PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA

(University of the City of Manila)

MMW 0001 – 65 Mathematics in the Modern World

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning. Inductive reasoning is
the process of reaching a general conclusion
by examining specific examples. A conclusion
based on inductive reasoning is called
conjecture. A conjecture may or may not be
correct.
Example: Use Inductive Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
Consider the following procedure: Pick
a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to
the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract
3.
Complete the above procedure for
several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the
relationship between the size of the resulting
number and the size of the original number.
Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original
number. Then the procedure would produce
the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the
procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as
our original number produces a result of 24.
Starting with 10 produces a result of 400. In
each of these cases the resulting number is
four time the original number. We conjecture
that following the given procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.

Example: Use Inductive Reasoning to

Solve an Application
Length of Period of
pendulum, pendulum, in Use the data in the
In units heartbeats above table and
inductive reasoning to
1 1
answer each of the
4 2
following questions:
9 3
a. If a pendulum has
16 4 a length of 49
25 5
36 6

Deductive Reasoning. Deductive Reasoning Example: Determine Types of Reasoning
is the process of reaching a conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures, or following arguments is an example of
principles.
units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is
quadrupled, what happens to its
period?
Solution:
a. In the table, each pendulum has a
period that is the square root of its
length. Thus, we conjecture that a
pendulum with a length of 49 units will
have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length
of 4 units has a period twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A
pendulum with a length of 16 units has
a period that is twice of a pendulum
with a length of 4 units. It appears that
quadrupling the length of a pendulum
doubles its period.
Determine whether each of the
inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 year, a tree has
produced plums every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce plums, so
this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than
the estimate. The contractor estimated
that my home improvement will cost
$35, 000. Thus my home improvement
will cost more than $35, 000.
Solution:
a. This argument reaches a conclusion
based on specific examples, so it is an
example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific
case of a general assumption, this
argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.
Example: Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each four neighbors, Sean, Maria Sarah, and
Brian has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following
clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the
 banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home
from work is not an editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work
at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution:
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the
dentist. In the following chart write XI (which
stand for “ruled out by clue I”) in the Banker in
the Dentist of Maria’s row.

Editor Banke Chef Dentist From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2
r (Ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of
Sean Sarah’s row. We know from clue 1 that the
Maria XI XI banker is not the last to get home, and we
Sarah know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker.
Brian
Write X2 ion the Banker column of Sarah’s
row.

Editor Banke Chef Dentist From Column 3, Sarah is not the dentist.
r Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs
Sean for three of the four occupations on Sarah’s
Maria XI XI row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place
Sarah X2 X2 a / in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none
of the other three people can be chef. Write
Brian
X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for
three to four occupations in Mara’s row:
therefore, Maria must be the editor. Insert / to
indicate that Maria is the editor and write X3
twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is
editor.

Editor Banke Chef Dentist From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4
r for this condition. See the following table.
Sean X3 X3 Since there three Xs in the banker column,
Maria / XI X3 XI Sean must be the banker. Place a / in that
Sarah X2 X2 / X3 box. Thus, Sean cannot be the dentist. Write
X4 in that box. Since there 3 Xs in the Dentist
Brian X3 X3
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a /
in that box.

Editor Banke Chef Dentist

r Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah
Sean X3 / X3 X4 is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.
Counterexamples.
Maria / XIA statement
X3 is XIa true Example: Find a Counterexample
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 /
statement provided it is true in all cases. If Verify that each of the following is a false
you can find one case in which a statement is statement by finding a counterexample.
not true, called a counterexample, then the For all numbers x:
statement is false statement. a. |x|>0
b. x 2> x
c. C. √ x 2=x
Solution:
A statement may have many
counterexamples, but we need only find one
counterexample to verify that the statement is
false.
a. Let x=0. Then |0|=0. Because 0 is not
greater than 0, we have found a
counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
x, |x|>0” is a false statement.
b. For x=1 we have 12=1. Since 1 is not
greater than 1, we have found a
counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
x, x 2> x” is a false statement.
c. Consider x=-3. Then √ (−3)2= √ 9=3.
Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have
found a counterexample. Thus “for all
numbers x, √ x 2=x ” is a false
statement.

Exercises Set 3.1

 Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or
deductive reasoning.
1. All books written by J.K. Rowling make the best-seller list. The book Harry
Potter and the Deathly Hallows is a J. K. Rowling book. Therefore, Harry
Potter and the Deathly Hallows made the bestseller list.
2. Samantha got an A on each of her first four math tests, so she will get an A
on the next math text.
3. We had rain each day for the last five days, so it will rain today.

 Find a counterexample to show that the following conjecture is false.

5. Conjecture: For all numbers x, x 2> x.
n3 +5 n+6
6. Conjecture: For all counting numbers n, is an even counting
6
number.

25. Match Student with Their Major. Michael, Clarissa, Reggie, and Ellen are
attending Florida State University (FSU). One student is a computer sc2ience
major, on is a chemistry major, one is a business major, and one is a biology
major. From the following clues, determine which major each student is
 pursuing.
a. Michael and the computer science major are next-door neighbors.
b. Clarissa and the chemistry major have attended FSU for 2 years.
Reggie has attended FSU for 3 years, and the biology major has
attended FSU for 4 years.
c. Ellen has attended FSU fewer years than Michael.
d. The business major has attended FSU for 2 years.
43. Number of Intersections. Two different lines can intersect in at most one
point. Three different lines can intersect in at most three points, and four
different lines can intersect at most six points.

a. Determine the maximum number of intersections for five different lines.

b. Does it appear by inductive reasoning, that the maximum number of
n(n−1)
intersection points I n for n different lines is given by I n ?
2

3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns

Sequences. A sequence is an ordered list of Example: Find the nth Formula
numbers. Each number in a sequence is called Assume the pattern shown by the
term of the sequence. The notation an is used square tiles in the following figures
to designate the nth term of a sequence. A continues.
formula that can be used to generate all the a. What is the nth term formula
terms of a sequence is called an nth-term for the number of the tiles in
formula. the nth figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the
eighth figure of the
sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of
exactly 320 tiles?

A1 A2 A3 A4

Difference Table. A difference table shows the Example: Predict the Next nth
differences between successive terms of a Term of a Sequence
sequence, and in some cases, it can be used Use a difference table to predict the
to predict the next term in a sequence. next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

Solution:
2 7 24 59 118 207 332

5 17 35 59 89 125

12 18 24 30 36

6 6 6 6
The third difference, shown in row 3
are all same constant 6. Extending
row 3 so that it includes an
additional 6 enables us to predict
that the next difference will be 36.
Adding 36 to the first difference 89
gives us the next difference, 125.
Adding 125 to the sixth term 207
yields 332. Using the method
extending the difference table, we
predict 332 is the next term in the
sequence.

Fibonacci Sequence. Let Fn represent the nth Example: Find a Fibonacci

Fibonacci number. Then the terms in the Number
Fibonacci sequence are given by the recursive Use the Fibonacci numbers to find
definition: the seventh and eighth Fibonacci
F 1=1 , F 2=1 ,∧F n=F n−1+ F n−2 for n ≥ 3 numbers.

Solution:
The first six Fibonacci numbers are
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The seventh
Fibonacci number is the sum of the
two previous number. Thus,

F 7=F 6+ F 5
=8+5
= 13
The eighth Fibonacci number is
F 8=F7 + F 6
= 13 + 8
=21

Exercises Set 3.2

 9. Use a difference table to predict the next term of each sequence
a. -2, 3, 12, 28, 50, 78, ?
b. -4, -1, 14, 47, 104, 191, 314, ?
c.
11. A sequence has an nth term formula of a n=4 n2−n−2. Use the nth term formula to
determine the first five terms of the sequence and the 20 th term of the sequence.
a4a5
12. The first sex terms of the Fibonacci sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5,
and 8. Determine the 11th and12th terms of the Fibonacci sequence.
a3
a2
14. a1

44. Number of Intersections.

Two different size circles can intersect in at most 2 points. Three difference size circles
can intersect in at most 6 points. Four differenct size circles can intersect in at most 12
points. Five different size circles can intersect in at most 20 points. Use a difference
table to predict the maximum number of points in which different size circles can
intersect.

3.3 Problem-Solving Strategies

Polya’s Four-Step Problem
Strategy
1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
Solving Example: Apply Polya’s Strategy
In a basketball league consisting of 10
teams, each team plays each of the
other teams exactly three times. How
many league games will be played?

Solution:
Understand the Problem. There are
10 teams in the league, and each
team plays exactly three games
against each other teams. The
problem is to determine the total
number of games that will be played.

Devise a plan. Try the strategy of

working a similar but simpler problem.
Consider a league with only four
teams (denoted A, B, C, D) uin which
each team play each of the other
teams only once. The diagram
illustrates that the games can be
represented by line segments that
connect the point
A A, B, C, and
B D.

Since each of the four teams will play

a game against each of the other
three, we might conclude that this
would result 4*3= 12 games. However,
the diagram shows only six-line
segments. It appears that our
procedure counted each game twice.
For instance, when team A plays team
B, team B also plays team A. To
produce the correct result, we must
divide our previous result, 12 by 2.
Hence our four teams can play each
4x3
other in =6 games.
2

Carry out the Plan. Using the process

developed above, we see that 10
teams can play each other once in a
10−9
total of =45 games. Since each
2
team plays each opponent exactly
three times, the total number of games
is 45 * 3= 135.

Review the solution. We could check

our work by making a diagram that
includes all 10 teams represented by
dots labeled A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I,
and J. Because this diagram would be
somewhat complicated, let’s ty the
 method of making an organized list.
The figure below shows an organized
list.in which notation BC represents a
game between B and C. The notation
CB is not shown because it also
represents game between team B and
C. This list shows 45 games a re
required for each team to play each of
the other teams once.

AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ
BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ
CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ
DE DF DG DH DI DJ
EF EG EH EI EJ
FG FH FI FJ
GH GI GJ
HI HJ
IJ
Graphs. Bar graphs, circle graphs, and Example: Use Graphs to Solve
broken-line graphs are often used to display Problems
data in a visual format.
Figure 3.3
9
7.89 7.93 7.96 8.13 8.17
8 7.18 7.5
Ticket Prices (in dollar)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Figure 3.4
29
28.5
28
27.5
27
26.5
26
25.5
25
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Men Women
 Sales
5%

16% 23%

31% 24%

13-17 18-24 25-34 35-54 55+

a. Use Figure 3.3 to determine the
minimum average US movie
theatre ticket price for the years
from 2008 to 2014.
b. Use figure 3.4 to estimate the
median age at which women
married for the first time in
2011. Round to the nearest half
of a year.
c. Use figure 3.5 to estimate
number of US Facebook user in
the age group. Round to the
nearest hundred thousand.
Solution:
a. The minimum of the average
ticket prices is displayed by the
height of the shortest vertical
bar in figure 3.3. Thus, the
minimum average US movie
theatre ticket price for the years
from 2008 to 2014 was $7.18.
b. To estimate the median age at
which women married for the
first time in 2011, locate on the
horizontal axis of Figure 3.4 and
then move directly upward to a
point on the green broken-line
graph. The height of this point
represents the median age at
first marriage for women in
2011, and it can be estimated
by moving horizontally to the
 vertical axis on the left. Thus,
the median age at the first
marriage for women in 2011
was 26.5 years, rounded to the
nearest half of a year.
c. Figure 3.5 indicates that 23.3%
of the 180 000 000 US
Facebook users were in the 18-
24 age group.
0.233*180 000 000 = 41 940
000
Thus, rounded off to the nearest
hundred thousand, the number
of US Facebook users in this
age group was 41 900 000 in
January 2014.

Exercises 3.3
22. Number of Handshakes. If 15 people greet each other at a meeting by shaking
hands with one another, how many handshakes will take place?
23. Strategies. List five strategies that are included in Polya’s second step (device a
plan).
33. Counting Problem. In how many different orders can a basketball team win
exactly three out of their five games?
38. Gasoline Prices. The following bar graph shows the average US unleaded
regular gasoline prices for the years from 2007 to 2013.

Average US retail gasoline prices for unleaded regular

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
a. What was the maximum average price per gallon during the years from 2007 to
2013?
b. During which two consecutive years did the largest price increase occur?
40. Search Engine Rankings. The following circle graph shows the percent of the
18.6 billion US searches that were conducted in August 2015 by the top five search
engines.
 Top US search engine rankings: August 2015
2% 1%
13%

21%

64%

ASK AOL Google Microsoft Yahoo

a. How many searches were conducted by Google in August 2015? Round to the
nearest tenth of a billion.
b. How many times more searches were conducted by Yahoo than by ASK in
August 2015? Round to the nearest tenth.