Fotogrametri Udara – GE6225

(Genap 2020-2021)

Dipersiapkan Oleh:
Tim Dosen Kelompok Bidang Keahlian Fotogrametri
Kamera Dijital (CPL 1 – CPL 6)
Konten:
Pengenalan tentang tipe, macam dan cara kerja kamera dijital yang dipakai dalam pemotretan udara.

Sasaran Indikator Capaian:

Ketepatan dalam memahami dan menjelaskan tentang konsep cara kerja kamera dijital, konsep FoV
dan perhitungannya, sensor kamera dijital dan pengelompokan macam kamera dijital berdasarkan
sensor.

Uraian:
1. Cara kerja kamera dijital: dari gelombang cahaya sampai ke sensor kamera
2. Finite Field of View (FoV)
3. Macam kamera dijital berdasarkan pengelompokan ukuran sensor dan FoV
 Cara kerja kamera dijital:
dari gelombang cahaya sampai ke sensor kamera
Spektrum gelombang cahaya nampak
• Light is just one part of
electromagnetic spectrum
• X rays 0.1 nanometer
• Radio waves 1 meter or more
• Light 380 to 770 nanometers (1000
nm = 1/100 paper sheet)
• 3 Primary colors:
• Blue: 0.4 - 0.5 μm
• Green: 0.5 – 0.6 μm
• Red: 0.6 – 0.7 μm
• To human eye – object appears
to have a certain color because
object reflects energy in that
wavelength:
• All other colors absorbed
 Camera Obscura

Teknik lobang jarum (pinhole) digunakan

untuk mengumpulkan pantulan cahaya
dari obyek ke bidang datar (kamar gelap).

"When images of illuminated objects ... penetrate through a small hole into a
very dark room ... you will see [on the opposite wall] these objects in their
proper form and color, reduced in size ... in a reversed position, owing to the
intersection of the rays". Da Vinci
http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/CAMERA_OBSCURA.html (Russell Naughton)

Slide credit: David Jacobs

Dasar Kamera Dijital: Pinhole cameras
• Pinhole camera - box with a small hole in it
• Image is upside down, but not mirrored left-to-right
• Cahaya Nampak yang berasal dari lilin akan diteruskan melalui lobang
jarum (pinhole) menuju bidang sensor (image plane)
First known photograph
 Lensa: lapisan/benda tembus pandang yang
berfungsi menyatukan cahaya ke bidang sensor /
Image plane
Pinhole model with a single lens

A lens follows the pinhole model for objects that are in focus.
Lens Formula
• Focusable means variable principal distance
• Non-metric cameras generally have variable principal
distances, to account for objects which are not located at
infinity
• To focus objects at distance S0, the principal distance, c, is
given by:
• Note: Focal length is rarely variable, expect in one obvious
example
 Lensa Kamera (Lenses)
• Primary function – gather light rays from object space and bring them to focus in image
plane
• Employs principles of refraction
• f – focal length
• F – focal point of lens
• Optical axis
• Line joining centers of curvature of spherical surfaces of lens

• A good camera lens may

contain 15 elements and
cost a thousand dollars
• The best modern lenses
may contain aspherical
elements
 Beberapa Terminologi Lensa Kamera
• Resolution (resolving power):
• Ability of lens to show detail
• Line pairs or modulation transfer
function
• Good resolution important
• Sharp & clear for precise measurements
& accurate interpretative work
• Depth of Field:
• Range in object distance
accommodated by lens
• without introducing significant image
deterioration
• Can be increased by reducing aperture
• Shorter focal length – greater depth of
field
Depth of field is smaller for small f-number
 Beberapa Terminologi Lensa Kamera
Aperture-shutter relationship: f-STOP:
• Exposure time set by shutter speed • Inverse of brightness factor – f-stop = f/d
• Illuminance regulated by varying f-stop • Ratio of focal length to diameter of aperture
• Controlled by diaphragm • Aperture increase – f-stop number decreases
• Larger diaphragm opening: and illuminance increases, requiring less
• Faster exposures exposure time
• Less depth of field
• Lens distortion more severe • Used of expressing lens speed or “light
• Faster shutter speed: gathering” gathering
• Reduce image motion • power of lens
• Nominal f-stop settings
• 1, 1.4, 2.0, 2.8, 4.0, 5.6, 8.0,11, 16, 22, 32
• F stop of 1 occurs when aperture diameter equals
lens focal length
• Each succeeding nominal f-stop halves aperture area
of proceeding
 Beberapa Terminologi Lensa Kamera
• Optical System:
t
– any device that operates on light to produce a H
specific and desired effect P
H'
• Optical Axis: y
F F
N
– the rotational axis of the optical system that passes N' ' y
through the centers of curvature of surfaces '
P
comprising the lens system '
x f f x
• Principal Planes (H, H`): s ' s '
L '
– are perpendicular to the optical axis and located in
such a way that the lateral magnification at their
location is unity and positive
• Lateral Magnification:
– the ratio between the image and object size
 Beberapa Terminologi Lensa Kamera
• Nodal Points (N, N`): t
– are the intersection of the principal planes with the H
optical axis. P
H'
– a ray passing through the first nodal point will y
F N F
emerge from the rear nodal point parallel to the N' ' y
incident ray. '
P
• Focal Points (F, F`): '
x f f x
– are the axial points where the images of axial s ' s '
objects at infinity are located. L '

• Focal Length (f, f`):

– is the distance between the focal point and the
corresponding nodal point.
 Beberapa Terminologi Lensa Kamera
• The lens equation relates the focal t
H
length (f`), the image distance (s`), P
and the object distance (s). y
H'

– 1/f` = 1/s + 1/s` F N F

N' '
y
• Notes: '
P
– When s → ∞ then s` → f` '
– A ray parallel to the optical axis will be x f f x
s ' s '
refracted in such a way that it passes
L '
through the rear focal point.
– A ray through the front nodal point will
emerge from the rear nodal point without
changing its direction.
– These simple rules allow for graphic
construction of images.
– From now on, we will assume that f is
equal to f`.
 Beberapa Terminologi Lensa Kamera

Lens Equation for Aerial Cameras

• The object distance (s) is defined by the flying height above
the ground (H - h).
• The image distance (s`) is usually labeled as the camera
constant or principal distance (c).
• The object distance (s) is very large when compared to the
focal length (f).
– s∞
– Therefore, the image distance (s`) is set to the focal length (f).
– c=f
Sensor Kamera: Mengubah cahaya (photon)
ke bilangan dijital
Bagian Utama Kamera Dijital
 Block Diagram of a Digital Camera

Ayman F. Habib
Camera Sensors: CCD and CMOS

World Camera Digitizer Digital

Image
 Sistem Koordinat dalam Penggunaan Kamera Dijital

yc c
xc
yf zw
C xf
I 5 Sistem Koordinat:
F zo 1. Pixel Coordinate Frame (I)
2. (Real) Image Coordinate Frame (F)
r W
3. Camera Coordinate Frame (C)
yw 4. Object/Model Coordinate Frame (O)
zc yo 5. World Coordinate Frame (W)

xo
xw
Image Formation
Image Formation
 Image Formation

projection
through lens
image of object
 Image Formation

projection onto
discrete sensor
digital camera
array.
 Image Formation

sensors register
average color.
sampled image
 Image Formation

continuous colors,
discrete locations.
discrete real-
valued image
Digital Image Formation: Quantization

discrete color output continuous colors

mapped to a finite,
discrete set of colors.

continuous color input

 Sampling and Quantization
pixel grid

real image sampled quantized sampled &

quantized
Image Buffer
• Image plane {p}
• The real image is formed on the CCD
plane (0,0)
• (x,y) units in mm x
• Origin in center (principal point)
y

• Image buffer
• Digital (or pixel) image
(1,1) col (or xim)
• (row, col) indices
{I}
• We can also use (xim, yim)
row
• Origin in upper left
(or
yim)
Center
at (ox,oy)
Continuous image projected onto Result of image sampling and
a sensor array quantization
 Color images have 3 values per
Digital Image pixel; monochrome images have 1
value per pixel.

a grid of squares,
each of which
contains a single
color

each square is
called a pixel (for
picture element)
 Color Images
• Are constructed from three
intensity maps.
• Each intensity map is projected
through a color filter (e.g., red,
green, or blue, or cyan, magenta,
or yellow) to create a
monochrome image.
• The intensity maps are overlaid
to create a color image.
• Each pixel in a color image is a
three element vector.
Digital Images

World Camera Digitizer Digital

Image

0 10 10 15 50 70 80

0 0 100 120 125 130 130

PIXEL
0 35 100 150 150 80 50 (picture element)
0 15 70 100 10 20 20

0 15 70 0 0 0 15 Typically:
0 = black
5 15 50 120 110 130 110 255 = white
5 10 20 50 50 20 250
 DIGITAL IMAGES
• Image divided into pixels
• Image consists of integers
• Called digital numbers
• Numbers range from 0 –
255
• 8-bit image = 1 byte
• Produced by discrete
sampling
Camera Sensors: CCD and CMOS

World Camera Digitizer Digital

Image
Three types of images:
• Gray-scale images
I(x,y)  [0..255]

• Binary images
I(x,y)  {0 , 1}

• Color images
IR(x,y) IG(x,y) IB(x,y)
Color Image
3 CCD Camera
Color Image
Gray Scale Image (Foto hitam-putih)

x =
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
y = 41 210 209 204 202 197 247 143 71 64 80 84 54 54 57 58
42 206 196 203 197 195 210 207 56 63 58 53 53 61 62 51
43 201 207 192 201 198 213 156 69 65 57 55 52 53 60 50
44 216 206 211 193 202 207 208 57 69 60 55 77 49 62 61
45 221 206 211 194 196 197 220 56 63 60 55 46 97 58 106
46 209 214 224 199 194 193 204 173 64 60 59 51 62 56 48
47 204 212 213 208 191 190 191 214 60 62 66 76 51 49 55
48 214 215 215 207 208 180 172 188 69 72 55 49 56 52 56
49 209 205 214 205 204 196 187 196 86 62 66 87 57 60 48
50 208 209 205 203 202 186 174 185 149 71 63 55 55 45 56
51 207 210 211 199 217 194 183 177 209 90 62 64 52 93 52
52 208 205 209 209 197 194 183 187 187 239 58 68 61 51 56
53 204 206 203 209 195 203 188 185 183 221 75 61 58 60 60
54 200 203 199 236 188 197 183 190 183 196 122 63 58 64 66
55 205 210 202 203 199 197 196 181 173 186 105 62 57 64 63
Citra/Foto Dijital
Foto analog dapat dianalogikan sebagai fungsi
radiometrik kontinyu F(x,y) atau biasa disebut Foto.
Sedangkan kordinat fotonya (x,y) merupakan variabel
spasial yang kontinyu pula.

Pada Foto Dijital fungsi kontinyu ini didiskritkan

(didijitalisasi) baik untuk nilai radiometriknya (digital
number) maupun nilai geomteriknya (pixel size).
Citra/Foto Dijital
Obyek yang dipotret

Obyek yang dipotret dibagi-bagi kedalam kumpulan grid

diskrit yang disebut sebagai “discrete picture elements”
(pixels). Proses penentuan besaran/dimensi piksel
disebut dengan sampling. Hasil yang diperoleh adalah
matrik (baris, kolom) dari piksel-piksel itu.

Proses pemberian warna atau nilai keabuan untuk

setiap piksel disebut dengan quantizing (Kuantisasi).
Misalnya: gray value 8 bit; warna RGB 8 bit, dll.

Foto Dijital
CCD Cameras

http://huizen.ddsw.nl/bewoners/maan/imaging/camera/ccd1.gif
CCD Versus CMOS

• CCD – Charge Coupled Device

• CMOS – Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor
• Both capture images digitally
• Both are pixilated metal oxide
semiconductors
• Both accumulate signal charge in
each pixel proportional to local
illumination intensity
CCD Versus CMOS

• CCD transfers each pixel’s charge packet sequentially to

common output structure while CMOS does more on-chip
before shipping it off-chip
CCD Versus CMOS
CCD Versus CMOS

CCD readout – one row at a time

CCD Versus CMOS

Sensor Types – CMOS chip

• CMOS refers to how a sensor is manufactured, and
not to a specific sensor technology.
CCD Versus CMOS

• CMOS chip properties:

• CMOS image quality is now matching CCD quality in the
low- and mid-range, leaving only the high-end image
sensors still unchallenged.
• CMOS image sensors can incorporate other circuits on the
same chip, eliminating the many separate chips required
for a CCD.
• Not only does this make the camera smaller, lighter, and
cheaper; it also requires less power so batteries last longer.
• CMOS sensors have a higher noise level than CCDs so the
processing time between pictures is higher as these
sensors use digital signal processing (DSP) to reduce or
eliminate the noise.
CCD Versus CMOS
• CMOS chip properties:
• CMOS sensors suffer in low light conditions. Their sensitivity to light is
decreased because part of each photosite is covered with circuitry that
filters out noise and performs other functions.
• The percentage of a pixel devoted to collecting light is called the pixel’s fill
factor. CCDs have a 100% fill factor but CMOS cameras have much less. The
lower the fill factor, the less sensitive the sensor is and the longer exposure
times must be.

100% fill factor 75% fill factor

Comparison: CCD - CMOS
• Both CCD and CMOS image sensors capture light on a grid of small pixels on
their surfaces.
• It's how they process the image and how they are manufactured where
they differ from one another.
• CCD:
• Special production lines.
• Expensive.
• Separate chips for processing.
• Requires more power.
• Higher quality than CMOS.
• CMOS:
• Mass-production like IC.
• Cheap (1/3 of the CCD).
• Integrated with circuits doing signal processing.
• Requires more light.
• Slower due to more noise.
Comparison: CCD - CMOS
• CCD are said to create higher quality and cleaner files than CMOS
• CMOS is power efficient compared to CCD Sensors.
• CMOS are cheaper to produce that’s why most cameras use CMOS
• CCD technology is older and been optimized for better quality.
• CCD has advantage in Dynamic Range and Noise over the CMOS
• CMOS has the advantage over CCDs because all camera functions can be
placed on the image sensor.
• CMOS has natural blooming immunity (Antiblooming, the ability to
gracefully drain localized overexposure without compromising the rest of
the image in the sensor) CCD requires engineering antiblooming also
known as simple as over exposure
• Both image chip types are equally reliable in most consumer and industrial
applications.
• CMOS image sensors are designed for a large, consumer or near-consumer
application.
• CCD image sensors, on the other hand, are more general purpose.
Finite Field of View
Imaging Terminology
• Pixel: Image Plane
• The discreet elements of a
digital image
• IFOV (Instantaneous Field of
View):
• Angle determined by focal
length and pixel size (in image
space)
• GSD (Ground sample
distance):
• Projection of pixel size onto
ground plane (not equal to
resolution)
• Resolution:
• A measure of the ability to
distinguish two point sources
of light
Ground
Finite Field of View
Finite Field of View (FoV) merupakan sudut bukaan
lensa terhadap aperture. Besar sudut FoV diguakan
dalam menentukan besar cakupan kamera
dipermukaan tanah.

𝑑
Angular FoV = ∝= 2 tan−1
2𝑓
 Macam kamera dijital berdasarkan
pengelompokan ukuran sensor dan FoV
 Development: Digital sensors
Scanners (~1975)
• the obvious choice to convert existing analogue photos to digital
images. Usually uses CCD line sensors (RGB).

Direct digital sensors (~1980-1990):

CCD (Charge-Coupled Device, ~1970)
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, ~2000)
Small format digital cameras around 1980-1990
Aerial digital sensors around 1990-2000

Frame grabbers (~1990)

• converts signals from analogue video cameras to digital images. Used
more in computer vision.
Categorizing Imaging Devices
• Frame Camera (sensor):
• Acquire image simultaneously over entire format ->
cameras (film or digital)
• Strip cameras, Linear array sensors, pushbroom
scanner:
• Sense only a linear projection or strip
• Flying spot scanners, mechanical scanners:
• Build image by detecting small spots at a time
 Cameras
• A camera is an imaging device
• Three types of photogrammetric camera (film or
digital):
• Metric (large format)
• Semi-metric (medium/small format)
• Non-metric (small format)
• Aerial Cameras:
• Cameras and their use for aerial photography are the simplest and
oldest of sensors used for remote sensing of the Earth’s surface.
• Other imaging devices:
• Analogue/digital video camera
• Pushbroom scanner
• Whiskbroom scanner
• Active/passive radar
• Imaging radiometer
• Sidescan sonar
Camera Basics
• Principal components of a camera:
• Lens
• Light detection / recording system (film or CCD array)
• Important aspects:
• Object, lens, image distance; focal length; imaging area; focus
 Aerial Cameras
• Cameras are framing systems which
acquire a near-instantaneous
”snapshot” of an area (1), of the
surface.
• Camera systems are passive optical
sensors that use a lens (2) (or
system of lenses).
• They form an image at the focal
plane (3), the plane at which an
image is sharply defined.
 Aerial Cameras (Frame Camera)
• The basic idea of photography is to focus appropriate
quantities of light onto a light-sensitive material.
• Basic components of all cameras:
• Lens – to focus light on the film
• Film/CCD/CMOS – to record the image
• Shutter and Aperture – to control the amount of light reaching the
film/CCD/CMOS
• Body – holds the film/CCD/CMOS, lens and shutter in their correct
positions
• In aerial photography, object distances are normally infinite,
therefore most aerial cameras are manufactured with their
film plane precisely located at a fixed distance from their lens –
”focal length” or ”camera constant”.
 Aerial Cameras (Frame Camera)
• It is not just one lens, but a set of
about 10-12 lenses that make up
the aerial camera lens system.

• Focal length = camera

constant.
• The distance from the centre
of the lens to the image
plane.
• The focal length is required
for calculating the photo
scale
 Aerial Cameras (Frame Camera)
• Actually, a camera has
TWO perspective
centers, one at the front
of the camera and one
at the rear.

Exposure:
The amount of light reaching the
film/CCD/CMOS can be varied by changing
the diameter of the lens opening (aperture),
and/or changing the length of time that the
light is allowed to reach the film/CCD/CMOS
Aerial Cameras Categorization
Opening
Ground
Lens type c Angle
Coverage
(FoV)
Narrow Angle 600 mm 22° 0.4 * H

Normal Angle 300 mm 41° 0.8 * H

Normal Angle 210 mm 57° 1.1 * H

Wide Angle 152 mm 73° 1.5 * H

Super Wide 88 mm 104° 2.6 * H

Angle
Main manufacturers are Wild and Leica.
All use film size 230x230 mm.
H : Flying Height
Digital Aerial Camera Types
• Digital aerial cameras are characterized by their format and
their sensor geometry
• Format defines how much, in this case, how many pixels (ie,
the CCD sensor size and the number of CCD elements:
• Large format
• Medium format
• Sensor geometry defines how the individual CCD sensor
elements are arranged
• Array (area) sensors
• Line sensors
• Array sensors equates to frame camera = TIME INDEPENDENT
• Line sensors = TIME DEPENDENT = more complex
mathematical modeling
 Line Versus Array Sensor
• Digital acquisition via two
methodologies:
• Push-broom sensor
• Derivative of satellite
systems
• Platform stability key to
success:
• GPS accuracy
• Inertial accuracy
• Frame sensor
• Mimic performance
envelope of conventional
film-based sensors
• Less sensitive to
perturbations of platform
Line versus Frame Camera
 Large format aerial cameras
• Analogue (film) and digital frame imaging
devices
• Digital cameras generally also record
multichannel (multispectral) imagery
• Large format (eg film size of 23cm x 23cm)
• Digital aerial frame cameras use multiple
CCD arrays to yield larger format
• Constant focal length of between 80mm
and 150mm Zeiss aerial film camera
• Stable and precisely known internal
geometry
• Very low lens distortion
• Defined internal coordinate system
• Forward motion compensation
• Very expensive
• Very accurate
• Film is arguably obsolescent!

Microsoft/Vexcel Digital camera

Large Format Digital Aerial Cameras
Medium Format Digital Aerial Cameras
Airborne Digital Sensors
 Large Format Frame Digital Camera – Intergraph DMC
(Z/I – DMC)

• 4 panchromatic CCD arrays each 7000

x 4000 pixels, Final image 13824 x
7680
• 4 multispectral (R,G,B, NIR) CCD
arrays,
• each 3000 x 2000 pixels
• Pixel size: 12 μm x 12 μm
• Field of view (FoV) or swath angle:
69.3° across strip, 42° along strip
• Focal length: 120 mm (pan) 25 mm
(MS)
• Stereo angle: 42°
Z/I – DMC camera

Multiple Chip Design

Z/I – DMC camera

Panchromatic (left) & multispectral View from below in an aircraft

(right) camera heads

4 panchromatic high-resolution (7000x4000) CCD camera heads,

covering a quarter each. Focal length 120 mm.

4 multispectral (R, G, B, Near IR) CCD camera heads with

3000x2000 pixel resolution each. Focal length 25 mm.
Z/I – DMC Panchromatic camera

To speed up reading of the sensors, each sensor has its data downloaded from
all four corners. Still takes 2.1 seconds / image.

12x12 micrometer pixel size.

Radiometric resolution is 12 bit (4096 levels).

Z/I – DMC camera placement

Panchromatic channels in
gyro stabilized mount

Mainframe with Panchromatic

lenses (upper) and multispectral
lenses (lower part) mounted
Z/I – DMC camera placement
Z/I – DMC footprint
Z/I – DMC the virtual image

Projecting an image point from the real panchromatic image to the virtual
DMC image using projection centers, focal lengths, image coordinates and
the flying height
Z/I – DMC the virtual image

Tipping of the single images and effect the image coordinates

by projection from the centre of the image
Z/I – DMC camera
 Z/I – DMC mosaic

Left: Virtual image center after: Right: Virtual image center

- tie point extraction & matching after applying radiometric
- lens corrections correction / blending of the
- Rectification four images.

A perfect geometric match! The final product is a very

good mosaic!
Z/I – DMC Global radiometric correction

Standard radiometric correction (changing the grey values through

histogram equalization).
Z/I – DMC Local radiometric correction

Defect column (no data; black) in the sensor is

radiometrically corrected through interpolation
techniques.
Z/I – DMC Local radiometric correction

Defect area in the sensor (darker) is radiometrically corrected

automatically since it is systematic (you always know which
pixels and how much to correct them).
 Z/I – DMC stereo model

Two consecutive virtual images (left + right) work as a normal stereo model. However, the
B/H ratio is lower due to sensor size.
 Large Format Line Digital Camera – Leica ADS40
• 3 panchromatic CCD lines two lines each
12,000 pixels, one line 2 x 12,000 pixels
staggered by 3.25 µm
• 2 x 4 multispectral CCD lines, each 12,000
pixels
• Pixel size: 6.5 µm x 6.5 µm
• Field of view (FOV) or swath angle: 64°
• Focal length: 62.77 mm
• Stereo angles: 16°, 26°, 42°
Large Format Line Digital Camera – Leica ADS40

ADS40 2nd Generation Airborne Digital Sensor

Panchromatic, RGB and NIR data collection
Leica ADS40 system
Leica ADS40 - sensors

3 panchromatic 12000 pixel line scanners (forward, nadir, back)

4 RGB+NIR 12000 pixel line scanners
Leica ADS40 - panchromatic

3 panchromatic line scanners = three seamless image strips.

Forward 26 º, nadir 0 º and backward 16 º.
 Leica ADS40 – pan level 0 and 1

Level 0 (unrectified) image Level 1 (rectified) image

The output (raw data, level 0) from an airborne line scanner has a jumbled appearance;
the ground footprints are not parallel, owing to the movement of the aircraft. This is
rectified using data from GPS and IMU.
 Leica ADS40 – multispectral

Ideal bands for remote sensing applications should be narrow and non-overlapping, whereas
the requirement for high quality true-colour images dictates broad, overlapping bands.
Leica ADS40 – RGB beam splitter

A tri-chroid beam splitter ensures that

the incoming RGB light from the same
area of the ground is registered in all
three RGB arrays.

This means perfect RGB co-registration

and better resolution for each colour,
compared to sensors with Bayer pattern.
 Multispectral comparison

Ideal bands for remote sensing applications should be narrow and non-overlapping, whereas
the requirement for high quality true-colour images dictates broad, overlapping bands.
Airborne / Spaceborne comparison