CHOVU LODGE LIMITED HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL/GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
REPORT
FOR
BOREHOLE DRILLING
AT

MAKTAU LOCATION, MWATATE SUB-

COUNTY,TAITA TAVETA COUNTY

CLIENT

CHOVU LODGE LIMITED

P.O.BOX 39094-00623 NAIROBI

INVESTGATED BY;

DOUGLAS MONDA OBUBA.Tel. No. 0716617095 EMAIL: obubadouglas2014@gmail.com

REPORT VERIFIED BY: MAXWELL BARASA (LICENSED

HYDROGEOLOGIST (WD/WRP/258)

Date………………………………Signature… ……………..

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CHOVU LODGE LIMITED HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
SUMMARY

CHOVU LODGE LIMITED, intends to drill a domestic water supply borehole at

Maktau Area, Voi Location,Mwatate Sub-County, Taita-Taveta County. Detailed
hydrogeological and geophysical investigations were done to locate the suitable
drilling point.

The aim of this report is to document the findings of the investigations and further
give recommendations on drilling and construction practices based on the survey
results.

The topographical terrain of Maktau area can be described as flat/hilly; and the
rivers generally flow from north-west to south-east.

Geologically, the project area dominantly consists of Pleistocene and Miocene

olivine basalts. These are underlain by the Archean Basement System.

The aquifers occur in fractured and weathered zones of the volcanic rocks, often
along the sub-horizontal boundaries between successive lava flows (OLS). The
aquifers are in many cases confined. Yields and depths to aquifers vary
significantly.

From the results of the geophysical survey, the aquifers beneath can be
characterized as high yielding. The survey profiles tell of aquifers of great
potential; capable of yielding large volumes of water upon drilling.

The studies from geophysical survey shows that there is hydrogeologically

favorable layers in the subsurface that are capable of transmitting and storing
groundwater. Such layers are interpreted to be fractured and weathered zones.

A conclusion is therefore arrived at that this locality has the potential to produce
significant amount of groundwater if a borehole is drilled to sufficient depths
below the ground surface. The client is therefore encouraged to go ahead and
sink a well in his surveyed plot; and the contractor is strictly advised to carry out
the drilling works as per the consultant’s recommendations about work practices
and construction specifics.

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 CHOVU LODGE LIMITED HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Recommendations

The proposed borehole should be drilled at SITE 13 to a maximum depth of 300m bgl
using air rotary drilling – air is pumped down the hollow drill pipe, and forced out of
jets in the drill bit.The coordinates of the investigated site/proposed borehole point
are;UTM 410467.021E 9612929.17N 37M.The plot has elevation of 942 meters
above sea level.

 Surface casing should be installed in the borehole during the early stages of
drilling to hold any upper collapsible formation.

 Steel casings, both plain and slotted, to be installed in the borehole upon the
completion of drilling.

 Gravel pack should be added to the annular space to help sieve the water
entering the borehole and hold any loose formation from clogging the
screens’ slots.

 The borehole development to be carried out for at least 3 hours.

 A continuous discharge-drawdown test should be done for a period of 24

hours, followed by a recovery process which should proceed to near Static
Water Levels.

 Upon completion of the test-pumping, a one litre sample of water must be

collected and taken to the laboratory for chemical, physical, and
bacteriological analyses. The sample should be collected in a clean container
made of inert material i.e. glass.

A monitoring tube and a master meter should be installed in the borehole to

monitor the water level in the borehole. This is a requirement for the final
pumping equipment installation.

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ABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS

ABBREVIATIONS: (Note: SI spellings used throughout).

EC Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm)
Km Kilometers
M Meters
M amsl Meters above mean sea level
M bgl Meters below ground level
Ppm Parts per million, equivalent to mg/l
SWL static water level (in m bgl)
TDS Total Dissolved Solids (ppm)
WSL water struck level (in m bgl.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS: (> refers to another entry in this glossary)

Aquifer A geological formation or structure which stores and
transmits water and which may supply water to wells,
boreholes or springs.

Confined Confined aquifers are those in which the piezometric level is

higher (i.e. at a greater elevation relative to sea level) than
the elevation at which the aquifer was encountered.

Intercalated Interbedded – a lava flow that may occur between layers of

sediment or vice-versa

Old Land Surface Old Land Surface (OLS’s) is the term given to ancient
erosion surfaces now covered by younger surface material.
In hydrogeology OLS’s frequently make good aquifers,
especially where the erosion debris left behind is coarse in
nature.

Porphyritic A rock containing large crystals (>phenocrysts) in a finer

groundmass

Recharge The general term indicating the process of transport of water

from surface sources (i.e., from rivers or rainfall) to the
groundwater system.

Unconformable The representation in physical geology (i.e. in the rock

record) of a break in the ordered succession of rocks

Volcanics Here used as a general term describing geological material

of volcanic origin.

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Table of Contents
HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL/GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYREPORT······················································ 1
MAKTAU LOCATION, MWATATE SUB-COUNTY,TAITA TAVETA COUNTY·························· 1
CHOVU LODGE LIMITED P.O.BOX 39094-00623 NAIROBI··················································· 1
REPORT VERIFIED BY: MAXWELL BARASA (LICENSEDHYDROGEOLOGIST
(WD/WRP/258)················································································································· 1
SUMMARY············································································································· - 1 -
Recommendations································································································ - 2 -
ABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS····················································· - 3 -
Table of Contents············································································································· - 4 -
1 INTRODUCTION································································································· - 5 -
2 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION···················································································- 6 -
2.2 PhysiographyClimate······················································································ - 6 -
Water Demand······································································································ - 7 -
3 GEOLOGY··········································································································· - 8 -
4 HYDROGEOLOGY····························································································· - 11 -
4.2 Recharge and Discharge·············································································· - 11 -
4.3 Neighboring Boreholes················································································· - 11 -
Table 1: Borehole Data······················································································· - 11 -
4.5 Water Quality································································································ - 13 -
5 IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED ACTIVITY TO THE AQUIFER, WATERQUALITY,
AND WETLANDS OR PROTECTED AREAS·························································· - 14 -
6 HYDROGEOPHYSICAL FIELDWORK·································································- 14 -
6.1.1 The Survey Results··················································································· - 15 -
Working Principle of the Instrument···························································· - 18 -
7 GROUNDWATERAVAILABILITY AND QUANTIFIABLE RESERVOIRANALYSIS - 19 -
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS····················································· - 20 -
8.2 Recommendations························································································ - 20 -
APPENDICES···················································································································- 21 -
APPENDIX 1: DRILLING TECHNIQUES······························································· - 22 -
Well Design········································································································· - 22 -
Casing and Screens···························································································· - 22 -
Gravel Pack········································································································ - 22 -
Well Construction······························································································· - 22 -
Well Development······························································································· - 22 -
Well Testing········································································································ - 23 -
APPENDIX 2: SCHEMATIC BOREHOLE DESIGN················································· - 24 -
APPENDIX 3: IONIC CONCENTRATIONS: WHO &VARIOUS AUTHORITIES········ - 25 -

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1 INTRODUCTION

CHOVU LODGE LIMITED, intends to drill a domestic water supply borehole at

Maktau Area,Voi Location,Mwatate Sub-County, Taita-Taveta County.

There are very few sources of surface water in the project area; a factor that
necessitates the sinking of a water supply borehole. To determine the area’s
feasibility for drilling and constructing a water supply borehole, it was necessary
to carry out detailed groundwater investigation program which consisted of
geophysical electromagnetic survey, hydro-geological and geological studies.

The survey for this borehole began with a desk study in the office prior to the
fieldwork. The fieldwork involved both the reconnaissance and geophysical
surveys. The data consulted were mainly from two sources, namely:

1) Office data

Geological maps, Geological reports, Hydro-geological reports, Topographical

maps, and Remote sensing tools.

2) Field data

Geophysical Electromagnetic curves and profiles.

This hydro-geological survey report has been prepared by observing the Water
Resources Authority official format/guidelines; as described out in the Second
Schedule of the Water Resources Rules, 2017. The report should include, but
not limited to the following:

(i) Site Name, Location and GPS readings.

(ii) Geology and hydro-geology.

(iii) Present sources and status of the existing water supply.

(iv) Existing borehole data information.

(v) Geological, hydro logical, hydro-geological, hydro-geophysical data

and their analyses.

(vi) Conclusions and recommendations, including the groundwater

potential of the investigated sites, name and location of the site
recommended for drilling, recommended maximum drilling depth in
meters and appropriate drilling method.

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2 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

2.1 Location

The project site is located in Maktau Area,Voi Location,Mwatate Sub-County, Taita-

Taveta County,The coordinates of the investigated site/proposed borehole point
are;UTM 410467.021E 9612929.17N 37M.The plot has elevation of 942 meters
above sea level.

Figure 1: A Map extract of Maktau area showing the proposed borehole site

2.2 Physiography

Climate
Precipitation: The climate of this area is of the semi-humid, cool temperate,
tropical lower highland type. The average annual rainfall figure for the area is
approximately 850 mm, i.e. slightly drier than the northern parts of Maktau
(Sombroek, 1982). The rainfall pattern exhibits a bi-modal distribution, with
wet seasons in March-May and October-December (corresponding to the
"long" and "short" rains, respectively). Between 70 and 85% of precipitation,
falls during these rainy seasons.

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Temperature: Average annual temperatures range from 16 to 18º C, with

average minima and maxima of 10-12º and 22-24º C, respectively. The
warmest period occurs from January to March. Average potential evaporation
is between 1,550 and 2,200 mm per year.

Water Demand

Population 1000

Estimated consumption 0.2

Total 20 m³

Figure 2: Maktau climate graph

1) Topography and drainage

The topography of Maktau area is generally flat; and the rivers (especially those
in the immediate north of the project site) flow from north-west to south-east
(Figure. 1).

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3 GEOLOGY

The Taita hills complex rises above the erosional plains of the lowlands with
smallinselbergs. Volcanic foothills and lava flows occur in Taveta. Three major
blocks constitute the Taita hills – the Sagalla, Taita and Kasigau. The Taita hills
are block-faulted basement (crystalline) rocks in the Mozambique belt composed
of Precambrian paragneisses from metamorphosed pelitic arenaceous and
calcareous sediments from about 290 to 180 million
years ago. Technically, the folded lineaments trend N-S and therefore the Taita
hills are related to the evolution of the East African Rift system. They belong to
the chain of Block Mountains referred to as the eastern arc mountains. The Taita
hills are the northern outliers of the system stretching southward to Pare,
Usambara, and Uluguru, Ukaguru, Udzungwa
and Mahenge range of mountains in Tanzania. Industrial minerals such as
graphite, asbestos,
iron ore, gemstones and others are found in the hills and in the surrounding
lowlands. Taveta may generally be considered as part of the piedmont plain
between the Pare
Mountains and Mt. Kilimanjaro. Isolated hills such as Riata, Eldoro, and Salaita
rise above the plain. The residuals are directed NNW, parallel to the regional
structural trend of thebasement system rocks and the Pare mountains as well as
the Chyulu range. The area close
to the Chyulu range and Mt. Kilimanjaro are covered with quaternary lavas,
pyroclastics and debris flow deposits and fluviatile and lacustrine volcanic
sediments (Omenge, 1993, Toya et.
al. 1973). Some of the lava flows originate from Mt. Kilimanjaro while other
erupted from several parasitic coves that are related to the mountains. The rocks
are mainly basalts,
phonolites and tuffs. Fertile soils developed on volcanic rocks and ashes.
The lowlands are characterized by erosional and sedimentary plains. They are
occasionally interrupted by residual hills and inselbergs and pedimental slopes.
The extensive plateau
gently slopes coast-wards ranging between 1000m and 300m a.s.l. It is underlain
by the Precambrian basements system of rocks consisting mainly of crystalline
limestones, gneisses
and schists. The plateau surface is an erosion surface covered by recent and
Pleistocene weathered soil and calcareous crustal deposits.
On Taita Hills, the dominant soils are cambisols. They originate from weathered
gneiss and are often gravely to sandy–loamy and shallow. They are well drained
and moderately fertile.
Many cambisols are in a transitional stage of development from a young soil to a
mature one. On steep slopes and transitional zones the dominant soil types are
Regosols, which are shallow soils, have high permeability and low water holding
capacity.
The drier foothills bordering the hills are characterized by Luvisols, Acrisols and
Arenosols soils. They are moderate to low in fertility. In valley bottoms, alluvial
soils (fluvisols) are

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CHOVU LODGE LIMITED HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

apparently noticed. These are young soils with fertility being moderate to high.
They receive fresh sediments and nutrients during regular floods and occur in all
larger river basins
of Bura, Lumi, Mbololo, Mwatate and Voi Rivers. Deeply weathered soils are
widespread in Taveta sub-district. Saline and sodic soils occur
around Lake Jipe while in the western part of the sub-district are soils developed
from the basement rock system with some influence of volcanic ashes.
The lowlands are characterized by reddish, very deep. Acid sandy–clayey soil
(Ferralsols). They are found in most of the Tsavo National Park and the ranches.
They are vulnerable to soil erosion, have a low water holding capacity and low
soil fertility

The geology of the project area consists of:

1. Pleistocene: Calcareous tuffaceous grits.

2. Pleistocene: Vesicular Olivine Basalts

3. Pleistocene to Miocene – Rombo Series: Olivine Basalts

4. Archean: Basement System.

Below is the geological map of the project area, extracted from the geological
map of the Bura Area (Degree Sheet No.64, North-East Quarter).

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Figure 3: Geological Map of the Surveyed site

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CHOVU LODGE LIMITED HYDRO-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

4 HYDROGEOLOGY

4.1 General Description

This section provides a brief description of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers
in Maktau Area. The Water Resources Authority classifies this area’s aquifer as
Igneous Volcanic: Moderate Aquifer.

Groundwater flow and storage occur in fractures and weathered zones, often
along the sub-horizontal boundaries between successive lava flows, which at one
time were land surfaces. These aquifer layers are often confined.

4.2 Recharge and Discharge

Recharge occurs by the following mechanisms:

 Direct rainfall infiltration.

 From groundwater flow (through regional recharge).

Discharge occurs through both or either of the following mechanisms:

 Combined effect of evapotranspiration from both the open water bodies

and vegetation.
 Boreholes abstractions, that is if there are significant number of wells.
Discharge by this mechanism is negligible because there are few wells in
the project area.

The net discharge from the aquifer by either of the above means is not available
due to inadequate data. Therefore, the study to quantify both the recharge and
discharge amounts is necessary. This should be done for water balance
determinations.

4.3 Neighboring Boreholes

The following table contains data of some of the boreholes in the project area

Table 1: Borehole Data

BH C-NO LOCATION DEPTH (M) W.S.L (M) W.R.L(M) YIELD
(M3/HR)
537 5KM E 250 110 - 3.8
154 7KM W 180 -- - 5.0
PROPOSED ANDREA 150 - - -
MWAKUMBAKU
- GRANTON 118 38 18
SAMBOJA
- TAVEVO 150 - - 12
- BURA 70 32,67 - 5
MOSQUE
- CHOVU 18O - - 2.0
LODGE

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4.4 Hydraulic Properties

Aquifer properties are based on the data of the existing boreholes sampled within
the area. The following aquifer characteristics are discussed:

 Aquifer transmissivity
 Borehole specific capacities
 Storage coefficient and/or specific yield
 Hydraulic conductivity
 Groundwater flux

i) Aquifer Transmissivity

The transmissivity or transmissibility is the product of the average hydraulic

conductivity (or permeability) and the thickness of the aquifer. Consequently, it is
the rate of flow under a hydraulic gradient equal to unity through a cross-section
of unit width over the whole thickness of the aquifer. It is designated by the
symbol KD or T. It has the dimensions of Length3/Time x Length or Length2/Time
and is, for example, expressed in m2/day.

In the absence of proper test pump data, the Logan method of approximation is
employed (Logan, 1965). This method, however, has errors of 50% or more, and
is thus used for estimation purposes only. Aquifer transmissivity is thus estimated
as follows: T = 1.22Q. Where Q = Yield per day and S = Drawdown
S

ii) Aquifer Specific Capacity

Specific capacity is the ratio of borehole’s maximum yield to its total drawdown. It
is directly proportional to the yield and inversely proportional to drawdown. Like
transmissivity, it is also expressed in m2/day; and its estimation is impossible due
to less data.

iii) Storage Coefficient and Specific Yield

The storage coefficient and specific yield are both defined as the volume of water
released or stored per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in the
components of head normal to that surface. Both are designated by symbol S
and are dimensionless (i.e. have no units).

The storage coefficient refers only to the confined parts of an aquifer and
depends on the elasticity of the aquifer material and the fluid. It has an order of
magnitude of 10-4 to 10-6.

The specific yield refers to the unconfined parts of the aquifers. In practice, it may
be considered equal to the effective porosity or drainable pore space because in

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unconfined aquifers, the effects of elasticity may be in the order of 0.1 to 0.2. In
the absence of data, it is impossible to compute values of the storage coefficient
and specific yield.

iv) Hydraulic Conductivity (K)

Hydraulic conductivity is estimated as follows:

K = T/Aquifer Thickness

The cumulative aquifer thickness can be estimated based on the geological logs
of the boreholes in the area. However, due to the unavailability of such data, it is
not possible to calculate this parameter, unless slug test or aquifer test are
done –activities which are quite expensive to carry out.

v) Groundwater Flux

The groundwater flux (F) is estimated using the formula F= K.i.h.w

Where i - Slope
h - Aquifer Thickness
w - Arbitrary distance.

The slope, i is calculated from the hydrostatic head difference between two sets
of boreholes, and it is the same as the gradient. This is because the gradient is
not static, but varies along the aquifer. Therefore, hydraulic gradient = h1 –
h2/r1 – r2
Where h is piezometric surface and r the distance between two boreholes.
Estimation of groundwater flux requires that additional/observation wells are used
in the test. This kind of a test commands huge expenditures, something which is
difficult to achieve due to limited funds.

4.5 Water Quality

The water quality is typically good; sometimes elevated levels of salts can be
encountered where the residence times in rocks formations are quite long.

Laboratory analyses of a water sample collected after a test pumping exercise

are strongly recommended before the borehole water put into its intended uses.

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5 IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED ACTIVITY TO THE AQUIFER, WATER

QUALITY, AND WETLANDS OR PROTECTED AREAS
There is no single surface water body near the drilling site that can be
contaminated by wastewaters generated during the drilling. The site is not
located within a wetland or protected land and has no negative impacts on
biodiversity.

The expected impact resulting from the borehole to the environment and their
mitigation measures will be adequately addressed by the Environmental Impact
Assessment study to be conducted immediately after issuance of the Authority to
drill by WRA office.

The entire drilling, borehole construction, pump tests, and completion works will
be done under supervision to professional standards. Entry of any foreign
material into the borehole until completion will be avoided and only inert materials
will be used in construction.

6 HYDROGEOPHYSICAL FIELDWORK

work was carried out with the aim of: -

(i) Carrying out an on-site examination and constructing a conceptual model

which would form a baseline for more elaborate investigations in the
study.
(ii) Conducting geophysical investigations to determine geological layout and
consequently the optimum depth of drilling to reach the potential water
bearing formation where applicable.

Field work was carried out on November 09, 2021,Vertical Electrical Sounding
(VES) 16 sites/points was executed. The aim of the sounding was to determine the
prevailinghydrostratigraphy at the site.
Geophysical line were arranged perpendicular to Dowsing point in order to
detect tectonic crushed zone on both sides of the border and its different physical
characteristics, Dowsing was conducted before VES and shallow MT.

Setup
Use dowsing copper wires in order to accurately locate a point, confirm the
location of the abnormal ground point, generally use of dowsing rods. Use a
measuring tape and mark with paint the start of a line perpendicular to your
abnormal/anomaly point. Measure position according to the test results of
drawing later.
The collected data each time is the data of midpoint between two electrode data,
the point O is the first set of data as shown by the figure below. Electrode
spacing is generally 5-10m (Choose 6/8/10…m according to your actual
situation), dot spacing is generally about 0.5-2m, and electrode spacing and dot
spacing must keep the same distance for one measuring line.

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6.1.1 The Survey Results

The results of the fieldwork geophysical measurements are as shown below.

Underground geological changes are displayed through automatic mapping
curves and profiles, and analyze specific information such as aquifers, fractures,
faults, and caves.

VES 1

Fig 2: Automatic original curves.

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Fig 3: Automatic processed curves

Fig 4: Automatic original profile.

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Fig 5: Automatic processed Profile

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Working Principle of the Instrument

Geophysical exploration is detecting stratigraphic rocks, geological structure and
other geological Conditions through the study and observation of changes in a
variety of geophysical fields. Commonly used geophysical exploration methods
include gravity exploration, DC exploration, Alternating current survey exploration,
magnetic exploration, sonic exploration, seismic Exploration, radioactive
exploration, at present, the main geological exploration instrument is electricity
exploration in the market. And most of the instruments with features of complex
operation, heavy weight, too complex post-data processing, the users must be
many-year experienced technician who have to be professionally trained before
the operation of electricity exploration instrument.
PQWT-S500 series of natural Electric field geophysical exploration underground
water detector is the latest product which research and development by our
institute, using a number of patented technologies.
By the M, N electrode probe ( transducer ) via a cable earth's magnetic field to
electrical signal input to high impedance input stage , after the anti-jamming
exchange amplification, frequency selection, select the desired operating
frequency, and then by the A / D sampling, central processor (CPU) for data
processing.
So 300m/ 40Hz (Frequency) =7.5
Multiply 7.5 by X axis values of the graph, for possible aquifers and depths, X
axis values of graph trough points are taken and multiplied by 7.5 value for actual
aquifer depth.

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7 GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY AND QUANTIFIABLE RESERVOIR

ANALYSIS
Founded on the available and the already described hydro-geological information
together with geophysical results, it is evident that the proposed borehole is
located in an area with moderate to high groundwater potential. A borehole
drilled is therefore capable of yielding significant quantities of water.

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8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 Conclusions

Based on the available data and information, the investigated site is considered
to have medium to high groundwater potential. Productive aquifers are expected
in fractured and weathered zones of old land surfaces.

8.2 Recommendations

The proposed borehole should be drilled at SITE 13 to a maximum depth of 300m bgl
using air rotary drilling – air is pumped down the hollow drill pipe, and forced out of
jets in the drill bit.The coordinates of the investigated site/proposed borehole point
are;UTM 410467.021E 9612929.17N 37M.The plot has elevation of 942 meters
above sea level.

 Surface casing should be installed in the borehole during the early stages of
drilling to hold any upper collapsible formation.

 Steel casings, both plain and slotted, to be installed in the borehole upon the
completion of drilling.

 Gravel pack should be added to the annular space to help sieve the water
entering the borehole and hold any loose formation from clogging the
screens’ slots.

 The borehole development to be carried out for at least 3 hours.

 A continuous discharge-drawdown test should be done for a period of 24

hours, followed by a recovery process which should proceed to near Static
Water Levels.

 Upon completion of the test-pumping, a one litre sample of water must be

collected and taken to the laboratory for chemical, physical, and
bacteriological analyses. The sample should be collected in a clean container
made of inert material i.e. glass.

 A monitoring tube and a master meter should be installed in the borehole to

monitor the water level in the borehole. This is a requirement for the final
pumping equipment installation.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX 1: DRILLING TECHNIQUES

Drilling Technique
Drilling should be carried out with an appropriate tool – comprised of a high-
powered air rotary machine, which is considerably faster. Geological rock
samples should be collected at two meter intervals. Struck and rest water levels
and if possible, estimates of the yield of individual aquifers encountered, should
also be noted.

Well Design
The design of the well should ensure that screens are placed against the
optimum aquifer zones. An experienced works drilling consultant/hydrogeologist
should make the final design; and should make the main decision on the screen
settings. The schematic borehole design is shown in Appendix 3.

Casing and Screens

The well should be cased and screened with good quality steel casings of inner
diameter 6 inches.

Gravel Pack
The use of a gravel pack is recommended within the aquifer zone, because the
aquifer could contain sands or silts which are finer than the screen slot size. An
8” (203mm) diameter borehole screened at 6” (153mm) will leave an annular
space of approximately 1”, which should be sufficient. Should the slot size
chosen be too large, the well will pump sand, thus damaging the pumping plant
and leading to gradual ‘siltation’ of the well. The grain size of the gravel pack
should be an average 2-4mm.

Well Construction
Once the design has been agreed, construction can proceed. In installing screen
and casing, centralizers at 6 meter intervals should be used to ensure centrality
within the borehole. This is particularly important to insert the artificial gravel
pack all around the screen. If installed, gravel packed sections should be sealed
off top and bottom with clay (2m). The remaining annular space should be
backfilled with an inert material and the top five meters grouted with cement to
ensure that no surface water at the wellhead can enter the well bore and thus
prevent contamination.

Well Development
Once screen, gravel pack, seals and backfill have been installed, the well should
be developed. Development aims at repairing the damage done to the aquifer
during the course of drilling by removing clays and other additives from the
borehole walls. Secondly, it alters the physical characteristics of the aquifer
around the screen and removes fine particles.

We do not advocate the use of over pumping as means of development since it

only increases permeability in zones, which are already permeable. Instead, we
would recommend the use of air or water jetting, or the use of the mechanical
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plunger, which physically agitates the gravel pack and adjacent aquifer material.
This is an extremely efficient method of developing and cleaning wells.

Well development is an expensive element in the completion of a well, but is

usually justified in longer well-life, greater efficiencies, lower operational and
maintenance costs and a more constant yield. Within this frame the pump
should be installed at least 2m above the screen, certainly not at the same depth
as the screen.

Well Testing
After development and preliminary tests, a long-duration well test should be
carried out on all newly-completed wells, because from giving an indication of the
quality of drilling, design and development, it also yields information on aquifer
parameters which are vital to the hydrogeologist.

A well test consist of pumping a well from a measured start level Water Rest
Level- (WRL) at a known or measured yield, and simultaneously recording the
discharge rate and the resulting drawdowns as a function of time. Once a
dynamic water level (DWL) is reached, the rate of inflow to the well equals the
rate of pumping. Usually the rate of pumping is increased stepwise during the
test each time equilibrium has been reached (Step Draw-Down Test). Towards
the end of the test a water sample of 2 liters should be collected for chemical
analysis.

The duration of the test should be 48 hours, followed by a recovery test for a
further 24 hours, or alternatively until the initial WRL has been reached (during
which the rate of recovery to WRL is recorded). The results of the test will
enable a hydrogeologist to calculate the optimum pumping rate, the installation
depth, and the crackdown for a given discharge rate.

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APPENDIX 2: SCHEMATIC BOREHOLE DESIGN

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APPENDIX 3: IONIC CONCENTRATIONS: WHO &VARIOUS AUTHORITIES

World Health Organization: European Community:
1983 1971 Int. EC Directive 1980 relating to the quality
Guidelines Standards of water intended for human consumption
Substance or Guidelines Upper limits Guide level Max. Admissible
Characteristic Value (GV) (HL), tentative (GL) Conc. (MAC)
Inorganic Constituents of health significance:
Antimony Sb 0.01
Arsenic As 0.05 0.05 0.05
Cadmium Cd 0.005 0.01
Chromium Cr 0.05 0.05

Cyanide CN 0.10 0.05 0.05

Fluoride F 1.5 1.7 1.5
Lead Pb 0.05 0.10 0.05
Mercury Hg 0.001 0.001 0.001
Nickel Ni 0.05
Nitrates 10(as N) 45 (as NO) 25(as (No) 50 (as NO)
Selenium Se 0.01 0.01

Other Substances GV: Highest Max. GV MAC

Desirable Permissible
Level Level:
AluminumAl 0.20 0.05 0.20
Ammonium NH 0.05 0.50
Barium Ba 0.10
Boron B 1.0
Calcium Ca 75 50 100
Chloride Cl 250 200 600 25
Copper CU 0.05 0.10
Hydrogen
Sulphide H2S. ND ND
Iron Fe 0.30 0.10 1.0 0.05 0.20
Magnesium Mg 0.10 30 150 30 50
Manganese Mn 0.10 0.05 0.50 0.02 0.05
Nitrite No 0.10
Potassium K 10 12
Silver Ag 0.01
Sodium Ng 200 20 175
Sulphate So4 400 200 400 25 250
Zinc Zn 5.0 15 0.10
Total Dissolved solids 1000 500 1500 1500
Total Hardness as CaCo3 500 100 500
Colour Hazen 15 5 50 1 20
Odour Inoffensive Unobjectionable 2 or 3 Ton
Taste Inoffensive Unobjectionable 2 or 3 Ton
Turbidity 5 5 25 0.4 4
PH 6.5-8.5 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2 6.5-8.5 9.5 (max)
Temperature 0C 12 25
EC us/cm 2000 400
Notes ND-Not Detectable IO-Inoffensive
GL-Guide Level UO-Unobjectionable

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