the selection of objectives and succeeding phases.
CONTENT
43
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/Y96Yr4SmGNfB2zrh7
Figure 4. Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Development Model
The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The inclusion of situational analysis as part
of the model is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It enables the curriculum workers
to understand better the context in which curriculum is developed. By starting with situational
analysis, curriculum workers will be able to collect data and the needed information from various
curriculum sources and influences that are prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and ob-
jectives. Thus, if applied in college setting, faculty members need to conduct situational analysis
before planning their syllabi and curriculum plans. This will make it possible for the curriculum
to be more relevant and responsive to the needs of the students and the school.
Nicholls and Nicholls model also recognizes the influence and importance of contributing
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology in developing the curriculum. These
disciplines are useful in selecting the curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning experi-
ences, and evaluation. The importance of these three disciplines in developing curriculum is also
recognized in the model of Tyler (1949).
Moreover, this model has the potential to be used in any educational setting, either school-
based or on a national level. The cyclical nature of the model also enables curriculum workers in
making the necessary changes and adjustments in the total curriculum. This attribute of the mod-
el is helpful for teachers, administrators, and education boards to ad-
dress curricular issues and propose innovations and changes whenever
needed. The model of Nicholls and Nicholls advocates a curriculum
development activity that involves continuous improvement.
However, there is little weakness found in this model. The possi-
ble problem that may occur is that many curriculum workers are used
to develop curricula following a linear model. In the Philippines, for
example, curriculum development follows a top-down approach where
many curricular decisions are made in the national level. The goals and FOCUSING
contents of the curriculum are set by the state.
CONTENT
The inclusion of situational analysis is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It

enables the curriculum workers to understand better the context in which the school curriculum is
developed.
44
B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/Z44LSC9yAm3TvAhG8
Figure 5. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model
In his influential book Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented a cyclical process in
which each element of the curriculum is related and interdependent (see Figure 5). Although this
model is also rational in nature, each phase is a logical development of the preceding one. One
cannot proceed to the next phase unless the preceding phase is done. Wheeler also emphasized
the importance of starting from the development of aims, goals, and objectives.
C. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning

The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning was developed by Stark, Lowther, Bent-
ley, Ryan, Martens, Genthon, Wren, and Shaw in 1990 as part of their study conducted at the Uni-
versity of Michigan National Center for Research to Improve Post-Secondary Teaching and
Learning. This model appeared in the book Shaping the College Curriculum written by Stark and
Lattuca, published in 1997.
Content influences encompass faculty members’ background and
associated disciplinary and educational beliefs. Contextual influences
refer to the influences outside of the instructor’s immediate control that
causes adjustments in the course plans such as student characteristics or
instructional resources. Course decisions include the processes that are
followed when designing a course (Stark & Latucca, 1997).
The Contextual Filters model presents a cyclical view of curricu-
lum development. After making course decisions, the planners can check
with content considerations and contextual filters. It describes the reali-
ty on how college faculty members design their courses. Hence it is very
FOCUSING much applicable for designing higher education courses.
CONTENT
Content influences include faculty members’ background and associated disciplinary and
educational beliefs.
45
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/47kC3ww4dd1rzJPZ6
Figure 6. The Contextual Filters Model of Course Planning
This model is based on a research on how faculty members in several higher education in-
stitutions in the United States plan their curriculum (Stark & Latucca, 1997). Several curriculum
influences such as faculty background and educational beliefs are recognized in the model. The
influence and the special role of faculty members in curriculum planning and development are
recognized as a main factor in curriculum development in higher education.
The Contextual Filters model is very teacher-centered. Given the influence of academic
freedom, faculty members may plan the curriculum based on their own convenience. This model
can be improved by putting students as part of the content influences. In many curriculum mod-
els, students are viewed as a significant source of curriculum. Considering the fact that most col-
lege faculty members do not pedagogical training, this model failed to
elaborate how contents and process are arranged. This could have been
very useful for faculty members, especially neophyte instructors, who
do not have background knowledge on education.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
The influence and the special role of faculty members in curriculum planning and develop-
ment are recognized as a main factor in curriculum development in higher education.
46
Dynamic Models of Curriculum Development
The dynamic models describe how curriculum workers develop

curriculum in various educational contexts. The dynamic curriculum
development models are usually used in school-based settings.
A. Walker’s Model of Curriculum Development

Decker Walker developed a model for curriculum development FOCUSING
and first published it in 1971. Walker contended that curriculum devel- CONTENT
opers do not follow the prescriptive approach of the rationale-linear
sequence of curriculum elements when they develop curricula (Walker,
1971; Marsh & Willis, 2007; Print, 1993). In his model, Walker was particularly interested on how
curriculum workers actually do their tasks in curriculum development. As shown in Figure 7,
Walker was able to identify three phases, which he termed platform, deliberation, and design.
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/8oNPDdsnE2WkXuTW8
Figure 7. Walker’s Naturalistic Model
In the Platform phase, Walker suggested that curriculum workers bring with them their
individual beliefs, knowledge, and values. They have their own ideas about how to do their tasks
and they are prepared to discuss and argue about them. The first phase is similar to the idea of
Print (1993) of a curriculum presage. The Deliberations phase, on the other hand, involves identi-
fying which facts are needed for means and ends, generating alternatives and considering the con-
sequences of these alternatives. This phase is also used in weighing alternative costs and conse-
quences, and choosing the best alternative for the curriculum tasks they are about to do. The third
phase, which is Curriculum Design, involves planning, decision-making, and the actual develop-
ment of the curriculum.
Walker’s model is a dynamic and descriptive model of curriculum development. It reflects
the realities of how curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum. It recognizes the role and
influence of curriculum workers in any curriculum development tasks.
The Platform phase in Walker’s Naturalistic Model is similar to the idea of Print (1993) of a
curriculum presage.
47
In addition, it avoids the obsession of starting with objectives.

This practice is also observed in the model of Print (1993). Since the
model is dynamic, the curriculum workers may commence at any point
in the curriculum process depending on their needs. This allows more
flexibility among curriculum workers in developing curriculum. Curric-
ulum workers may review their previous decisions and actions to correct
FOCUSING
some mistakes. According to Walker (1971), this model can be used for a
CONTENT school-based curriculum development.
The model, being dynamic, can be confusing to other curriculum work-
ers who are not aware of the necessary processes of curriculum development. If this model is ap-
plied in the Philippines, where most teachers are mere implementers of curriculum developed by
other educators, it may not have value to them.
Another weakness of Walker’s model is a strong tendency of the curriculum development
to be stuck in Phase II. According to Print (1993), too much discussion may lead to analysis-
paralysis syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of curriculum development.
Probably, this model can be elaborated more on the design process involved in Phase III to help
teachers and neophyte curriculum workers to their tasks.
B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

In 1976, Malcolm Skilbeck came up with a model for developing a school-based curriculum
in Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum development. When using this
model, curriculum workers may start from any phase. However, as shown in Figure 8, each phase
is interrelated and follows a systematic sequence. Skilbeck’s model includes a situational analysis
that involves gathering data from the school, society, and the learners. The results of the situa-
tional analysis provide strong bases for making curricular decisions for all the succeeding phases
of curriculum development.
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/8G1mjWtaYrk6Zmnh6
Figure 8. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model
According to Print (1993), too much discussion made on specific phase may lead to analysis
-paralysis syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of curriculum development.
48
C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Elliot W. Eisner was a famous curriculum scholar. In 1979, he published the book The Edu-
cational Imagination where he presented his idea on how curriculum development should be
done. Eisner (1979) believed that there is a need to develop a new theory that recognizes the art-
istry of teaching which is useful in helping teachers develop those arts. In his book, Eisner out-
lined how this artistic approach can also be used in curriculum development.
Table 1. Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development
1. Goals and their priorities

 The need to consider less, well-defined objectives as well as explicit ones
 The need for deliberation in talking through priorities
2. Content of curriculum
 Options to consider in selecting curriculum
 Caveats about the null curriculum
3. Types of learning activities
 Emphasis on transforming goals and content into learning events that will be of signifi-
cance to students
4. Organization of learning opportunities
 Emphasis on a nonlinear approach in order to encourage diverse student outcomes
5. Organization of content areas
 Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of content
6. Mode of presentation and mode of response
 Use of a number of modes of communication to widen educational opportunities for stu-
dents
7. Types of evaluation procedure
 Use of a comprehensive range of procedures at different stages of the process of curricu-
In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner

(1979) stressed an artful process of arriving at a consensus about cur-
ricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging the partici-
pants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform or Schwab’s (1971)
idea of deliberation. In selecting the content of the curriculum, Eisner
(2002) considered the three sources of curriculum: individual, society,
and subject matter as identified by Tyler (1949). In selecting learning
opportunities, Eisner strongly favored providing students with a wide
FOCUSING
variety of learning opportunities. Accordingly, educational imagination
CONTENT
In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner (1979) stressed an artful process
of arriving at a consensus about curricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging the partici-
pants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform or Schwab’s (1971) idea of deliberation.
49
must transform goals and contents into high-quality experiences for students (Eisner, 2002).
Eisner also emphasized on providing a variety of learning opportunities to different types
of students using varied resources and activities. He contended that curriculum content should be
organized and integrated in different ways. Eisner suggested using different strategies and meth-
ods to engage the students in meaningful learning. Lastly, for Eisner, evaluation is not the final
step of curriculum development, but rather it is something that pervades the entire curriculum
development process (Eisner, 1985).
This model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum development or in nation-
al curriculum projects. Eisner’s model is an open-ended process of a form of a dynamic model. It
is descriptive in offering a general approach that can be followed by curriculum workers, yet the
model is also prescriptive in offering suggestions about what should happen when developing a
curriculum.
Eisner’s model recognizes the influence of various curriculum workers in developing a cur-
riculum. The model emphasizes the importance of having well-defined goals and objectives in
curriculum. It recognizes the varied activities that teachers do in the school to attain the goals of
the curriculum.
This model may be effective in the context of developing and designing courses for higher
education. The influence of academic freedom and the changing nature of the disciplines in high-
er education require a curriculum model that is less prescriptive but logical enough to embrace
the artistic or creative ways in which faculty members develop their courses.
Since the processes are not procedural, curriculum workers can always modify and im-
prove their curricula to address certain problems and needs. This model calls for more relevant
and responsive ways of selecting and organizing contents and learning experiences in order to
respond to the diverse needs of students.
D. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

Pawilen (2011) developed this model as one of the major outputs
of his doctoral dissertation in the University of the Philippines, Diliman.
This model was developed to help curriculum workers in developing a
curriculum that is relevant and appropriate to the Philippine context
(Pawilen, 2011).
Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect
curriculum development and decision-making in the macro-level. Posner
(1995) suggested two levels of curriculum development: macro level,
which includes the general or overall process of curriculum develop-
FOCUSING ment; and the micro level, which focuses on specific phase/s or on spe-
CONTENT cific context/s like school-based curriculum development.
Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect curriculum development
and decision-making in the macro-level.
50
There are three curriculum sources in the model: learners, socie-

ty, and disciplines. These curriculum sources are based on the model of
Ralph Tyler (1949). The learners as a curriculum source is very im-
portant. Knowing their interests, needs, learning styles, thinking styles,
culture, socio-economic status, gender, and other variables are signifi-
cant data for developing a curriculum. Understanding the nature of the
learners is helpful for curriculum workers to make appropriate choices
FOCUSING
in curriculum decision-making (Print, 1993). CONTENT
Society is also considered as a source of curriculum. Knowledge
about society provides better understanding of the context in which the curriculum will be imple-
mented. Cultural values, beliefs, attitudes, political and economic systems, and the physical envi-
ronment directly or indirectly affect curriculum development because the learners are an integral
part of the society. Understanding the nature of the discipline is also essential in curriculum de-
velopment. It can provide data for making decisions as to what contents should be included in the
curriculum and how to organize the contents of the curriculum.
1. Situational Analysis
Curriculum Sources
 Learners 2. Selection of Goals and Objectives
 Society 3. Development of Curriculum Standards
 Discipline a. Developing a comprehensive set of standards

b. Aligning standards with several criteria
c. Securing teachers’ input
d. Validating of standards by experts
e. Developing final curriculum standards
Curriculum Influences 4. Selection of Contents or Subject Areas

 External 5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences
 Internal
6. Implementation
 Organizational
7. Evaluation
Figure 9. Pawilen’s Model for Developing Curriculum

As shown in Figure 9, the curriculum sources are considered vital in conducting situational
analysis. Curriculum sources provide the necessary data in determining the goals and objectives of
the curriculum. These curriculum sources are also available in making decisions on the develop-
ment of curriculum standards. In the revised model, an arrow connects the curriculum sources to
Phase III.
The learners as a curriculum source is very important. Knowing their interests, needs, learning
styles, and other variables are vital data for developing a curriculum. Understanding learners’ nature is
helpful for curriculum workers to make appropriate choices in curriculum decision-making (Print, 1993).
51
Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the devel-

opment of the curriculum and decision-making in the micro-level. The
idea of curriculum influences was adapted from the model of Stark and
Lattuca (1997). Accordingly, these curriculum influences can be
grouped into three: external, internal, and organizational.
FOCUSING External influences are social factors that directly influence
CONTENT curriculum decision-making. These factors are society, market demand,
government, disciplinary associations, and alumni. Internal influences
are those that are related to the school like faculty members, students,
disciplines, and program mission. Organizational influences are school factors but they are more
concerned with the governance of the program and support system like school resources, leader-
ship, governance, and program relationship (Stark & Lattuca, 1997). These curriculum influences
provide important data for conducting situational analysis.
In the revised proposed model, the various curriculum influences are integral, as shown in
the arrow connecting the curriculum influences and the development of curriculum standards. In
all phases of curriculum development, these curriculum influences are always considered. For
example, new government policies, in most cases, need to be implemented immediately. Change
in school leadership and programs also need immediate action. Consequently, at any point, the
curriculum influences may have direct or indirect effect on curriculum development. The broken
arrows connecting the curriculum influences with the different phases of curriculum development
show this. This influence makes the model dynamic. It always considers the changing nature,
needs, and demands of its context.
By nature, curriculum sources and influences serve as bases for selecting and making deci-
sions about the various elements of curriculum: intent, content, learning experiences, and evalua-
tion.
Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of the curriculum
and decision-making in the micro-level.
Processes for Developing a Curriculum
1. Situational Analysis - the first phase. It starts with analyzing the context in which the curric-
ulum is developed. The situational analysis includes a study of the different curriculum sources
(students, society, and disciplines or subject matter), and careful examination of the different
curriculum influences (internal, external, and organizational) that affect curriculum develop-
ment.
2. Selection of Goals and Objectives - results from situational analysis. In some cases, if the gov-
ernment or the university prescribes the curriculum goals and objectives, such features will be
considered as part of the internal or external influences that will be studied in the situational
analysis.
52
Processes for Developing a Curriculum
3. Development of Curriculum Standards— takes place after the situational analysis and selec-
tion of goals and objectives. The first phase of Glatthorn’s (1998) model was modified to sim-
plify the task for developing curriculum standards: (a) develop a comprehensive set of content
standards by examining various curriculum sources and influences; (b) align the standards
with several criteria; (c) secure teachers’ input to revise and improve the standards; (d) ask
experts to validate the standards; and (e) develop the final draft of standards, divided into con-
tent standards, skill standards, and values standards.
4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas—phase where the developed curriculum standards are
used to select subjects or courses to be included in the curriculum.
5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences— includes selecting learning activities,
organizing instructional plans, and selecting instructional materials to be used in implement-
ing the curriculum.
6. Implementation— involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by faculty members.
It is where the actual teaching and learning take place.
7. Evaluation— the final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the curriculum, including
the design and selection of all the curriculum elements, are evaluated. After the result of the
evaluation, the curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis to reex-
amine the needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and
influences.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
After the evaluation results, the curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis
to reexamine the needs and include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and influences.
53
Activity 4.1 Sequencing Curricular Processes
Directions: Create a chart showing the sequence of the processes in-

volved in developing a school curriculum. Provide descriptions for
TAKING each process as well as the vital roles played by teachers in each of the
processes. Be guided by the sample given below.
ACTION
Activity 4.2 Mapping Personal Arguments
Directions: Select a curriculum development model that you think would be effectively imple-
mented in the Philippines. Then devise a persuasion map that reflects your personal arguments in
using such curriculum development model. Be guided by the sample map presented below.
54
Activity 4.3 Drawing Out Curriculum Models’
Strengths and Weaknesses
Directions: Review the different curriculum development models. De-

TAKING termine the possible strengths and weaknesses of each curriculum de-
velopment model when it is applied in the Philippine context. Be guid-
ACTION ed by the sample diagram presented below.
Part A. True or False
ASSESSING
Directions: Write your nickname if the statement is factual. THINGS
If the statement is false, write your instructor’s first name. LEARNED
Write your answers on the blanks.
___________ 1. Curriculum development should be logical and systematic.
___________ 2. Curriculum development should follow a sequential and illogical process.

___________ 3. Standards-based curriculum development model recognizes teachers’ input in de-
veloping standards.
___________ 4. The UbD model is descriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as
starting point of the curriculum development process.
___________ 5. The use of diagrams is an excellent way of helping learners to visualize the entire curric-
ulum development process.
___________ 6. Evaluation provides necessary data regarding the implementation of the curriculum.
___________ 7. The inclusion of situational analysis is a valuable principle in curriculum development.
___________ 8. The Contextual Filters model presents a cynical view of curriculum development.
___________ 9. Walker’s model is a dynamic and prescriptive model of curriculum development.
___________10. Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect curriculum development and deci-
sion-making processes.
Directions: Match the following curriculum development models listed in Column A with their
corresponding descriptions/advocacies given in Column B. Write your answers on the blanks pro-
vided before each number.
Column A Column B
_____ 1. Tyler’s Rational-Linear Model a. Inclusion of ideal and operational sequences

_____ 2. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model b. Use of authentic assessment
_____ 3. Standards-based Model c. Development of aims, goals, and objectives
_____ 4. Understanding by Design Model d. Inclusion of curriculum presage
_____ 5. Systematic Design Model e. Introduction of program building
_____ 6. Murray Print’s Model f. Identification of curriculum sources and influences
_____ 7. Nicholls and Nicholls’ Model g. Determination of school purposes
_____ 8. Wheeler’s Model h. Influence of faculty background
_____ 9. Contextual Filters Model i. Inclusion of situational analysis
_____10. Walker’s Model j. Introduction of the artistry of teaching theory
_____11. Skilbeck’s Model k. Diagnosis of needs
_____12. Eisner’s Artistic Approach l. Introduction of platform and deliberation phases
_____13. Pawilen’s Model m. Use of benchmarking
56
Part C. Essay
Activity 2
ASSESSING
Directions: Select one curriculum model from the three THINGS LEARNED
clusters of curriculum development models
presented in this lesson. Then write a 300-
word essay indicating your personal argu-
ments in choosing this particular curriculum development model. Be guided by the
rubric provided below.
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
very well-established. established and the fairly developed. Writ- statement; lacks clarity
Writer takes a clear writer takes somewhat er’s position, while of focus.
argument.
Organization (40%) Very clearly and effec- Effectively structured. Somewhat organized. No attempt at organiza-
tively structured. Transitions are some- Transitions may not tion; no transitions used
Transitions are what smooth and be smooth and there and/or frequent errors
smoothly and effec- there are some errors are some errors in in usage.
lengths; no errors in lengths; few errors in and lengths; several cult to understand nu-
spelling, punctuation, spelling, punctuation, errors in spelling, merous errors in
mar, etc. mar, etc., but they do zation, grammar, etc., capitalization, grammar,
not interfere with un- that interfere with etc., that interfere with
derstanding. understanding. understanding.
RUBRIC
57
REFERENCES Alexander, W. M. & Saylor, J. G. (1981). Curriculum planning for
better teaching and learning (4th ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rine-
hart, & Winston.
Beauchamp, G. A. (1968). Curriculum theory. Wilmette, IL: The Kagg Press.
Bestor, A. E. (1953). Educational wastelands. Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy
of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive
domain. New York: David McKay.
Brubacher, S. (1965). Basis for policy in higher education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Caswell, H. L., & Campbell, D. S. (1935). Curriculum development. New York: American Book.
Cornbleth, C. (1988). Curriculum in and out of context. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 3
(2), 85–96.
Cortes, C.E. (1981). The societal curriculum: Implications for multiethnic educations. In Banks,
J.A (ed.) Educations in the 80’s: Multiethnic education. National Education Association.
Cunningham, G. K. (1998). Assessment in the classroom: Constructing and interpreting tests. Lon-
don: Falmer Press.
Dewey, J. (1956). The child and the curriculum: And the school and society. Chicago, IL: Universi-
ty of Chicago Press.
Diamond, R. M. (1998). Designing courses and curricula. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Eisner, E. W. (1979, 1994, 2002). The educational imagination: On design and evaluation of school
programs. (3rd. ed) New York: Macmillan.
Glatthorn, A. (2000). The principal as curriculum leader. 2 nd Edition. Corwin Press, Goodlad, J. I.
(1984). A place called school. McGraw Hill.
Goodlad, J. I., & Su, Z. (1992). Organization of the curriculum. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook
of research on curriculum (pp. 327-344). New York: Macmillan.
Grundy, S. (1987) Curriculum: product or praxis. Lewes: Falmer Press
Hutchins, R. M., ed. (1952). Great books of the western world. 54 vol. Chicago: William Benton.
Mager, R. F. (1962). Preparing instructional objectives. Palo Alto, CA: Fearon.
Marsh, C. J. & Willis, G. (2003). Curriculum: Alternative approaches. Ongoing Issues, 3rd Ed. Co-
lumbus, OH: Merrill.
Nicholls, A. & Nicholls H. (1978). Developing a curriculum: a practical guide.
Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and theory. United States
of America: The Library of Congress.
Othanel, S. B., Stanley, W. W., & Shores, J. H. (1950). Fundamentals of curriculum development.
Yonkers, New York: World Book Company.
58
Pawilen, G. T. (2011). A model for developing curriculum standards for preschool teacher educa-
tion. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. College of Education, University of the Philip-
pines, Diliman.
Phenix, P. H. (1977). Education and the common good: A moral philosophy of the curriculum.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Inc.
Posner, G. (1995). Analyzing the curriculum. 2 nd Ed. New York: McGrawHill, Inc.
Pratt, D. (1980). Curriculum, design, and development. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Print, M. (1993). Curriculum development and design. 2 nd Ed. New South Wales: Allen and Unwin.
Scheffler, I. (1970). Philosophy and the curriculum. In: I Scheffler (ed.) Reason and Teaching. Lon-
don: Routledge.
Schubert, W. H. (1987). Educationally recovering Dewey in curriculum. Education and Culture, 7

(1), 2.
Schwab, J. J. (1978). The practical: A language for curriculum. In I. Westbury & N. J. Wilkof
(Eds.), Science, curriculum, and liberal education: Selected essays (pp. 287–321). Chicago,
IL: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1969).
Simpson E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain.

Washington, DC: Gryphon House.
Skilbeck, M. (1976). School-based curriculum development process and teacher education. Mimeo-
graph, OECD.
Stark, J. & Latucca, L. (1997). Shaping the college curriculum: Academic plans in content. San
Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Stark, J.S., Lowther, M.A., Bentley, R.J., Ryan, M.P., Genthon, M.L., Martens, G.G. & Wren, P.A.
(1990). Planning Introductory College Courses: Influences on Faculty. Ann Arbor, MI: Uni-
versity of Michigan, National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and
Learning.
Stotsky, S. (2012). The death and resurrection of a coherent literature curriculum: What secondary
English teachers can do. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Tanner, D. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice. University of Michigan: Mac-
millan.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Walker, D. F. (1971). A naturalistic model of curriculum development. School Review, 80(1), 51-65.
Wheeler, D.K. (1978). Curriculum process. London: Hodder &Stoughton.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2002). The Understanding by Design

guide to creating high quality units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
REFERENCES Wilson, L. O. (2006). What are the types of curriculum.

www.uwsp.edu/education/Lwilson/currhc/curtyp.htm.
59
CHAPTER 2
The Teacher as a
Curriculum designer
OVERVIEW
A curriculum as a planned sequence of learning experiences should

be at the heart and mind of every teacher. Every teacher as a curricu-
larist should be involved in designing a curriculum. As such, you will
be part of the intellectual journey of your learners. You will be provid-
ing them the necessary experiences that will enable the learner what
you intend them to learn. Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/
HZJf6FdzNTVBNFyh7
As a curriculum designer, this task was not given much attention in
the past. Every single day, a teacher designs a lesson or utilizes a cur-
riculum that has been made and was previously written. Designing a
curriculum is a very challenging task. It is here where the style and cre- CONTENTS
ativity of the teacher come in. Thus, this chapter will provide the neces-
sary concepts and activities that you as a teacher can refer to as you
prepare yourself to be a curriculum designer. Lesson 1.
Curriculum Design and
Development Models…61
LEARNING OUTCOMES Lesson 2.

Principles and Dimen-
sions of Curriculum De-
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: sign………………………….69
1. create graphic organizers and write argumentative essays about Lesson 3.

curriculum design and development models; Approaches to Curricu-
lum Design……………….77
2. design concept maps and multimedia presentations, as well as
write expository essays on the dimensions and principles of Lesson 4.
curriculum development; Curriculum Mapping..84
3. make graphic organizers and scribble argumentative essays
regarding the use of curriculum design approaches; and
4. write reports and reflection papers indicating ones’ viewpoints TIME ALLOTMENT
about curriculum mapping and analysis of curriculum maps.
10 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES

create a cluster diagram showing

curriculum design and development
Curriculum models, sub-types, and descriptions;
Design and devise a Venn diagram reflecting the
similarities and differences among the
Development curriculum models; and
Models
write a short essay reflecting one’s
arguments on the selection and use of a
particular curriculum model.

CONTENTS
Subject-Centered 1. Which of the following major forces in designing a school cur-
Design Model
riculum that focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum
Learner- contents?
Centered a. horizontal organization c. vertical organization
Design Model
b. horizontal articulation d. vertical articulation
Problem- 2. Which of the following refers to the specific knowledge that is
Centered Design
learned through a method which the scholars use to study a
Model
specific content of their fields?
Things to a. discipline c. specialization
Consider in b. course d. subject area
Designing
Curriculum 3. The following are characteristics of the subject-centered de-
sign model EXCEPT _________.
a. the oldest and most familiar c. content-focused
TIME ALLOTMENT b. easy to deliver d. needs-based
3 hours 4. Which of the following design models uses the past and pre-
sent experiences of the learners as a means to analyze the
basic areas of living?
a. life-situations design c. humanistic design
b. core design d. correlation design
5. Which is NOT true of the experience-centered design model?
a. Different learning centers are found.
b. Time is rigid.
ASSESSING YOUR c. Children are free to make choices.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE d. Activities revolve around different emphases.
61
Crafting a curriculum is like writing a lesson plan. It is like
making something with the different components, and then putting
them together in a very creative way. It is a task that all teachers
should know and understand, or better still, to know how to craft
GETTING STARTED one. This lesson will present the different design models of curricu-
lum. This will guide you to discover that curricula are organized in
many ways. Let us study some of them.
Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the four elements of a curriculum.

These four curriculum elements include aims, goals, and objectives; subject matter or content;
learning activities; and evaluation.
A. Subject-Centered Design Model
This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the

curriculum. The subject-centered design corresponds mostly to the
textbook because textbooks are usually written based on the specific
subject or course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are the few cur-
ricularists who firmly believe in this design. As practiced, school hours
are allocated to different school subjects such as science, mathematics, FOCUSING
language, social studies, physical education, and others. This is also
CONTENT
practiced in the Philippines because a school day is divided into class
period, a school year into quarters or semesters. Most of the schools
using this kind of structure and curriculum design aim for excellence in the specific subject disci-
pline content.
Subject-centered curriculum design has also some variations which are focused on the in-
dividual subject, specific discipline, and a combination of subjects or disciplines which are a broad
field or interdisciplinary.
A.1 Subject Design. W hat su bjects ar e you teaching? W hat subject are you tak-
ing? These are two simple questions that the teacher and the learner can easily answer. It is be-
cause they are familiar with the subject design curriculum.
Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers,
parents, and other laymen. According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage because it
is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written and support instructional materials are commercially
available. Teachers are familiar with the format because they were educated using also the design.
In the Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary education is fewer
than in the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects also differs according to the degree
programs being pursued. For each subject, a curriculum is being designed.
However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized.
It stresses so much on the content and forgets about students’ natural tendencies, interests, and
experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge and the learners are simply the
empty vessels to receive the information from the teacher. This is a traditional approach to teach-
ing and learning.
62
A. Subject-Centered Design Model
A.2 Discipline Design. This curr icu lum design model is related
to the subject design. However, while subject design centers on the clus-
ter of content, discipline design focuses on academic disciplines. Disci-
pline refers to a specific knowledge learned through a method which the
scholars use to study a specific content of their fields. Students in history
should learn the subject matter like historians, students in biology
FOCUSING
should learn how biologists learn, and so with students in mathematics
CONTENT should learn how mathematicians learn. Likewise, teachers should teach
how scholars in the discipline will convey particular knowledge.
A.3 Correlation Design. Co m in g from a cor e, corr elated cur ricu lu m design
links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another
and still maintain their identity. For example, English literature and social studies correlate well in
the elementary level. In the two subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces
during the historical period are also being studied. The same is true when science becomes the
core, mathematics is related to it as they are taken in chemistry, physics, and biology. Another ex-
ample is literature as the core with art, music, history, and geography related to it. To use correlat-
ed design, teachers should come together and plan their lessons cooperatively.
A.4 Broad Field Design/Interdisciplinary. B r oad field design or in ter discipli-
nary is a variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the compartmen-
talization of the separate subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another. Thus,
subjects such as geography, economics, political science, anthropology, sociology, and history are
fused into one subject called social studies. Language arts will include grammar, literature, lin-
guistics, spelling, and composition.
Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.
Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design where a specific theme is identified and the
other subject areas revolve around the theme.
The macro level of curriculum designing, also referred to as function of curriculum design,
deals with arranging or organizing the total curriculum from the philosophy down to the contents
of different subjects (Posner, 1997).
B. Learner-Centered Design Model
Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of the educative
process. This emphasis is very strong in the elementary level, however, more concern has been
placed on the secondary and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school the subject or content
has become the focus and in the college level the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize
the importance of the learner in the curriculum.
Here are some examples of curriculum designs which are considered learner-centered.
B.1 Child-Centered Design. This design is o ften attr ibu ted to the in flu ence o f
Dewey, Rosseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and in-
63
B. Learner-Centered Design Model
the child. The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who engages with his/her en-
vironment. One learns by doing. Learners actively create, construct meanings and understanding
as viewed by the constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners interact with the teachers
and the environment, thus, there is a collaborative effort on both sides to plan lessons, select con-
tent, and do activities together. Learning is a product of the child’s interaction with the environ-
ment.
B.2 Experience-Centered Design. This design is sim ilar to the child -centered
design. Although the focus remains to be the child, experience-centered design believes that the
interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become
the starting point of the curriculum, thus, the school environment is left open and free. Learners
are made to choose from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered
to shape their own learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher. In a school
where experience-centered curriculum is provided, different learning centers are found, time is
flexible, and children are free to make options. Activities revolve around different emphases such
as touching, feeling, imagining, constructing, relating, and others. The emergence of multiple in-
telligence theory blends well with experience-centered design curricu-
lum.
B.3 Humanistic Design. The key lead per sonalities in
this curriculum design were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Maslow’s theory of self-actualization explains that a person who
achieves this level is accepting of self, others, and nature; is simple,
spontaneous, and natural; is open to different experiences; possesses
empathy and sympathy toward the less fortunate, among many others.
The person can achieve this state of self-actualization later in life but has
to start the process while in school. Carl Rogers, on the other hand, be- FOCUSING
lieved that a person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self CONTENT
The micro level of curriculum designing, also known as function of curriculum organiza-
tion, deals with organizing the content of a specific subject or discipline.
C. Problem-Centered Design Model
Generally, problem-centered design draws on social problems, needs, interests, and abili-
ties of the learners. Various problems are given emphases. There are those that center on life situa-
tions, contemporary life problems, areas of living, and many others. In this curriculum, content
cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns, and abilities of the stu-
dents. Two examples are given for the problem-centered design curriculum.
C.1 Life-situations Design. W hat m akes the design unique is that the contents
are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem areas clearly. It uses the past and
the present experiences of the learners as a means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting
64
C. Problem-Centered Design Model
point, the pressing immediate problems of the society and the students’ existing concerns are uti-
lized. Based on Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing, his emphases were activities that sustain
and enhance life, aid in rearing children, maintain the individual’s social and political relations
and enhance leisure, tasks, and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real situations in-
creases the relevance of the curriculum.
C.2 Core Design. An o ther exam ple o f pro blem -centered design is core design. It
centers on general education and the problems are based on common human activities. The cen-
tral focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, concerns of the learners. Popular-
ized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it presented ways on how to proceed following a core design of
a curriculum. These steps are as follows:
1. Make group consensus on important problems.
2. Develop criteria for selection of important problem.
3. State and define the problem.
4. Decide on areas of study, including class grouping.
5. List the needed information for resources.
6. Obtain and organize information.
7. Analyze and interpret the information.
8. State the tentative conclusions.
9. Present a report to the class individually or by group.
10. Evaluate the conclusions.
11. Explore other avenues for further problem-solving.
These are some examples of curriculum designs. There are many more which are emerging
and those that have evolved in the past. The example given may be limited, however, for our pur-
poses, they can very well represent curriculum designs.
A good curriculum design must be mentally and affectively engaging, allows meaningful collabora-
tion, develops in-depth understanding, connects with students’ lives and worlds, focuses on products, deals
with profound ideas, and must be real, purposeful, and useful to students (Tomlinson, et al., 1998).
Things to Consider in Designing Curriculum
There are two major forces considered in designing curriculum. These are horizontal and
vertical organizations (Tomlinson, et al., 1998).
1. Horizontal Organization. Often r efer r ed to as the
scope and horizontal organization that is concerned with
the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in
time (Print, 1993). For example, it asks about the relation-
ship among geography, history, economics, and civics in the
elementary social studies curriculum.
2. Vertical Organization. It focuses on the spiral progres-
sion of curriculum contents. For example, the skills, con-
cepts, and values that should be taught in Science from
Grade I-VI. It also focuses on the distribution of curriculum
FOCUSING
contents from Kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-12).
CONTENT
65
Activity 1.1 Designing a Cluster Map
Directions: Draw a cluster map and write the general topic in the
circle found at the middlemost part. Then identify the specific curricu-
TAKING lum models under each cluster and provide short descriptions about
them. Be guided by the sample map that follows.
ACTION
Subject-
Centered
Curriculum
Design and
Development
Models
Learner- Problem-
Centered Centered
Activity 1.2 Comparing and Contrasting Curriculum Models
Directions: Draw a 3-radial Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences among the
three curriculum design and development models. Write their similarities on the overlapping areas
while the differences on their own sectors avoiding the overlapping areas. Be guided by the sample
Venn diagram presented below.
Subject-
Centered
Differences
Similarities Similarities
Similarities
Differences Differences
Learner- Problem-
Centered Centered
66
Activity
Activity1.3
2.2 Writing an Argumentative Essay
Directions: Write a 3-paragraph essay containing your personal arguments on the selection and
use of a particular curriculum design and development model. Be guided by the rubric
given below.
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
argument.
ing.
RUBRIC
67
Part A. Simple Recall
ASSESSING
item. Scribble your answers on the spaces provided before LEARNED
each number.
Common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners are the central focus of
____________ 1. this design.
____________ 2. The oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents, and laymen.
____________ 3. A design that stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling,
and doing.
____________ 4. A design that is anchored on the needs and interests of the child.
____________ 5. A design where contents are organized in ways that allow students to view problem
areas clearly.
____________ 6. A design that links separate subject designs to reduce fragmentation.
____________ 7. A design that believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned.
____________ 8. A design that is often used in college, but not in the elementary or secondary levels.
Refers to the specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to
____________ 9. study a particular content of their fields.
A theory which explains that a person who achieves the self-actualization level is ac-
____________10. cepting of self, others, and nature; is simple, spontaneous, and natural.
Part B. Modified True or False
Directions: Write JHCSC if the statement is true. If the statement is false, underline the word that
makes the sentence false and write the correct word on the blank. Scribble your answers on the
spaces provided before the number.
While subject design centers only on the cluster of content, discipline design focus-
___________ 1. es on extra-curricular disciplines.
___________ 2. Broad field design was made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects.
The development of others is the ultimate objective of learning in a humanistic cur-
___________ 3. riculum design.
___________ 4. Learning is a product of the child’s interaction with the environment.
Subject design stresses so much on the content that it forgets about students’ artificial
___________ 5. tendencies, interests, and experiences.
Core design centers on professional education and problems are based on common hu-
___________ 6. man activities.
The emergence of multiple intelligences theory blends well with the experience-
___________ 7. centered design curriculum.
___________ 8. Life-situations design uses the past and present experiences of the learners as a means
to analyze the basic areas of living.
___________ 9. Also called holistic curriculum, core design draws around themes and integration.
___________10. According to advocates, subject design has an advantage because it is easy to deliver.
68
LEARNING OUTCOMES

design a concept map indicating the

dimensions of curriculum design;
Dimensions
create a multimedia presentation
and Principles showing the dimensions and principles
of Curriculum of curriculum design and their
examples; and
Design
write an essay explaining how these
dimensions and principles are used in
curriculum development.

CONTENTS
1. What takes place when contents are arranged from level to lev-
Dimensions of
Curriculum el or grade to grade so that the content in a lower level is con-
Design nected to the next level?
a. horizontal organization c. vertical organization
Guidelines in
Curriculum b. horizontal articulation d. vertical articulation
Design 2. The scope of the curriculum begins with the simple concepts
to a general content. This follows what specific arrangement?
a. inductive c. cumulative
b. deductive d. topical
3. Which of the following subtypes of concept-related sequence
reflects the arrangement of the conceptual world or how ideas
are related together in a logical manner?
a. class relations c. only a
TIME ALLOTMENT
b. propositional relations d. both a and b
2 hours 4. What curriculum is followed when the content is organized
according to the interrelationship between the structures of
the basic ideas of a major discipline?
a. phantom curriculum c. spiral curriculum
b. concomitant curriculum d. null curriculum
5. Which of the following curriculum dimensions is considered
when the organization is drawn from the world themes from
real life concerns?
ASSESSING YOUR a. balance c. articulation
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE b. integration d. continuity
69
As previously learned, crafting a curriculum follows some
designs. Curriculum designs provide clear relationships between
and among the different elements of the curriculum: objectives, con-
tents, activities, and evaluation. Considering all of these elements, as
a curriculum designer, one has to look into the parameters or di-
mensions upon which a design can be crafted.
GETTING STARTED This lesson will allow you to consider some of these dimen-
sions and provide some principles in its use in curriculum develop-
ment.
Scope is defined as all the contents, topics, learning experiences, and organizing threads
that comprise the educational plan (Tyler, as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).
Dimensions of Curriculum Design
Let us focus on the four elements of a curriculum as bases in

identifying what to be considered in designing a curriculum. Many cur-
ricularists suggest to view a design from the following dimensions:
scope, sequence, continuity, integration, and balance.
1. Scope. Tyler (as cited in Orn stein & Hu n kin s, 2004)
defines scope as all the contents, topics, learning experiences, and or- FOCUSING
ganizing threads comprising the educational plan. It does not only refer CONTENT
to the cognitive content but also to the affective and psychomotor con-
tents. It is the depth as well as the breadth of these contents. The terms
broad, limited, simple, and general are few words that can describe scope. With the limitless
knowledge that abounds, scope provides boundaries in curriculum as it applies to the different ed-
ucational levels. It is here where the decision making skill of the teacher is needed. Curriculum is
time-bound, hence, the appropriate scope should be provided such that the curricular coverage
should not be too much nor too minimal. Other considerations in the determination of the scope
should include time, diversity and maturity of the learners, complexity of content, and level of edu-
cation. Simply said, scope refers to the coverage of the curriculum.
The scope of the curriculum can be divided into chunks called units, sub-units, chapters or
sub-chapters as the case may be. Each chunk is guided by the general curriculum objectives or
goals. The division of the content may use the deductive principle from the whole to the parts
which will have a cascading arrangement or the inductive principle from the examples to the gen-
eralization. Inductive arrangement of a scope begins with simple concepts to general content. Top-
ical arrangement or content outline of the curriculum may follow some designs as thematic, linear
or logical.
2. Sequence. To pro vide con tinu ou s an d cum u lative learning, a ver tical rela-
tionship among the elements of the curriculum provides sequence. Contents and experiences are
arranged in hierarchical manner or on the developmental patterns of growth of the cognitive, af-
fective, and psychomotor domains. Some schools formulate their curricular objectives, contents,
and experiences by grade levels and consider the stages of thinking.
70
Smith, Stanley, and Shore (1957) introduced four principles for

sequence. These are the following:
a. Simple to Complex Learning. Con ten t an d experienc-
es are organized from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, and
from easy to difficult. This principle is in consonance with developmen-
FOCUSING tal theories of learning and cognition.
CONTENT b. Prerequisite Learning. It m ean s that ther e r e fun da-
mental things to be learned ahead like addition before multiplication in
mathematics, or letters before words, words before phrases, and phrases before sentences.
c. Whole to Part Learning. This pr in ciple has a r elation to Gestalt. The for est
before the trees. The overview before the specific content or topics. The meaning can very well be
understood if everything will be taken as a whole.
d. Chronological Learning. The o r der o f even ts is m ade a s a ba sis of sequenc-
ing the content and experiences. This principle is closely allied to history, political science or world
events. Time is the factor to be considered. The sequence can be arranged from the most recent to
the distant past or vice versa.
On the other hand, Posner and Rudnitsky (1994) presented five major principles for organ-
izing contents inn units which can also be applied to a curriculum. In each major type are subtypes
which explain in detail the principles. These major principles are:
2.1 World-related Sequence. W hat relation ship exists am o ng peo ple, o bjects
or events of the world? How can contents and experiences be arranged so that they will be con-
sistent with the world?
a. Space. Spatial relations will be the basis for the sequence. Closest to farthest, bottom to
top or east to west. For example, teach the parts of the plants from the roots to the stem, to the
leaves, flowers, and fruits. Teach about the places from the equator to the poles or from the plains
to the mountains.
b. Time. This is similar to the chronological principle of Smith, et al. The content is based
from the earliest to the most recent. For instance, teach the Philippine presidents from the first to
the current. Teach discoveries from the earliest to the most recent.
c. Physical Attributes. This principle refers to the physical characteristics of the phenome-
na such as age, shape, size, brightness, and others. For example, topics for the three regions, Lu-
zon, Visayas, and Mindanao should be ahead of Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol for the Visayas. Like-
wise, topics when dealing with the planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars before Jupiter, Sat-
urn, Uranus, and Pluto should be taken up. This sequence considers the attribute distance from
the sun.
Sequence deals with the arrangement of contents and experiences in a hierarchical man-
ner or on the developmental patterns of growth of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor do-
mains.
71
2.2 Concept-related Sequence. This arran gem en t r eflects the organization of

the conceptual world, how ideas are related together in a logical manner.
a. Class Relations. Class concept refers to the group or set of things that share common
practices. Teaching the characteristics of the class ahead of the characteristics of the members of
the class. For example, teach mammals before teaching specific animals or compare sound and
light before discussing wave motion.
A proposition is a statement that asserts something. Sequence is arranged so that evidence
is presented ahead before the proposition. Example will the topics on the principle of equal protec-
tion under the law before studying Supreme Court decisions.
2.3 Inquiry-related Sequence. This is based o n the scien tific m etho d of in -
quiry. Based on the process of generating, discovering, and verifying knowledge, content and expe-
riences are sequenced logically and methodically.
2.4 Learning-related Sequence. This is based on the psycho logy o f lear ning
and how people learn.
a. Empirical Pre-requisites. Sequence is primarily based on empirical studies where the
pre-requisite is required before learning the next level. An example is teach the skill in discriminat-
ing initial consonants before teaching word attack.
b. Familiarity. Prior learning is important in sequence. What is familiar should be taken
up first before the unfamiliar. In teaching currencies, teach the peso before the dollar. Another ex-
ample is identifying the animals in the community then those in Manila zoo.
c. Difficulty. Easy content is taken ahead then the difficult one. An example is to teach
rhymes before the blank words.
d. Interest. Contents and experiences that stimulate interest are those that are novel.
These can arouse curiosity and interests of the learners. Use these contents and experiences to
whet their appetite for learning. An example is to identify the different volcanoes in the Philippines
before teaching about volcanism.
3. Continuity. Ver tica l r epetition a nd r ecur r ing appear -
ances of the content provide continuity in the curriculum. This process
enables the learner to strengthen the permanency of learning and devel-
opment of skills. Jerome Bruner calls this “spiral curriculum” where the
content is organized according to the interrelationship between the
structures of the basic ideas of a major discipline. For learners to devel-
op the ideas, these have to be developed and redeveloped in a spiral
fashion—in increasing depth and breadth as the learners advance. Ex-
ample is the concept of living things in science which continuously re- FOCUSING
curs in the elementary curriculum but with different complexity from CONTENT
Spiral curriculum refers to the curricular contents that are organized according to the
interrelationship between the structures of the basic ideas of a major discipline.
72
4. Integration. “Everything is integrated and interconnected. Life is a series of emerging

themes.” This is the essence of integration in the curriculum design. Organization is drawn from
the world themes from real life concerns. Subject matter content or discipline content lines are
erased and isolation is eliminated.
5. Articulation. This can be do n e either ver tically o r horizo ntally. In ver tical
articulation, contents are arranged from level to level or grade to grade so that the content in a
lower level is connected to the next level. Horizontal articulation happens when the association
between or among elements happen at the same time like social studies in grade six is related to
science in grade six.
6. Balance. Equ itable arrangem en t o f con ten t, tim e, exper ien ces, an d other
elements to establish balance is needed in curriculum design. Too much or too little of these ele-
ments may be disastrous to the curriculum. Keeping the curriculum “in balance” requires continu-
ous fine tuning and review for its effectiveness and relevance.
“Everything is integrated and interconnected, and life is a series of emerging themes” is

the essence of integration in the curriculum design.
Guidelines in Curriculum Design
After looking into the various designs in curriculum, perhaps it would help future curricu-
lum makers like you to take into consideration some pointers. Here are some pointers:
1. Curriculum design committee should involve teachers, parents, administrators, and
even students.
2. School’s vision, mission, goals, and objectives should be reviewed and used as bases for
curriculum design.
3. The needs and interests of the learners, in particular, and the society, in general,
should be considered.
4. Alternative curriculum design should consider advantages and disadvantages in terms
of costs, scheduling, class size, facilities, and personnel required.
5. Curriculum design should take into account cognitive, affective, psy-
chomotor skills, concepts, and outcomes.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
73
Activity 2.1 Mapping Curriculum Dimensions
Directions: Draw a concept map indicating the various dimensions of

curriculum design. Then provide 5 descriptions for each dimension. Be
guided by the sample map provided below.
TAKING
 Descriptions
 Descriptions
 Descriptions
Dimensions of
Curriculum
Design
 Descriptions
 Descriptions
 Descriptions
Activity 2.2 Creating a Multimedia Presentation
Directions: Create a multimedia presentation showing the dimensions and principles of curricu-
lum design with their corresponding examples. Consider the use of appropriate design elements
such as sound, animation, transition, and others. Be guided by the rubric given below.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
Content and Organiza- Concept is very relevant to Concept is relevant to Concept is relevant to Concept is somewhat relevant
tion (50%) purpose. Video shows purpose. Video is fairly well purpose. Video is fairly well to purpose. Portions may be
spontaneity of ideas and -documented and orga- -documented and orga- poorly documented and/or
tells a complete, easily nized. Format is easy to nized. Format is easy to organized. Progressions are
followed presentation. Well follow. Good explanation follow. Good explanation hard to follow. Explanation
-documented and orga- shows good effort. shows good effort. shows some effort.
nized.
Creativity and Elements Excellent use of video Good use of graphics and/ Minimal use of design Use of elements detracts the
of Design(30%) design. Video and pictures or other design elements. elements. No transitions. video. Too many or too gaudy
are of good quality. Smooth Some transitions are inap- Some pictures or video graphics; transitions, too
transitions are appropriate propriately placed. Video clips may be out of focus or many clips. Pictures or video
and aid in delivery of the clips or pictures are clear “shaky”. clips may be out of focus or
content. and in focus. “shaky”.
Audio Editing (20%) The audio is clear and The audio is clear and The audio is inconsistent in The audio is cut-off, incon-
effectively assists in com- assists in communicating clarity (too loud/too soft/ sistent, and overpowering.
municating the main idea. the main idea, too distorted) at time and/
Background audio is kept or the background audio
in balance. overpowers the primary
audio.
Mechanics (10%) Grammar, spelling, punctu- Includes 2-3 grammatical, Includes 3-4 grammatical, Includes 5 or more grammati-
ation, and capitalization spelling, and punctuation spelling, and punctuation cal, spelling, and punctuation
are correct; sources are all errors; sources are properly errors; some sources are errors; sources are not docu-
RUBRIC properly documented. documented. documented but not cor- mented.
rectly.
74
Activity 2.3 Writing an Expository Essay
Directions: Write a 3-paragraph essay explaining how the various di-

mensions and principles are used in designing a school curriculum. Be
TAKING guided by the rubric given below.
ACTION
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
argument.
RUBRIC
75
Part A. Modified True or False
ASSESSING
Directions: Write STE if the statement is true. If the state- THINGS
ment is false, underline the word which makes the sentence LEARNED
incorrect. Then write the correct word on the given blank.
Scope does not only refer to the cognitive content, but also to the affective and psy-
___________ 1. chomotor content.
Keeping the curriculum “in balance” requires continuous rough tuning and review
___________ 2. for its effectiveness and relevance.
___________ 3. Class concept refers to the group or set of things that share common practices.
___________ 4. Inductive arrangement of a scope begins with simple concepts to general content.
___________ 5. Vertical repetition and recurring appearances of the content provide sequence in
the curriculum.
___________ 6. Topical arrangement or context outline of the curriculum may follow some designs
as thematic, linear or logical.
___________ 7. A preposition is a statement that asserts something.
___________ 8. Contents and experiences that stimulate interest are those that are novel.
___________ 9. Life is a series of emerging themes.
___________10. Learning-related sequence is based on the scientific method of inquiry.
Directions: Match the following descriptions found in Column A with their corresponding curric-
ulum dimensions listed in Column B. Write your answers on the blanks provided before each num-
ber.
Column A Column B
_____ 1. Arranging contents vertically a. Scope

_____ 2. Recurring appearances of the content b. Sequence
_____ 3. Deepening the curriculum c. Continuity
_____ 4. Arranging contents in hierarchical manner d. Integration
_____ 5. Associating elements at the same time e. Articulation
_____ 6. Redeveloping contents in a spiral fashion f. Balance
_____ 7. Drawing themes from real experiences
_____ 8. Arranging contents in logical manner
_____ 9. Assigning equally the contents
_____10. Broadening the contents of the curriculum
76
LEARNING OUTCOMES

design a Venn diagram indicating the

similarities and differences of the
Approaches to approaches to curriculum designing;
Curriculum create an analogy graphic organizer
showing the commonalities between
Design curriculum design approaches and
curriculum design models; and
write an essay reflecting one’s argu-
ments regarding the choice and use of a
particular curriculum design approach.

CONTENTS
1. Which is the primary focus of the subject-centered approach to
Child or Learner
-Centered curriculum designing?
Approach a. subject matter c. problem
b. learner d. environment
Subject-
Centered 2. The following are the principles considered in the learner-
Approach centered approach to curriculum designing EXCEPT _____.
a. Acknowledgment and respect of child’s fundamental rights
Problem-
Centered b. The use of differentiated instruction or teaching
Approach c. Learning as accumulation of content or knowledge
d. Consideration of every learner’s uniqueness
3. Which of the following curriculum approaches considers the
learners as solution-givers?
TIME ALLOTMENT a. child-centered c. subject-centered
b. problem-centered d. content-centered
2 hours
4. As a college, JHCSC believes that a motivating and supportive
learning environment allows learners to learn effectively and
succeed in later life. What curriculum approach does the col-
lege adhere to?
a. subject-centered c. content-centered
b. problem-centered d. child-centered
5. Which of the following learning skills enables learners to be-
come increasingly able to achieve complete or total develop-
ASSESSING YOUR ment of individuals?
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE a. rote memorization c. drill
b. problem solving d. indoctrination
77
This lesson will bring to you the various phases of designing
a curriculum. As you analyze the different phases of curriculum de-
sign, you will identify the commonly used approaches in the design
of curriculum. To enhance your learning, you will integrate in here
GETTING STARTED your own experiences and observations based on the characteristics
of the different approaches.
The learner as the center of the educational process is the underlying philosophy of the
child or learner-centered curriculum approach.
A. Child or Learner-Centered Approach
This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying

philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational
process. It means that the curriculum is constructed based on the needs,
interests, purposes, and abilities of the learners. The curriculum is also
built upon the learners’ knowledge, skills, previous learnings, and po-
tentials. FOCUSING
From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be ap- CONTENT
proached? Let us consider these principles:
1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching.
5. Provide a motivating and supportive learning environment for all learners.
The child-centered approach is illustrated in the example given below:
School X is anchored on the theory of multiple intelligences in all its curricular

and co-curricular activities. Every classroom is made up of activity centers where the chil-
dren are given time and opportunity to hone their skills and capacities. The activities for
every learner are differentiated according to students’ abilities, interests, and needs. Each
child is considered important and each capacity is respected. Learners are not compared
with one another. Learners’ own performances are compared against targets which they
themselves set. The school does not believe in failure, but in success. The teacher’s role is
only to guide the learner to what he or she would like to accomplish. The learner sets the
goal that can be done within the framework of time although the minimum requirements
of the Department of Education is still honored. At the end of the year, each child’s perfor-
mance is compared to his or her own set of goals. All throughout the year, the learner is the
center of education.
78
B. Subject-Centered Approach
This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes sepa-

rate and distinct subjects for every educational level: basic education,
higher education or vocational-technical education. This approach con-
siders the following principles:
1. The primary focus is the subject matter;
2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may FOCUSING
be detached from life; CONTENT
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems
of living;
4. Learning means accumulation of content or knowledge; and
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.
Example of a subject-centered approach is given below.
In another setting, School Y aims to produce the best graduates in town. Each learner
must excel in all academic fields in order to be on the top rank in every competition. Everyone
must master the subject matter content. The higher the level of cognitive intelligence, the better for
the learner. Each child must be excellent in all fields of discipline. This is the school that develops
more the attitude of competition among themselves. Each student must not be second to anyone.
When preparing for a test, this school conducts cram reviews and practice a lot. The school gives
emphasis to intellectual development and sets aside emotional and psychomotor development.
Success means mastery of the subject content.
Subject-centered curriculum approach prescribes different and separate subjects in the

basic, higher, and vocational-technical education levels.
C. Problem-Centered Approach
This approach is based on a curriculum design which assumes that in the process of living,
children experience problems. Thus, problem-solving enables the learners to become increasingly
able to achieve complete or total development as individuals.
This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs:
1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving problems,
thus they become independent learners;
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct partici-
pation in different activities; and
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems and in
seeking solutions. The learners are considered problem solvers.
79
Problem-Centered Approach
Example of a problem-centered approach is presented below.
School Z believes that a learner should be trained to solve real

life problems that come about because of the needs, interests, and abilities
of the learners. Problems persistent with life and society that affect daily
FOCUSING
living are also considered. Most of the school activities revolve around solu-
CONTENT tions to problems like poverty, drug problems, deterioration of positive val-
ues, environmental degradation, and many more. Since the school is using
the problem-centered approach, case study as a method of teaching is popularly utilized. Prac-
tical work as a solution to the problem is also used, thus the development of business skills,
social skills, and construction skills to solve specific problems are given emphasis. More and
more schools or training centers are utilizing the problem-centered approach.
While the three curricular design approaches are distinct from each other, most practition-
ers like teachers, principals, and school managers utilize the three in their design. Each design ap-
proach gives the school a special character, however, most implementers meld the designs in their
school. In such a case, it would be difficult to identify distinctly each one specific design.
Problem-centered approach assumes that children encounter various problems during the
process of living.
80
Activity 3.1 Comparing and Contrasting Curriculum
Design Approaches
Directions: Draw a 3-radial Venn diagram showing the similarities

and differences among the three approaches of curriculum design.
TAKING Write their similarities on the overlapping areas while the differences
on their own sectors avoiding the overlapping areas. Be guided by the
ACTION sample diagram provided below.
Child-
Differences Centered
Similarities Similarities
Subject- Problem-
Differences Similarities
Centered Differences Centered
Activity 3.2 Spotting Commonalities
Directions: Draw an analogy graphic organizer showing the commonness/similarities between

each of the curriculum design approaches (new concept) and curriculum design models (familiar
concept). Be guided by the sample presented below.
New Concept Familiar Concept
Similarities Differences
Summary of New Concept:
81
Activity 3.3 Writing an Argumentative Essay
Directions: Write a 3-paragraph essay reflecting your arguments re-

garding your personal choice and use of a particular approach to cur-
TAKING riculum designing. Be guided by the rubric presented below.
ACTION
_____________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
Criteria 4 3 2 1
argument.
RUBRIC
82
ASSESSING
Directions: Identify the curriculum approach that is being THINGS
employed in each of the following situations. Scribble your LEARNED
answers on the blanks.
__________1. Teacher Ben excuses some pupils from his class because a flood hit their area.
__________ 2. Teacher Mary stresses that all pupils must get perfect in the examinations.
__________ 3. Teacher Paul chooses activities that are based on the developmental growth of the
learners.
__________ 4. Teacher Alex firmly believes that only the best pupils can succeed.
__________ 5. Teacher Peter allows his pupils to perform the learning activities they like most dur-
ing their vacant period.
__________ 6. Teacher Alice presents lessons which end up with the concept application to solve
problems.
__________ 7. Teacher Sandra measures pupils’ learning in terms of their abilities to solve dilem-
mas.
__________ 8. Teacher Sharon strongly stresses that no learner is left behind in reading, writing
and arithmetic.
__________ 9. Teacher Nora firmly believes that schooling means “survival of the fittest.”
__________10. Teacher Kris extends her science class because most of her pupils have not yet un-
derstood the lesson.
Part B. Essay
Directions: Among the three given statements, choose one statement and reflect on it. What do
you think and feel about it?
Statement No. 1 — “Schools that approach the curriculum as subject-centered, make robots out of
the students.”
Statement No. 2 — “In schools where child-centeredness is the approach, discipline is weak.”
Statement No. 3 — “Students are too young to solve life’s problem, why should they do problem-
solving in school?
83
LEARNING OUTCOMES

formulate a personal definition of

curriculum mapping and map;
Curriculum
prepare a report reflecting an in-depth
Mapping analysis of sample curriculum maps;
and
write a reflection paper indicating one’s

viewpoints about the importance of
curriculum mapping and tool in one’s
profession.

CONTENTS
1. What principle is considered when all teachers teaching the
Curriculum same subject in a grade level follow the same timeline in ac-
Mapping
complishing the same learning outcomes?
Curriculum a. horizontal association c. vertical alignment
Mapping Process b. vertical association d. horizontal alignment
The Curriculum 2. These are visual timelines that outline learning outcomes to be
Map achieved, contents, skills, and values taught, instructional
time, assessment to be used, and the overall student move-
ment towards the attainment of intended outcomes.
a. syllabi c. lesson plans
b. curriculum maps d. lesson logs
TIME ALLOTMENT 3. What refers to the process of diagramming a curriculum in
order to identify and address academic gaps, redundancies,
3 hours and misalignments for purposes of improving the overall co-
herence of a course of study and its effectiveness?
a. curriculum mapping c. curriculum patterning
b. curriculum refining d. curriculum structuring
4. What process is followed when concept development follows a
hierarchical or a spiral form to avoid overlapping in building
simple to more complicated concepts and skills?
a. horizontal association c. vertical alignment
b. vertical association d. horizontal alignment
ASSESSING YOUR 5. The following are some of the purposes of using a curriculum
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE map EXCEPT__________.
a. It ensures misalignment. c. It reduces inconsistencies.
b. It minimizes redundancies. d. It guarantees quality.
84
A curriculum design is reflected in a written curriculum ei-
ther as a lesson plan, syllabus, unit plan or a bigger curriculum like
the K to 12. Before a teacher shall put this plan or design into action,
he or she must need to make a curriculum map.
Have you ever wondered how to pace your lesson so that it
will cover a period of time like hours, weeks, quarters, semesters or
the whole year.
GETTING STARTED
This lesson will teach us, curricularists, as an important pro-
cess and tool in curriculum development which is curriculum map-
ping and curriculum map.
Curriculum mapping is the process of indexing or diagramming a curriculum to identify

and address academic gaps, redundancies, and misalignments for purposes of improving the over-
all coherence of a course of study and, by extension, its effectiveness (Udelhofen, 2005).
Curriculum Mapping
Curriculum mapping is a process or procedure that follows cur-

riculum designing. It is done before curriculum implementation or the
operationalization of the written curriculum. This process was intro-
duced by Heidi Hayes in 2004 in her book Getting Results with Curricu-
lum Mapping (ASCD, 2004). This approach is an on-going process or
“work-in-progress”. It is not a one time initiative but a continuing action FOCUSING
which involves the teacher and other stakeholders who have common
CONTENT
concerns. Curriculum mapping can be done by teachers alone, the
whole school or district, or the whole educational system.
Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making a map to success. There
are common questions that are asked by different stakeholders like teachers, colleagues, parents,
school officials, and the community as well. These questions may include:
1. What do my students learn?
2. What do they study in the first quarter?
3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject cover the same content? Achieve the
same outcomes? Use similar strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connections between my subjects and other
subjects within the year? Next year?
Curriculum mapping may be able to answer the questions above. Furthermore, mapping
will produce a curriculum map which is a very functional tool in the curriculum development pro-
cess.
85
Curriculum Mapping Process
There are many ways of doing things according to what outcome

one needs to produce. This is also true with curriculum mapping. How-
ever, whatever outcome (map) will be made, there are suggested steps
to follow.
Example A.
FOCUSING
1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.
CONTENT 2. Place a timeline that you need to cover (one quarter, one semester or
one year). This should be dependent on the time frame of a particular
curriculum that was written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes and skills needed to be taught or achieved at the end of
teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas/subject areas to be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks, workbooks, and modules next to
subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the learning outcomes, content areas,
and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine the map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.
You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-inspired syllabus for the higher educa-
tion. However, this can be modified for basic education to serve the specific purpose as you will see
in some maps.
Example B. (Fo r a degree pro gram in co llege)

1. Make a matrix or spreadsheet.
2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (Ex. BEEd or BSEd).
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (GenEd, ProEd, and Major for BSEd).
4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or chronological man-
ner.
5. List the degree or program outcomes along the horizonal cell (use code as PO1, PO2… if
outcomes are too long to fit in the cell). PO means Program Outcomes.
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome and determine if such subject accomplishes the out-
comes as either Learned (L), Performed (P), or given Opportunity (O). Place the code in
a corresponding cell.
7. Fill in all cells.
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as guide for all teachers teaching the course for stu-
dents to complete the degree in four years.
Curriculum mapping is a method to align instruction with a degree’s learning outcomes. It

can also be used to explore the breadth and depth of content in a curriculum (Lindsay, 2020).
86
The Curriculum Map
Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired

learning outcomes to be achieved, contents, skills, and values taught,
instructional time, assessment to be used, and the overall student
movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes. Curricu-
lum maps may be simple or elaborate that can be used by individual
teachers, a department, the whole school or educational system. A map
FOCUSING
is geared to a school calendar.
CONTENT
Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in
schools to maintain excellence, efficiency, and effectiveness. It is in-
tended to improve instruction and maintain quality of education that all stakeholders need to be
assured.
Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask questions like: “Why is my friend’s son study-
ing decimals in Mr. Bernardo’s class and my own son is not studying the same in Miss Julia’s
class when they are of the same grade level?” or “Why do some of my students recognize the parts
of speech while others are totally lost?”
Parents, teachers, and the whole educational community can look at the curriculum map
to see that the intended outcomes and the contents are covered. A map can reassure stakeholders
specific information for the alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically. It will also avoid
redundancy, inconsistencies, and misalignment. Courses that are not correctly aligned will allow
teachers to quickly assess the mastery of the skills in the previous grade to avoid unnecessary re-
teaching.
Horizontal alignment, sometimes called as “pacing guide”, will make all teachers teaching
the same subject in a grade level follow the same timeline and accomplishing the same learning
outcomes. This is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based assessment that we have in
schools. Vertical alignment will see to it that concept development which may be in hierarchy or in
spiral for does not overlap but building from a simple to more complicated concepts and skills.
Alignment, either vertical or horizontal, will also develop interdisciplinary connections among
teachers and students, between and among courses. Teachers can verify skills and content are ad-
dressed in other courses or to higher levels, thus making learning more relevant.
A curriculum map is always a work in progress that enables the teacher or the curriculum
review team to create and recreate a curriculum. It provides a good information for the modifica-
tion of the curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in order to find ways to build con-
nections in the elements of the curriculum.
Curriculum maps are an avenue through which teachers can communicate with one an-
other regarding content taught and skills assessed in every class (ASCD, 2006).
87
Example of a Curriculum Map
Here are two examples of a curriculum map. Sample A is for

basic education while Sample B is for higher education.
Example A: Excerpt from DepEd Curriculum Guide for Science
3 shows a sample of a map for Quarter 1 and 2. A column for code is not
included.
FOCUSING
CONTENT ELEMENTARY SCIENCE GRADE 3
Note: For Quarter 2, there are still two major contents which are 3.
Living Things, 3.1 Plants, and 4. Heredity: Inheritance and Variation.
Content Performance Learning Learning

Content
Standards Standards Competency Materials
Grade 3-Matter
FIRST QUARTER/FIRST GRADING PERIOD
1. Properties The learners demon- The learners should be The learners should be Learning Guide in
1.1 Characteristics strate understanding able to… able to… Science and Health:
of solids, liquids, of… group common objects describe the different ob- Mixtures
and gases ways of sorting mate- found at home and in jects based on their charac- BEAM-Grade 3
rials and describing school according to teristics (e.g. shape, weight, Unit 4 Materials
them as solid, liquid solid, liquid, and gas. volume, ease, or flow). LG-Science 3
or gas based on ob- Materials Module 1
servable properties.
classify objects and materi-
als as solid, liquid, and gas
based on some characteris-
tics.
describe ways on the prop-
er use and handling of sol-
id, liquid, and gas found at
home and in school
Changes that mate- Effects of temperature investigate the different describe changes in materi- BEAM-G3 Unit 3 Ma-
rials undergo on materials changes in materials as als based on the effects of terials
affected by tempera- temperature: Distance Learning
ture. 4.1 solid to liquid Module
4.2 liquid to solid BEAM G3 Unit 3
4.3 liquid to gas Materials Module
4.4 solid to gas 44-49
Grade 3-Living Things and Their Environment
SECOND
1. Living Things The learners demon- The learners should be The learners should be
1.1 Humans strate understanding able to… able to…
1.2 Sense Organs of… practice healthful hab- 1. describe the parts and
parts and functions of its in taking care of the functions of the sense or-
the sense organs of sense organs gans of the human body;
the human body.
2. enumerate healthful
habits to protect the sense
organs
A curriculum map is graphical illustration of the relationship between a program’s course

learning outcomes and the program’s overall learning outcomes (Adsit, Ellis, & Ford, 2014).
88
Example of a Curriculum Map
2. Living Things parts and functions of enumerate ways of 3. describe the animals in BEAM-Grade 3
2.1 Animals animals and im- grouping animals based their immediate surround- Unit 2 Animals
portance to humans. on their structure and ing: Science 3 DLP 19
importance. DLP Science 3, 31-32
Learning Guide in
Science and Health:
The Body Guards
4. identify the parts and
functions of animals;
5. classify animals accord-
ing to body parts and use;
6. state the importance of
animals to humans; and
7. describe ways of proper
handling of animals.
FOCUSING
CONTENT
A curriculum map is a working document that illustrates exactly what is taking place in
classrooms (ASCD, 2006).
89
Activity 4.1 Mapping Out a Science Curriculum
Directions: Using Sample A for Science Curriculum Map, what

knowledge and understanding have you learned? Analyze the matrix
TAKING and answer the questions that follow:
ACTION 4.1.1 What are the main clusters of science content that students
should learn from G3 to G10?
4.1.2 How does science content progress from Grade 3 to Grade 10?
4.1.3 When you look at and analyze the map, what summary ideas can you give?
4.1.4 Science Curriculum is spiral. How do you explain that in terms of what you see in the map?
Sample A. Science Curriculum Map Showing the Sequence of Domain for the Year
per Quarter
Qtr. G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10
Force Living
Earth and
1 Matter Matter Matter Matter Matter Motion, & Things and
Space
Energy Their Envi-
Living Living Living Living Living

Force
Things and Things and Things and Things and Things and Earth and
2 Matter Motion, &
Their Envi- Their Envi- Their Envi- Their Envi- Their Envi- Space
Energy
ronment ronment ronment ronment ronment
Force Force Force Force Force Living

Earth and
3 Motion, & Motion, & Motion, & Motion, & Motion, & Matter Things and
Space
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Their Envi-
Living Force
Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and
4 Things and Motion, & Matter
Space Space Space Space Space
Their Envi- Energy
Activity 4.2 Mapping Out the BEEd Curriculum (PEC)
Directions: Using Sample B, analyze and answer the following questions briefly:
4.2.1 What is the meaning of Practised with a background for the subject Teaching Profession and
PO1 Applied basic and higher 21st century skills?
4.2.2 What is your interpretation of the colored cell with Learned that crosses between the subject
Social Dimensions and PO5, Facilitate learning of different types of learners in diverse
learning environment?
4.2.3 What does the colored Opportunity in the cell of the subject Curriculum Development that
crosses with the PO6, Direct experience in the field and classroom (observations, teaching
assistance, practice teaching)?
90
Sample B. Curriculum Map for Bachelor of Elementary Education (Professional Edu-
cation Courses)
Outcomes PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8

Sample Subjects
Child Development P L L O L O O O
Facilitating Human Learning P P L O L O L O
Social Dimensions P L L O L O L O
Teaching Profession P P P P P O P P
Principles of Teaching P P P P L O P O
Assessment of Learning P P P P L O P O
Educational Technology P P P P L O P O
Curriculum Development P P P P O O P P
Developmental Reading P P P P O O P O
Field Study P P O P O P P P
Practice Teaching P P P P P P P P
Legend:
L—Learned Outcomes (knowledge, skills, and values)/outcomes achieved in the subject
P—Practiced the learned outcomes (knowledge, skills, and values)
O—Opportunity to learn and practice (opportunities to learn and practice knowledge, skills, and
values but not taught formally)
Note:
1. Not all professional subjects are entered in the matrix.

2. Desired outcomes for the professional courses are:
PO1—Applied basic and higher 21st century skills

PO2—Acquired deep understanding of the learning process
PO3—Comprehended knowledge of the content they will teach
PO4— Applied teaching process skills (curriculum designing, materials development, edu-
cational assessment, teaching approaches)
PO5— Facilitated learning of different types of learners in diverse learning environments
PO6— Directed experiences in the field and classrooms (observation, teaching, assistance,
practice teaching)
PO7— Demonstrated professional and ethical standards of the profession
PO8— Demonstrated creative and innovative thinking and practice of alternative teaching
approaches
TAKING
ACTION
91
Part A. Agree or Disagree
ASSESSING
Directions: Make a wise decision. Show me that you under- THINGS
stood the lesson. Know the difference between YES and NO LEARNED
answer to each of the questions. Write your answers on the
blanks provided.
______ 1. Is a curriculum map a permanent document?
Does curriculum mapping help a teacher understand what to accomplish within the peri-
______ 2. od of time?
______ 3. Is curriculum mapping a task only of one teacher?
______ 4. Can a curriculum map help explain to parents what their children are learning in school?
______ 5. Can a curriculum map as a tool be used in instructional supervision?
______ 6. Does a curriculum map work in regress?
______ 7. Does a curriculum map provide good information for the modification of the curriculum?
______ 8. Is curriculum map a dysfunctional tool in curriculum development?
______ 9.
Can a curriculum map reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing and align-
______10. Is vertical alignment sometimes called “pacing guide?”
Part B. Essay
Directions: Reflect on the process of curriculum mapping as well as the sample curriculum map
in this lesson. Then answer the following question:
As a future teacher, how will the process of mapping and the map as a tool help you in your
profession?
92
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
REFERENCES (2004). Getting results with curriculum mapping.
Alexandria, Virginia.
Faunce, R. C., & N. L. Bossing. (1951). Developing the core curricu-

lum. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Lindsay, N. (2020). Curriculum mapping. Retrieved September 10, 2020 from https://
www.umt.edu/provost/faculty/assess/docs/CurriculumMappingEITA.pdf.
Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and theory. United
States of America: The Library of Congress.
Posner, G. J. (1997). Analyzing the curriculum (3rd Ed.). Cornell University, New York: Mc Graw-
Hill, Inc.
Posner, G. J., & Rudnitsky, A. N. (1994). Course design: A guide to curriculum development for
teachers (2nd Edition). NY, NY: Longman.
Print, M. (1993). Curriculum development and design. 2 nd Ed. New South Wales: Allen and Unwin.
Smith, O., Stanley, B. W., & Shores, J. H. (1950). Fundamentals of curriculum development. Yon-
kers, New York: World Book Company.
Tomlinson, C., Callahan, C., Tomchin, E., Eiss, N., Imbeau, M., & Landrum, M. (1997). Becoming
architects of communities of learning: Addressing academic diversity in contemporary
classrooms. Exceptional Children, 63, 269–282.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Udelhofen, S. (2005). Keys to curriculum mapping: Strategies and tools to make it work. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
93
Appendices
About the Authors
Benjamin B. Mangila received his bachelor’s degree in Elemen-

tary Education major in English in 2007 at the Western Mindanao State Univer-
sity, Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur. In 2009, he took his master’s degree in Ed-
ucational Administration at Josefina H. Cerilles State College, Dumingag, Zam-
boanga del Sur. He earned his doctoral units in Educational Management in
2012 at La Salle University, Ozamiz City, and master’s units in English Language
Education in 2014 at Saint Columban College, Pagadian City. Presently, he is
taking up Doctor of Philosophy in Language Studies at Mindanao State Universi-
ty-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City, Lanao del Norte. He is a regular
faculty member of the Josefina H. Cerilles State College, Dumingag, Zamboanga
del Sur. Assigned at the School of Teacher Education, he teaches several subjects
including English, Research, and Professional Education subjects (specifically
Facilitating Learning, Curriculum Development, Field Study, and Practice
Teaching) both in the BEEd and BSEd programs of the College.
Ruther D. Bianan is currently an Instructor I of Josefina H.

Cerilles State College, Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur. A faculty member in the
School of Teacher Education, he specializes in teaching Professional Education,
Research, and BEEd major subjects in the department undergraduate degree
programs. He earned both his baccalaureate (Bachelor of Elementary Educa-
tion) and master’s (M.A. in Education major in Educational Administration)
degrees at J.H. Cerilles State College, Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur.
Servillana M. Del Mundo is an Associate Professor IV of the

J.H. Cerilles State College, Mati, San Miguel, Zamboanga del Sur. She has been
in the field of education for a significant number of years. Her expertise in edu-
cational management paves the way for her to be designated as Academic Pro-
grams Director for 3 years in the institution monitoring the offsite classes. She
earned her Doctor of Education major in Educational Management at Southern
Mindanao College, Pagadian City.

The Teacher and The Curriculum1

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The Teacher and The Curriculum1

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CHAPTER 1

The Teacher as a Knower

Chapter 1 describes the school curriculum in terms of its defini-

LEARNING OUTCOMES Lesson 1.

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: Lesson 2.

At the end of the lesson, you should be

draw a T chart showing the traditional

Directions: Read carefully the following questions and encircle

STARTED There seems to be confusion about what curriculum should

Some Definitions of Curriculum

Whether curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a listing of

3. The contents of a subject, concepts, and tasks to be acquired planned

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

 Joseph Schwab (1978) thin ks that the so le so ur ce of cur ric-

“Curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual.”

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

TRADITIONAL VIEW PROGRESSIVE VIEW

Activity 1.2 Describing Curriculum

3. Learning can only be achieved in schools. 3.

4. It is the systematic arrangement of contents in the course syllabus. 4.

5. Co-curricular activities are planned for all to participate. 5.

6. Teachers are required to teach the book from cover to cover. 6.

8. Children are given opportunity to play outdoors. 8.

9. Parents send children to a military type school with rigid discipline. 9.

Part B. Spin a Win: Agree or Disagree

10. Educators sometimes equate curriculum with syllabus. 10.

At the end of the lesson, you should be

create a mind map showing various

write an essay explaining how these

Directions: Read carefully the following questions and encircle

A. Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers, and curriculum mak-

Why is it important to know the historical foundations of curric-

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

 He started the curriculum development movement.

 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is a science

Werret Charters (1875-1952)

 Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-

 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is

“Education is a way of life.”

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical

 He described how curriculum change is a coopera-

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and

C.1 Association and Behaviorism

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

 He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory

 He championed the Connectionism Theory.

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)  Specific stimulus has specific response.

 He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory.

C.2 Cognitive/Information Processing Theory

Persons Contributions/Theories and Principles

 Multiple Intelligences Theory

 Emotion contains the power to affect action.

Daniel Goleman (1992-2012)

“Teaching means creating situations where structures can be discovered.”

C.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles

 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning

Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects

Persons/Symbols Contributions/Theories and Principles

 Society as a source of change