170

GLYCOPROTEINS: AN OVERVIEW
M SHYLAJA and H S SESHADRI*
D e p a r t m e n t of Nutrition and F o o d Safety
Central F o o d Technological R e s e a r c h Institute

* D e p a r t m e n t of Biochemistry
Manasagangothri
University of M y s o r e
M y s o r e 570 006, India

Introduction Glycoproteins are proteins having covalently bound carbohydrate. They are found in all
living organisms, in both soluble and insoluble forms with diverse functions and
properties. 1-3 Indeed, there are more proteins that contain covalently bound carbo-
hydrate in their molecule than are devoid of carbohydrate. The carbohydrate content of
glycoproteins ranges from less than 1% to over 80% of the molecule. These carbohydrate
units are involved in various biological activities. The history of glycoproteins goes back to
as early as 1805, when Bostock first characterized the mucus substance of the animal body
as chemically distinct from what we now recognize as protein, although biochemists have
shown interest only during the last two decades.
The glycoproteins can broadly be classified into three types depending on the nature
and function of their carbohydrate units:
'Typical glycoproteins', which includes several glycoproteins of varied carbohydrate
content as indicated in Table 1. The carbohydrate takes the form of oligosaccharide
chain(s) which are branched and irregular, consisting of neutral, basic and amphoteric
monosaccharides.
Glycosaminoglycans, a group of compounds often classified as glycoproteins but differing
from typical glycoproteins in that they contain very long polysaccharide chains which are
linear and fairly regular, possessing alternating monosaccharide sequences, which
generally involve acid and basic monosaccharides. Glycosaminoglycans usually contain
uronic acids and sulfate groups.
Collagens which have a unique type of glycosylation (Table 1) and represent one of the
major groups of protein found in the animal kingdom, occurring in multicellular organisms
ranging from sponges to mammals. The presence of carbohydrate in collagens from widely
differing sources suggest that it may play an essential biological role.
The recent literature abounds in reports of glycoproteins with unusual properties. Of
the many examples, human intestinal enzymes, specific for the hydrolysis of the
disaccharides, maltose and sucrose have been shown to be glycoproteins which are
resistant to proteolytic digestion. 4 Another very important material which is responsible
for the sexual agglutination of cells from one type of yeast with those of another type is
also a glycoprotein. 5 Myelin, the white substance forming a sheath around some nerve
fibres is found to be a glycoprotein. 6 This discovery was also of interest with regard to
speculation about the possible role of glycoproteins in memory and in nerve transmission.

Table 1 Some glycoproteins and their functions

Carbohydrate
Glycoproteins Function Source content
I 'Typical' glycoproteins
Immunoglobulin G Immunoprotection Vertebrate plasma 10%
Enzymes:
Alkaline phosphatase Enzymatic catalysis Liver, serum 18%
3-N-acetyl Toad testes and brain 15%
o-hexosaminidase Yeast 17%
Carboxypeptidase

B I O C H E M I C A L E D U C A T I O N 17(4) 1989
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Toxins: I
Snake venom toxins poison gland 14-20%
Toad toxins Defence mechanism poison gland

Hormones:
Chorionic gonadotropin Hormonal control Human urine, serum, 30%
FSH, TSH and LH pituitary 20%

Lectins:
Potato Agglutination potato 50%
Hemagglutinin Agglutination Influenza virus 25%
Sexual agglutination sexual agglutination Hanesula wingei 85%
factor of cells

Membrane glycoproteins:
Glycophorin Receptor for M and N Human erythrocytes 60%
blood groups, and
various lectins;
antigenic receptor for
influenza virus

Rhodopsin visual cycle Bovine retina 7%

Mucous glycoproteins:
Egg coat jelly lubricating and Toad egg coat surface 57%
glycoprotein protective function

Carrier glycoprotein:
Avidin vitamin binding Hen's egg 9%
Fibronectin cell adhesion cell surface

Transport glycoproteins:
Ceruloplasmin
Transferrin Transport Human plasma 6-8%

Interferon antiviral protection Human leukocytes 20%

II Glycosaminog!ycans
Hyaluronate Formation of extra- Synovial fluid,
cellular fibrogenesis, vitreous humour of
protection of surface the eye, umbilical
layers cord and shock
absorber
Heparin Anticoagulant Blood
Proteochondroitin sulfate Neutralisation of 85-90%
heparin

Kerato sulfate stabilisation and cornea of the eye,

supporting fibrous and cartilage, human
Chondroitin sulfate cellular elements of cartilage, aorta
tissues; also lubricants
III Collagen Structural support Skin, extracellular 0.49%
matrix

Interferon, the antiviral agent is also a glycoprotein. 7 A group of compounds often

classified as glycoproteins are the proteoglycans, s
In many diseases, changes are often observed in the levels of glycoproteins in body
fluids and tissues. Although, the reasons for these changes are usually obscure,
glycoproteins are increasingly attracting clinical attention because of their potential for
helping in the early diagnosis of disease as well as understanding the disease process. 9'1°

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The role of Protein glycosylation is a costly process for the organism in terms of energy and materials
carbohydrates in which presumably indicates that these units have important biological functions, and it
glycoproteins seems likely that carbohydrate in glycoproteins have diverse functions. Different
glycoproteins have different carbohydrates and these in turn may be responsible for varied
functions. The following are some functions of carbohydrates of glycoproteins. ~1
Viscosity and water binding capacity The sialic acid of the sialic acid rich glycoproteins of
saliva, intestinal, trachial or cervical mucus is responsible for the high viscosity and the
functioning of these mucins as lubricants.
The antifreeze activity of antifreeze glycoproteins of antarctic fish depends on the
integrity of the disaccharide units that form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, thus
preventing the growth of ice crystals.
Protein folding, conformation and stabilization of biological membranes Carbohydrates
influence protein folding and conformation. Cell surface glycoproteins possibly act as
structural components to stabilize cell membranes both in archebacteria and eukaryotes.
Carbohydrates are needed not only for folding and acquisition of the correct conformation
of certain proteins, but they also participate in subunit interactions. However, the
presence of carbohydrate is not always essential for the particular function of the
glycoprotein in which it occurs.
The carbohydrate of transmembrane glycoproteins may help to orient and anchor these
molecules in the lipid bilayer. Frequently carbohydrates protect the protein against
intracellular proteolysis during biosynthesis and transport, and are therefore also required
for membrane insertion and secretion. In some cases, however, secretion occurs in the
absence of glycosylation.
The carbohydrates/oligosaccharides of glycoproteins of different viruses or protozoa,
may mask the protein antigenic sites and help these infectious agents escape destruction by
the immunological system of the host.
Biological recognition Carbohydrates may serve as recognition determinants in glyco-
proteins in solution as well as on cell membranes, 12 where they also exist as glycolipids.
The classical example is the removal of asialoglycoproteins from the circulatory system
and their uptake by galactose-specific, GlcNAC-specific or fucose-specific receptors in the
membranes of liver cells.
The life-times of proteins in the circulatory system and their ultimate fates may be
controlled by attaching covalently linked carbohydrates to proteins or by modification of
the sugars in glycoproteins. Such techniques may be useful in enzyme replacement therapy
for treatment of genetic diseases and also for delivering drugs to target organs. In addition
to their ability to serve as recognition markers of various biologically active molecules, cell
surface sugars serve as recognition markers in cell-cell, cell-virus and cell-bacteria
interactions. Cell-surface glycoproteins are the immunological determinant structures of
blood group A, B, H and M/N specificities, act as acceptors for a number of lectins, are
involved in cell adhesion and presumably play a structural role in stabilizing the cell
membrane.

Structure of The carbohydrate of glycoproteins may be present as simple disaccharide units or as fairly
glycoproteins large heteropolysaccharides, which may contain as many as 15-20 monosaccharide
residues. The number of moieties may vary from several hundred as in case of
disaccharides to only a few or even a single one in heteropolysaccharides. 2A3
The carbohydrate units of glycoproteins contain mainly n-galactose, o-mannose, D-
glucose, L-fucose, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, N-acetyl-D-galactosamine, xylose, rhamnose
and sialic acid but the content and proportion of these sugars varies considerably from one
glycoprotein to another. For example, collagen contains less than 1% of carbohydrate
(glucose/galactose) while rat sublingual glycoproteins contain as much as 81% carbo-
hydrate comprised of D-galactose, D-mannose, L-fucose, N-acetyl-3/-o-hexosamines and
sialic acid. Hence any distinction between different classes of glycoproteins based purely
on their carbohydrate content will tend to be arbitrary.
The carbohydrate peptide linkage in glycoproteins The most characteristic feature of
glycoproteins is the presence of a covalent linkage between carbohydrate and protein. The
glycosylation of amino acids within a polypeptide chain that is destined to be a
glycoprotein is apparently not a random event, because it is known that glycosylation

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occurs at specific sites on the protein molecule. There are two major types of glycopeptide
bonds N-glycosidic and O-glycosidic, the difference being the attachment of given sugar to
a specific functional group of an amino acid (Table 2). Some representative structures of
glycoproteins are shown in Fig 1 (see refs 14-16).
Microheterogeneity Microheterogeneity of carbohydrate units of glycoproteins is a well
recognised phenomenon. As a result, it is often very difficult to establish the structure of
the carbohydrate moieties of glycoproteins. The microheterogeneity of the sialic acid
containing carbohydrate side chains of glycoproteins may be caused by variation in the
number of N-acetyl neuraminic acid units present in different chains. Microheterogeneity
might result from (1) the action of glycosyl transferases since there is no template as in the
case of protein biosynthesis, and/or by (2) subsequent degradation of glycoproteins by
glycosidases to different extents.

Table 2 Carbohydrate and peptide linkages in glycoproteins

L/nka~e Gtructures Property Example*

CH2OH
I N-glycosidic HI,oH H~H NH --C =0 Alkali Bovine and
/9- N- acetylg I uco- H I stable Ovi ne
CH2 luteinizing
saminyt asporagine H j hormones
(GLcNAc-Asn) H NH H 2 N - C - H
I
C=O COOH
I
CH3
Sub types CHzOH
(I) High mannose 1 H ALkali Human thyro-
H?HH~HZ -- =0 stable, globulin unit A
(2) Complex type t
o ~ i "2 ALkali Human Ig G,
Ha ] [ ", stable erythrocyte
H NH HzN-C-H membrane
I I gLycoprotein
C= 0 C0 OH
(3) Hybrid type I ALkali gaLactose-
stable containing
CH3 ovalbumin
CHz0H

rr O-Glycosiaic
Ho -%H
,;~__/~_ o_?.~
(I) N-acetylqaLacto- ALkali Bovine,ovine
saminyl serine/ i J H2N - C - H labile porcine and
threonine H NH
I
I
CO OH
human submaxillary
(Ga LNAC- ser/thr) c =o mucin s e c r e t i o n s
i
CH3
H
(2) XyLosyl-serine HVN
. , / j ~ - - O ~ o _ C H 2• Alkali Chondroitin
labile sulphate
(xyl-ser) HO ~ / / ] H H2N-;- O heparins
0 H d e r m a t a n sulfate
H OH
INHz
CHzOH CH z
(:5) GalactosyL- Hn/~ O Alkali Collagens anal
hydroxylysine Vl/'#l H/~- 0 - C--H stable Bovine lens
(Gat-Hyl) H~OH ~z i H2 capsule

H OH CH2
I
H2N--C--H
H COOH
(4) ArabinosyL- Ha O\ H H Alkali Plant celt wall
Hydroxy praline ?/H
~,OH .
H?-- O u ~{ , Labile gtycoprotein

(Ara-Hyp) H:~N[-__~/ H~_.~~4" ~ COOH

H OH H H
I H
H
CH20H
HO/~~ 0 _
(5) GaLactosyL- ~oI/HH H~/- S -CH 2 ALkali Human urine
cysteine H
(Gal-cyst) ~1~., ~// H2N_ C_H Lab,Le
- - - - I
(B-glycosidic) H OH COOH

" For some representative structules see F i g I

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174

N-GLycosidic
HIGH MANNOSE TYPE COMPLEX TYPE HYBRID TYPE
Man Man Man NANA NANA GaL

ol,2 I 01,2 I Iol, 2 02,6 t 02,6 B=,4 I

Man Man Man GoL GoL GLcNAc Man Man
al,2 I al,3~/01,6
Man Man ~1,4 [ /~I,4GLcNAc ~1,2 Man Man
al,~ ///~1.6 GLcNAc GLcNAc --a, ,3~ ///~1,6
Man l,21 ~,~;, p,,4 GLcNAc

I BI,4
GLcNAc
Man Man
01,35x~, //~,01,6 GLcNAc
IB1,4

#I,4 Man .j~l,4 GLcNAc

I
GLcNAc I BI,4 GLcNAc
B=,4

GLcNAc
,81,4
Ash Asn
GLcNAc
Thyrogtobutin unit A # OvaLbumin
(GaLactose containi ng)
Ash
Human lgG
GoL
~1,4

"rT. O-GLycosidic Fuc GaLNAc

I c11,3[41
01,2 ~'1,4 C3] GLcNAc
(Fuc)O-II
Fuc ~ GoL al,2 ~1,6
~ ,B1,6 [3:]
,~1,4
GoL GtcNAc ~1,3 GaLl j~l,3 GaLNAc a Ser/Thr
//91,3 C63
F u c - Got - - GkcNAc
al,2 ~1,3 [4] Human submaxiLLary mucin
al,4 [3]
Fuc

Figure 1 Some representative carbohydrate structures of glycoproteins

Biosynthesis In recent years, there have been considerable advances in our understanding of
glycoprotein biosynthesis. 17-19 It follows different pathways depending on the type of
linkage being produced. In both N-glycosidic and O-glycosidic types, the protein moieties
are initially synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). However, the
addition of carbohydrates is a highly segregated process that occurs within an intracellular
membrane system composed of the endoplasmic reticulum, transfer vesicles, the Golgi
complex and secreting vesicles. During their translation, the glycoproteins are isolated
from the cytoplasm and after processing, travel to the cell surface (in the case of
membrane glycoproteins), or to the extracellular environment (in the case of secretory
glycoproteins) or to the lysosomes (in the case of lysosomal enzymes), as part of, or
within, these membrane compartments 11 (Fig 2). Sugar nucleotides such as CMP-sialic
acid, UDP-glucose, UDP-galactose, GDP-fucose, UDP-N-acetyl hexosamines and GDP-
mannose, or respectively, dolichol oligosaccharides, act as donors of the sugar resi-
due, 2°'2] the addition being catalysed by a group of specific enzymes called glycosyl trans-
ferases. 22,23
Sugar residues are added to a peptide moiety in two ways:
(1) Direct addition sugars from sugar nucleotides are added directly in the synthesis of O-
linked glycoproteins and in some stages of N-linked glycoprotein synthesis.
(2) Lipid mediated addition sugar nucleotides act as donors to form dolichol derivatives.

BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 17(4) 1989

 175

EndopLosmic "~
K•ey : ~ Gtycoprot.ein recticutum GoLgi \

Lysosomes J

Figure 2 Subcellular localization of glycoprotein biosynthesis (adapted from Berger et a111:copyright

Birkhiiuser Verlag A G)

Initially, sugars are added to dolichol phosphate (p-Dol) in a sequential manner to form an
oligosaccharide which is then transferred en bloc to the peptide moiety. Subsequently,
some sugars may be deleted.
There are two distinct pathways for biosynthesis of N-glycosidic and O-glycosidic
glycoproteins.

Biosynthesis of The three steps involved in this process are as follows:

N-glycosidic Synthesis ofoligosaccharide lipid Synthesis is initiated in the RER, and the lipid moiety,
glycoproteins p-dol acts as an anchor to fix soluble sugar residues to the membrane. Although there are
three subtypes of N-glycosidic glycoproteins (high mannose type, complex type and hybrid
type) only one common oligosaccharide lipid (OSL) is synthesized.
The lipid linked oligosaccharide precursor is synthesized by the sequential addition of
sugars to dolichol phosphate through either sugar nucleotides or lipid-linked mono-
saccharides. The synthesis is initiated with the addition of GIcNAc residues from UDP-
GIcNAc to lipid moiety by the enzyme, N-acetyl glucosaminyl transferase. Mannose and
glucose residues are added as shown in Fig 3 to a growing oligosaccharide chain yielding
oligosaccharide lipid of composition (p-p-Dol)-(GlcNAc)z(Man)9(Glc)3. 24 Note that,
although, glucose residues are not found normally as constituents of glycoproteins, it is

KEY
P-DoL DoLichot Phosphate
• . A^ ~ J~'-P-P-DoL
• Gtchl L, UDP.e~"- ~GDP-O
o Man / ~ "n'r ",~
• GLc =-P-P-Dot o. •
/ o . ~ d ~ ~P-P-o°t

0
~ : : / ' -=--- Polypept ide --~ tp"

Figure 3 Dolichol phosphate cycle. Synthesis of oligosaccharide precursor (adapted from Sharon
and Lis24)

BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 17(4) 1989

176

obligatory for them to be added to the oligosaccharide-lipid, because they act as (1) a
terminating signal for the synthesis of lipid-linked precursor, and (2) ensures efficient
glycosylation.
Transfer of oligosaccharide from OSL to the peptide moiety Once the lipid linked
oligosaccharide precursor is synthesized on the RER, it is transferred to the nascent
polypeptide, by the action of membrane bound, dolichol diphosphoryl oligosaccharide:
polypeptide oligosaccharyl transferase. Transfer may only occur to asparagine when found
in the sequence ASn-X-Thr(Ser), where 'X' may be almost any other amino acid.
However, asparagine in the sequence is not always glycosylated. The efficient glycosyl-
ation of proteins is dependent on there being: (1) a sufficient pool of completely
assembled and glucosylated lipid-linked oligosaccharide donors, (2) adequate activity of
oligosaccharyl transferase, 25 and (3) a properly oriented and accessible Ash-X-Set (Thr)
sequence in the acceptor polypeptide.
Processing of glycoprotein oligosaccharides After the transfer of the lipid-linked
precursor to the polypeptide moiety, the three glucose residues are cleaved by
glucosidases 26'27 yielding a structure which is identical to high mannose type oligo-
saccharides, as found in calf thyroglobulin and myeloma IgM. As shown in Fig 4 in case of
the hybrid type, 2s'29 GlcNAc is added and is in fact the signal for the formation of hybrid
type, because, GlcNAc prevents the removal of some of the mannose residues. In the case
of the complex type, mannose residues are completely removed by mannosidases, and
GlcNAc, Fuc, Gal, and NANA residues are added to the chain yielding a structure of the
complex type of N-glycosidic glycoproteins. 3° It is not understood how the same precursor
protein is transformed to three different types of oligosaccharides in glycoproteins. The
site of processing 17 is indicated in Fig 5.

Biosynthesis of The synthesis of O-linked oligosaccharides occur almost entirely by sequential glycosyl-
O-glycosidic ation, where the product of one glycosyl transferase forms the acceptor for another
glycoproteins glycosyl transferase. It is a 'post translational' process, because, glycosylation is initiated
in the Golgi apparatus with the transfer of N-acetyl galactosamine from UDP-GaINAc to
the hydroxyl group of a threonine or serine in the polypeptide by the enzyme, UDP
GalNAc: polypeptide transferase, after protein translation in RER.
In case of branched O-glycosidic oligosaccharides such as blood group substances, there
is a definite sequence during the addition of sugar residues by glycosyl transferases in a
direct fashion, utilizing nucleotide sugars as donors.

r ' 2 3
p ~ ca

• GI.c

a GLcNAc /
• Fuc
•

• NeuAc ~ 7

Figure 4 Processing and glycosylation of N-linked glycoproteins (adapted from Kornfeld et al2s and
Reitman et a129with slight modification )

BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 17(4) 1989

 177

CYTO
"~--mRNA ( ~

Dol-P Dot Dot Ash

(9 M, M2
•
(Gn)2 I
M~ ~M-(Gn)2 Ser M2" M-CGrl)"Asd M2/M
G3-M2-M (~)l G3- M2-M/ (~) '
NH2 Ser M2--N
~" NH2

RER t" CMP-SA4¢"

UOP-G°~¢"UDP-G° fGDP-F ~.UDP-Gn

SA HOOC HOOC M2 HOOC--

i 9 Gn-M, • M
sA M;"
:~ I I i
~III'Gn-M(~) F Se)'-Gon-Go Gn-M (~)F ~r M2-M
sA • C C
GOLGI -NH2 NH2

Figure 5 Diagram outlining some of the steps in the assembly and processing of N and O-linked
oligosaccharide chains of the glycoproteins (adapted from Hanover and Lennarz17:
copyright Academic Press)

In contrast to the biosynthesis of carbohydrate moieties of mucins, blood group

substances, proteoglycans and collagens which are all O-glycosidic, the synthesis of O-
glycosidically linked carbohydrates of the yeast cell wall mannan involves the participation
of lipid linked intermediate in the initial glycosylation of the protein. 31 Thus, mannosyl
phosphoryl dolichol serves as the donor of the first mannose residues to be attached to
serine or threonine. It is only the first mannose residues which is transferred via the
dolichol routes. Subsequent elongation of the chains occur by the addition of mannose
from GDP-mannose.
In contrast to all other known forms of protein glycosylation, certain recently described
protein-saccharide structures are strictly localized to the nucleoplasmic and cytoplasmic
compartments of the cell. The presence of these novel saccharides on the proteins of the
nuclear pore, chromatin and the cytoskeleton poses fascinating questions concerning their
possible functions, modes of biosynthesis, and potential roles in intracellular transport. 32

The Future Many fascinating aspects of glycoprotein structure and function remain to be studied. 33
Some which are receiving considerable attention 34 are:
(1) Is microheterogeneity an expression of the fidelity of the mechanism of glycoprotein
synthesis or does it have a biological significance? (2) Are all glycoproteins synthesized in
the same part of the cell? (3) Why are N-linked carbohydrate units and not O-linked ones,
synthesized via lipid intermediates? (4) What determines the site of attachment of protein
of N-linked and O-linked carbohydrate units, especially the polysaccharide chains of the
proteoglycans? (5) Does the polypeptide backbone control the pattern of N-glycosylation
and if so how? (6) Why is glycosylation sometimes, but not always, required for insertion
of proteins into the plasma membrane and for secretion? (7) How are glycoproteins
inserted into the plasma-membrane and how is the distinction made between membrane
bound and secreted proteins?

BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 17(4) 1989

178

References 1Sharon, N and Lis, H (1981) Chem Engn News 59, 21

2Wagh, P V and Bahl, O P (1981) CRC Crit Rev Biochem 10, 307
3Lennarz, W J (1983) CRC Crit Rev Biochem 253, 7762
4Kelly, J J and Alpers, D H (1973) J Biol Chem 248, 8216
5Yen, P H and Ballou, C E (1974) Biochemistry 13, 2428
6Uyemura, K, Horie, K, Kitamura, K, Suzuki, M and Sakamoto, Y (1984) in 'Experimental Allergic
Encephalmyelitis', edited by Alvord, E C, Kies, M W and Suckling, A J, New York, p 481
7Olden, K, Bernard, B A, Humphries, M J, Yeo, T K, Yeo, K T, Whites, S L, Newton, S A, Bauer, H C C and
Parent, J B (1985) Trends Biochem Sci 10, 78
8Fransson, L K (1987) Trends Biochem Sci 12, 406
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l°Lad, P M, Cooper, J F, Learn, D B and Olson, C V (1984) Biochim Biophys Acta 791
H Berger, E C, Buddeeke, E, Kamerling, J P, Kobata, A, Paulson, J C and Vliegenthart, J G (1982) Experientia
38, 1129
12Feizi, T and Childs, R A (1987) Biochem J 245, 1
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16Anderson, R A and Lourien, R E (1984) Nature 307, 655
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~gLennarz, W J (1985) Trends Biochem Sci 10, 248
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21Parodi, A J and Leloir, L F (1976) Trends Biochem Sci 1, 58
~2Schachter, H, Narasimhan, S, Gleeson, P and Vella, G (1983) Meth Enzymol 98, 98
e3Ram, B P and Munjal, D D (1985) CRC Crit Rev Biochem 17, 257
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e6Li, E, Tabas, I and Kornfeld, S (1978) J Biochem 253, 7762
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3°Presper, K A and Heath, E C (1987) in 'The Enzymes' Edited by Boyer, P, Vol 16, p 449
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32Hart, G W, Holt, G D and Haltiwanger, R S (1988) Trends Biochem Sci 13, 380
33Sharon, N (1984) Trends Biochem Sci 9, 198
34Shylaja, M (1986) PhD Thesis, University of Mysore, Mysore, India

BIOCHEMICAL EDUCATION 17(4) 1989