Liquid Waste – 

are waste in liquid form, such as wash water from homes, liquids
used for cleaning in industries, waste water from manufacturing, mining, and
refining process.
Solid waste – are waste in solid form, such as packaging containers,    food waste,
old newspapers, discarded house furniture, broken electrical and electronic
appliances, etc.
Gaseous waste. – Greenhouse gases, air pollutants released by combustion from
cars and manufacturing processes.
Leachate -  a liquid that passes through a landfill and has extracted      dissolved
and suspended matter from it. 
Leachate results from precipitation entering the landfill from moisture that exists in
the waste when it is composed.
Eutrophication -  the process by which a body of water becomes      enriched in
dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant
life usually resulting in the depletion of      dissolved oxygen.
Siltation - the process of blocking something with sand or soil.
Acid mine drainage (AMD) - is the runoff produced when water
comes in contact with exposed rocks containing sulfur- bearing
minerals that react with water and air to form sulfuric acid and
dissolved iron.

Physical Weathering or Mechanical Weathering is the breakdown of rocks by

mechanical forces concentrated along rock fractures. This can occur due to changes,
whether sudden or not, in temperature, pressure, frost, etc. For example rocks crack
because of extreme heat or drought. In some cases, water, wind, or ice may abrade
or scrape rocks or soils through their tremendous cutting power.
     To demonstrate physical weathering, place an antacid tablet on the table and
break or crush it with a spoon. Assuming that the tablet is a rock, the process in
which it is physically broken into smaller pieces due to any force without ant
alteration of its composition exemplifies physical weathering.
The processes that lead to the mechanical disintegration of rocks:
a. Frost wedging – when water gets inside the joints, alternate freezing and thawing
episodes pry the rock apart.
b. Salt crystal growth – force exerted by salt crystal that formed as water
evaporates from pore spaces or cracks in rocks can cause the rock to fall apart.
c. Abrasion – wearing away of rocks by constant collision of loose particles.
d. Biological Activity – plants and animals (including humans) as agents of
mechanical weathering.
Chemical Weathering decomposes rocks through chemical reactions that change
the original rock-forming minerals. Weathering occurs as a response to the low
pressure, low temperature, and water and oxygen-rich nature of the Earth’s surface.
Physical weathering and chemical weathering almost always occur together in
nature and reinforce each other. An example scenario would be, when a rock is
physically broken down into smaller pieces, the amount of surface area exposed to
weathering agents increases. Hence, chemical weathering is enhanced. As an effect
of the physical weathering, the rock weakens, thus becoming more susceptible to
physical weathering.
Major processes of chemical weathering:
a. Dissolution – association of molecules into ions; common example includes
dissolution of calcite and salt.
b. Oxidation – reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water.
d. Hydrolysis – change in the composition of minerals when they react with water.
 Factors that affect the type, extent, and rate at which weathering takes place:
1. Climate – areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow rates of chemical
weathering and weathering is mostly physical; chemical weathering is most active
in areas with high temperature and rainfall.
2. Rock type – the minerals that constitute rocks have different susceptibilities to
weathering. The susceptibility of minerals rough follows the inverse of the order of
crystallization of minerals in the Bowen’s reaction series. Thus, olivine which
crystallizes first is the least resistant whereas; quartz that crystallizes last is the most
resistant.
3. Rock structure – rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints, folds,
faults, bedding planes through which agents of weathering enter a rock mass.
Highly-jointed/fractured rocks disintegrate faster than a solid mass of rock of the
same dimension.
4. Topography – physical weathering occurs more quickly on a steep slope than on
a gentle one. On a gentle slope, water may stay longer in contact with the rocks,
hence chemical weathering is enhanced.
5. Time – length of exposure to agents of weather determines the degree of
weathering of a rock.        

Physical Weathering or Mechanical Weathering is the breakdown of rocks by

mechanical forces concentrated along rock fractures. This can occur due to changes,
whether sudden or not, in temperature, pressure, frost, etc. For example rocks crack
because of extreme heat or drought. In some cases, water, wind, or ice may abrade
or scrape rocks or soils through their tremendous cutting power.
     To demonstrate physical weathering, place an antacid tablet on the table and
break or crush it with a spoon. Assuming that the tablet is a rock, the process in
which it is physically broken into smaller pieces due to any force without ant
alteration of its composition exemplifies physical weathering.
The processes that lead to the mechanical disintegration of rocks:
a. Frost wedging – when water gets inside the joints, alternate freezing and thawing
episodes pry the rock apart.
b. Salt crystal growth – force exerted by salt crystal that formed as water
evaporates from pore spaces or cracks in rocks can cause the rock to fall apart.
c. Abrasion – wearing away of rocks by constant collision of loose particles.
d. Biological Activity – plants and animals (including humans) as agents of
mechanical weathering.
Chemical Weathering decomposes rocks through chemical reactions that change
the original rock-forming minerals. Weathering occurs as a response to the low
pressure, low temperature, and water and oxygen-rich nature of the Earth’s surface.
Physical weathering and chemical weathering almost always occur together in
nature and reinforce each other. An example scenario would be, when a rock is
physically broken down into smaller pieces, the amount of surface area exposed to
weathering agents increases. Hence, chemical weathering is enhanced. As an effect
of the physical weathering, the rock weakens, thus becoming more susceptible to
physical weathering.
Major processes of chemical weathering:
a. Dissolution – association of molecules into ions; common example includes
dissolution of calcite and salt.
b. Oxidation – reaction between minerals and oxygen dissolved in water.
d. Hydrolysis – change in the composition of minerals when they react with water.
 Factors that affect the type, extent, and rate at which weathering takes place:
1. Climate – areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow rates of chemical
weathering and weathering is mostly physical; chemical weathering is most active
in areas with high temperature and rainfall.
2. Rock type – the minerals that constitute rocks have different susceptibilities to
weathering. The susceptibility of minerals rough follows the inverse of the order of
crystallization of minerals in the Bowen’s reaction series. Thus, olivine which
crystallizes first is the least resistant whereas; quartz that crystallizes last is the most
resistant.
3. Rock structure – rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints, folds,
faults, bedding planes through which agents of weathering enter a rock mass.
Highly-jointed/fractured rocks disintegrate faster than a solid mass of rock of the
same dimension.
 4. Topography – physical weathering occurs more quickly on a steep slope than on
a gentle one. On a gentle slope, water may stay longer in contact with the rocks,
hence chemical weathering is enhanced.
5. Time – length of exposure to agents of weather determines the degree of
weathering of a rock.                                                
Factor How does it affect weathering?
Climate: In chemical weathering process,
Cold and dry = slow rate of chemical most if not all are chemical reactions
weathering involving water. Hence, the presence
High temperature and high rainfall = of water which is an important
high rate of chemical weathering chemical weathering agent increases
the rate of weathering. High
temperature enhances chemical
reactions.
Rock Structure: These cracks/structures facilitate the
The presence of cracks where agents entry of weathering agents.
of weathering (water, plant roots,
etc.) can enter and enhances
weathering.
Topography: Be careful on this because this is a
Physical weathering occurs more very tricky factor. Physical
quickly on a steep slope than on a weathering occurs faster when the
gentle one slope is steep due to the higher
slope’s susceptibility to mass
wasting (rainwater can easily wash
away weathered materials
downslope). However in gentle
slopes, the rate of chemical
weathering may be higher. This is
due to the fact that water which is an
agent of weathering may stay longer
in the gentle slopes.
Rock type: Recall that temperature is an
Weathering rates roughly follow the important factor of mineral
inverse of the order of crystallization formation/crystallization. Olivine
of minerals in the Bowen’s reaction crystallizes at high temperature
series. while quartz at the lowest
temperature as compared to other

Time:
Longer time of exposure to agents of
weathering means higher rate of
weathering.
minerals. Therefore, quartz is the
most stable on surface conditions
(low temperature condition), while
the other minerals in the series
would be less stable. Olivine would
be the least stable. Limestone
however will have a high
susceptibility to weathering even
though it is formed at surface
temperature, because it can be easily
dissolved by water ( chocolate hills
of Bohol for example)
Longer time of exposure to
weathering agents could mean
higher degree of weathering process
have occurred. The rock has been
weakened, therefore easier to break.

The term Deformation encompasses any change in shape, position, and/volume of

a rock in response to stress. When layers of rocks are found tilted, folded, or
displaced, this indicates that deformation has occurred. Stress is the force per unit
area applied on the rock, whereas, Strain is the change in shape or volume of the
rock that experienced stress. Thus, Stress = cause, Strain = effect. The magnitude of
stress is not simply a function of the amount of stress but also relates to the area
over which the force is applied. Stress is subdivided into three major types that may
be observed as a single event or in combinations: (a) tensional stress provides a
stretching pressure away from a central plane and results in an increase in total
volume; (b) shearing stress is the pressure applied to the opposite directions from a
parallel central plane that results in a significant change in the initial shape of the
rock layer; (c) compressional stress imposes a squeezing pressure toward a central
plane and results in a decrease in total volume.
Type of stress and their corresponding deformation type
 
 
   
     Various deformations are produced in rock layers as a result of the exposure to
different types of stress. These deformations may be categorized as elastic and
inelastic.
     Elastic deformation describes a material that returns to its original shape once
the stress that deforms it is removed.
     Inelastic deformation describes a material that does not return to its original
shape after it is deformed. Inelastic materials can be categorized
into brittle (materials respond to stress by breaking and fracturing),
and ductile (materials respond to stress by bending or deforming without
breaking). 
 

 
DUCTILE
Low temperature, low confining pressure, and high rate of strain enhance the brittle
properties of rock. High temperature, high confining pressure and low rate of strain
enhance the ductile behavior of rocks. The composition of a material determines the
point at which brittle-ductile transition occurs.

Stages of Deformation
When a rock is subjected to increasing stress it passes through 3 successive
stages of deformation.
·  Elastic Deformation -- wherein the strain is reversible.

 
·  Ductile Deformation -- wherein the strain is irreversible.

 
·  Fracture - irreversible strain wherein the material breaks.
 

We can divide materials into two classes that depend on their relative behavior
under stress.
 Brittle materials have a small or large region of elastic behavior but only
a small region of ductile behavior before they fracture. 
 Ductile materials have a small region of elastic behavior and a large
region of ductile behavior before they fracture. 
 
How a material behaves will depend on several factors. Among them are:
 Temperature - At high temperature molecules and their bonds can
stretch and move, thus materials will behave in more ductile manner. At
low Temperature, materials are brittle.  
 Confining Pressure - At high confining pressure materials are less likely
to fracture because the pressure of the surroundings tends to hinder the
formation of fractures. At low confining stress, material will be brittle
and tend to fracture sooner. 
 Strain rate -- At high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low strain
rates more time is available for individual atoms to move and therefore
ductile behavior is favored. 
 Composition -- Some minerals, like quartz, olivine, and feldspars are
very brittle. Others, like clay minerals, micas, and calcite are more
ductile This is due to the chemical bond types that hold them together.
Thus, the mineralogical composition of the rock will be a factor in
determining the deformational behavior of the rock. Another aspect is
presence or absence of water. Water appears to weaken the chemical
bonds and forms films around mineral grains along which slippage can
take place. Thus wet rock tends to behave in ductile manner, while dry
rocks tend to behave in brittle manner.
Joints are brittle deformations where fractures are present in the rock layer, but the
movement of the rock materials is not evident. Faults are breaks in rock layers in
which a significant movement going toward opposite directions occur. Faults may
be the result of the combinations of stress types, and can be categorized based on
the direction of the displacement of the formerly connected rock layers.

                Reverse

 
Normal or dip – slip fault is a type of fault that develops from the vertical tensional
stress acting on opposite rock slabs, resulting in one slab that is displaced upward
and the other slab that is moved downward. In contrast, a reverse fault  is a type of
fault that occurs when compressional stress is observed among opposite rock slabs,
resulting in one slab that is displaced upward and the other slab  that is moved
downward. A graben fault is another type of fault that is produced when tensional
stress results in the down – dropping of a central slab of a rock layer. A horst fault,
on the other hand, is the uplifting of a rock layer that is caused by the interactions of
two reverse faults. Lastly, a strike – slip or transform fault is the horizontal
movement of two rock layers that are parallel to each other, resulting from shearing
stress. The lateral movement can be toward the left or toward the right.
 
     Folds are wavelike plastic deformations in rock layers that are the result of
horizontal compressional stresses. Different types of folds have been categorized by
geologists. The simplest class is a monocline fold, which involves a sloght double
flexure of parallel rock layers. An anticline fold is the upwarping of rock layers
that results in an arch – like structure with a convex – up configuration. The
opposite of an anticline fold is syncline fold, wherein downwarping of the rock
layers is observed. These types of folds can be observed in combinations throughout
the earth’s landscape.
 
Examples of landscapes that are created from folding: