MODULE 2: Chapter II.

Intellectual Revolution that Define Society

A. Historical Antecedents in the Course of Science and Technology

WEEK: 1

TIME ALLOTMENT: 3 Hours

CONSULTATION TIME: 9:30 - 10:30 MWF (BSCRIM/BSIT)

10:30-11:30 MWF (BSA/BSBA-MM/BSHM)
1:30 - 2:30 MWF (BSEE/BSEd)

OBJECTIVES/ LEARNING OUTCOMES:

By the end of this module, the students shall be able to:
1. identify inventions and discoveries that changed the world over the course of
history; and
2. discuss comprehensively inventions and discoveries in the world during the
Ancient and Middle Ages.

LEARNING CONTENT:

Historical Antecedents in the Course of Science and Technology

DISCUSSION:

Science and technology indeed play major roles in the everyday life. They make difficult
and complicated tasks easier and allow people to do more with so little effort and time.
The developments in this field are not just products of people’s imagination or a one-time
thought process; they are also brought about by gradual improvements to earlier works
from different time periods. The driving force behind this continuous progress is the desire
to raise the quality of life of the people.

ANCIENT TIMES

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation,
communication and record keeping, mass production, security and protection, as well as
health, aesthetics, and architecture.

Transportation was significant during that time because people were trying to go places
and discover new horizons. They travelled to search for food and find better locations for
their settlements. They also travelled to trade their surplus goods in exchange for things
that they lacked. Navigation assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange
areas in the world. It allowed them to return home after they discovered new places or
completed an important trade with another group of people.

Communication was also essential in their endeavors to discover and occupy new
places. They needed a way to communicate with the natives of the areas they Visited so
as to facilitate trade and prevent possible conflicts. Record-keeping was also important
since they needed to remember the places they had been to and document the trades
they made with each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and culture
so they could establish their identities as they tried to relate with other cultures and
civilizations.

The increase in size and number of nations connoted increased demand for food and other
basic necessities. This condition also implied that people must be able to produce food at
a given time and space since resources were getting scarcer as more people struggled to
share the basic necessities. The people thus needed a form of technology that would
enable them to increase food supplies and other survival needs without them travelling
more or working harder.
Weapons and armors were important as well in the discovery of new places or the
establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At that time, there was always a risk of
conflict when people met others with different culture and orientations. Conflicts were
common especially if different groups struggled to control vital resources. Stronger
nations tended to invade weaker ones so they could take much needed resources. As
such, the development of weapons and armors for security and protection was considered
a major achievement.

A primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life. The early people might
have been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the world could provide, but
their survival posed a great problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and
man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being. Given this predicament, science
and technology played a major role in the discovery of cures to, if not the prevention of,
illnesses.

Moreover, in order to integrate their needs-for better transportation, establishment of

structures for protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of
bigger and stronger infrastructures-people ventured into what is now known as the field
of engineering. The development in this field allowed humans to build structures that
would address their specific needs and wants. Some of the structures built during the
ancient times still exist today and continually awe people.

The development in engineering also ushered in the introduction of architecture. Others

might see architecture as a mere style, but during the ancient times, elaborate
architectural designs were signs of technological advancement of a particular civilization.
In the generations to come, architecture would be considered a status symbol among
nations of how advanced their technology is. It may also establish the identity of a nation.

The following discussions will tackle the different major technological advancements
during the ancient times, which include some of the achievements of the early civilizations
such as the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Egyptians. It will continue to describe the
gradual application of knowledge up to the contemporary time.

SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION
Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerians are known
for their high degree of cooperation with one another and their desire for great things.
They are not contented with the basic things that life can offer. This desire pushed them
to develop many things connected with science and technology.

Cuneiform
One of the major contributions of the Sumerians is the development of the first writing
system known as cuneiform. It is a system that utilizes word pictures and triangular
symbols which are carved on clay using wedge instruments and then left to dry.
Cuneiform allowed the Sumerians to keep records of things with great historical value or
their everyday life.
The Great Ziggurat of Ur
Another engineering and architectural feat of the Sumerians is the Great Ziggurat of Ur.
The ziggurat, also called the mountain of god, was built in the same manner that they
constructed the City of Uruk. Without much building materials, the structure was
constructed using sunbaked bricks. The ziggurat served as the sacred place of their chief
god, where only their priests were allowed to enter. The temple showcases not only the
elaborate and intricate Sumerian architecture but also the remarkable technology used
to build it. As such, even until today, people still enjoy and marvel at the preserved Great
Ziggurat of Ur.

Figure 2: Ziggurat of Ur

Irrigation and Dikes

As population increased, so did the demand for food. The Sumerians were challenged to
mass produce food items but the elements in the environment seemed uncooperative.

Figure 3 & 4: Sumerian fields

It was difficult to get water from the rivers, thus they could not maintain farmlands. Some
groups had scarce water supply, while others had problems with flooding caused by the
river. As a solution to this dilemma, the Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to
bring water to farmlands and at the same time control the flooding of the rivers. This
method was considered as one of the world’s most beneficial engineering Works. Through
the dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting,
which increased their food production.
 Sailboats
Another challenge to the Sumerians was transportation. At that time, the wheel was not
yet invented; the main mode of transportation was through waterways such as rivers and
seas. Boats were used to carry large quantities of products and were able to cover large
distances. However, they wanted to discover faraway lands to settle since the population
was getting larger, and boats were not enough to accommodate more people and
products. They needed a mode of transportation that did not require much human
resource.

Figure 5: Mesopotamian Sailboats

Wheel
In the latter part of their history, the Sumerians were able to invent the wheel since the
specialized tools needed to create it were already available. The first wheels were not
made for transportation but for farm work and food processes. With the use of the wheel
and axle, mass production was made easier. Farmers were able to mill grains with less
effort in less time.

Figure 6: Mesopotamian Wheel

The Plow

Figure 7 & 8: Mesopotamian Plow

Another farm technology invented by the Mesopotamians is the plow. Humans evolved
from being food gatherers to farm cultivators. However, farmers needed a technology
which would enable them to dig the ground where seeds would be planted. The plow was
invented to dig the earth in a faster pace. As the plow breaks the ground, the farmer
would just drop the seeds and farm work would already be done. With this tool, farmers
could cultivate larger parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass produce food without
taking so much effort and time.

BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION
Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The Babylonians
were great builders, engineers, and architects. One of their major contributions is the
hanging gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Figure 9 & 10: Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Today, people can only marvel at the beauty of the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon
from stories of historians and paintings that portray the place. It was said to be a structure
made up of layers upon layers of gardens that contained several species of plants, trees,
and vines. According to legends, the great Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built the
gardens for his wife, Queen Amytis. However, no physical evidence has been found to
prove the existence of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Its exact location is also
unknown. Since time immemorial, people have been debating about the existence of the
said mythical place. Many said it was just a product of the creative imagination of the
great King because it lacked documentation or archaeological evidence. On the other
hand, if it really existed, it must have been destroyed by war, erosion, or an earthquake.

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
Another early civilization famous for its legacy is the Egyptian civilization located in North
Africa. Many stories tell about the engineering feats of the Egyptians especially regarding
the infrastructures established by the pharaohs. Aside from engineering technology, the
Egyptians have contributed other practical things that the world now considers as
essential. It is thus safe to say that the pyramids are not the only contribution of the
Egyptian civilization to the modern world.

Paper or Papyrus
Before the Egyptian innovation, clay tablets were used. However, safe-keeping and
transporting them were a major problem. Clay tablets were very fragile, heavy, and
delicate to handle. So, bringing them to places was a major challenge. Hence, the
Egyptian invention of the paper or papyrus was a welcome development. Papyrus was a
plant that grew abundantly along the Nile River in Egypt. They were able to process the
plant in order to produce thin sheets on which one could write down things. Since papyrus
was lighter and thinner than clay tablets, it was easy to carry and store. The sheets were
also less breakable as compared to clay tablets. This invention was a major
accomplishment in Egyptian record-keeping and communications. People then were able
to send letters or correspondences anywhere in the world since the pieces of paper were
very light that they could be carried and delivered by birds. Moreover, record-keeping
was no longer a problem since documents would not take huge storage spaces. Therefore,
it was easier to keep them away from raiders who often destroyed records of the nations
they invaded.

Figure 11: Ancient Egyptian Papyrus

Ink

When the Egyptians invented the papyrus or the paper, engraving ceased to be used in
writing. As a result, the Egyptians invented ink by combining soot with different chemicals
to produce inks of different colors. The ink must withstand the elements of nature since
it was used to record history, culture, and codified laws. It must also be tamper-proof so
that people could not simply tinker with those written down by authorities.

Hieroglyphics

Figure 12: Egyptian hieroglyphics

Like the Sumerians, the Egyptians also developed a system of writing using symbols,
known as hieroglyphics. Although some say that hieroglyphics was adapted from the early
writing system established in Mesopotamia as a result of trade between civilizations, the
Egyptians believed that this writing system was provided to them by their gods. This form
of writing can still be seen today and remains to be as famous as the pyramids where
they were found. Hieroglyphics was the language that tells the modern world of the
history and culture of the ancient Egyptians. Their records were well-preserved since they
were carved at the walls of pyramids and other important Egyptian structures.

Cosmetics
The Egyptians also invented the use of cosmetics. Although cosmetics in the modern times
are used to improve and highlight the facial features of a person, their function in ancient
Egypt was for both health and aesthetic reasons. Egyptians also believed that a person
wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty was a sign of holiness. At
present, the cosmetic industry is a booming multibillion industry.
 Figure 13 & 14: Egyptian woman putting Kohll in her eyes

Wig
Another cosmetic invention of ancient Egyptians is the wig. At present, wigs are used to
enhance the appearance of people who are balding or those who want to try new hair
trends. Meanwhile, during the ancient Egyptian times, wigs were worn for health and
wellness rather than for aesthetic purposes. The wigs were used to protect the shaved
heads of the wealthy. Egyptians from the harmful rays of the sun. Wearing a wig was
better than putting on a scarf or any other head cover since a Wig allowed heat to escape.
Moreover, it was considered cleaner than natural hair because it prevented the
accumulation of head lice.

Figure 15 & 16: Egyptians wearing wig

Water Clock/Clepsydra

Figure 17: Egyptian Water Clock

This device utilizes gravity that affects the flow of water from one vessel to the other. The
amount of water (or its height, depending on the method used) remaining in the device
determines how much time has elapsed since it is full.

GREEK CIVILIZATION

Greece is an archipelago in the southeastern part of Europe. Known as the birthplace of

western philosophy, some of the major achievements of the Greeks include in-depth
works on philosophy and mathematics. More than coliseums and the Olympics, the Greek
civilization has contributed much to the world especially in the fields of science and
technology.
Alarm Clock

Figure 18: Illustration of Plato’s Alarm Clock

One of the most utilized gadgets today that was invented by the ancient Greeks is the
alarm clock. Although the alarm clock during that time did not resemble the present-day
alarm clock, the purpose was just the same-to tell an individual when to stop or when to
start. The ancient Greek’s alarm clocks used large complicated mechanisms to time the
alarm. They made use of water (or sometimes small stones or sand) that dropped into
drums which sounded the alarm. Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm clock to
signal the start of his lecture. His version used four water vessels lined up vertically.

Water Mill
Watermills were also considered as one of the most important contributions of the Greek
civilization to the world. They were commonly used in agricultural processes like milling
of grains which was a necessary form of food processing during that time. Because milling
was made possible by the use of watermills, the mass production of rice, cereals, flours,
and the like became common. Watermills were considered better than mills powered by
farm animals because they required less effort and time to operate since the farmer did
not have to raise animals.

ROMAN CIVILIZATION
The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the
west. It was considered to be the cradle of politics and governance during that period,
because the Roman Empire was so large, other civilizations looked up to it as their model
in terms of legislation and codified laws. Aside from their contributions in politics, a lot of
discoveries and inventions still relevant today can be attributed to the Roman Empire.

Newspaper

One of the major contributions of the Romans is the newspaper. The first newspapers,
known as gazettes, contained announcements of the Roman Empire to the people. Made
before the invention of paper, these gazettes were engraved in metal or stone tablets and
then publicly displayed. When paper was invented, it became easier for the Romans to
“publish” matters that needed the attention of the Roman citizens. This way, the Romans
enjoyed easy access to government information the same way we benefit from present
day newspapers.

Bound Books or Codex

With the invention of paper, it became easier for civilizations to write down everything
that happened in their time. As a result, civilizations became fond of record-keeping,
especially documenting historical events and newly legislated laws. Aside from Romans
writing down information about history and politics, literature also changed form from
clay tablets to parchments of paper. According to sources, Julius Caesar started the
tradition of stacking up papyrus to form pages of a book. Later on, they were able to
provide covers to protect the papyrus. The earlier covers were made of wax but were
later on replaced by animal skin which proved to be stronger end longer-lasting. With the
papyrus pages bound together and covered by animal skin, the ancient Roman Empire
was able to produce the first books or codex.
 Figure 20: Bound Books

Roman Architecture

Figure 21: Roman Forum in Italy

Roman architecture is one of the most visual contributions of the ancient Roman Empire
to the world. Roman architecture was considered a continuation of Greek architecture,
hence, the resemblance. However, Roman architecture was still regarded as pioneering
since the Romans were able to adapt new building and engineering technology on
architectural designs established in the past. In this manner, they were able to preserve
great and elaborate architectural designs because they could produce sturdier and
stronger infrastructures. The Romans were also able to creatively redesign old
architectural patterns to adapt to the new trends at that time. This development in the
field of engineering and architecture was fully supported and funded by the Roman
government so they were able to implement major projects such as large churches
(cathedrals and basilicas), aqueducts, coliseums, amphitheaters, and even residential
houses.

Roman Numerals

Figure 22: Clock with Roman Numerals

Although other number systems had already been established before the Roman numeral,
these old systems could not keep up with high calculation requirements due to the
increasing rate of communication and trade among nations. Since the Roman Empire was
expanding, it had to deal with many nations to maintain its power. For this reason, the
Romans devised their own number system specifically to address the need for a standard
counting method that would meet their increasing communication and trade concerns.
Although the Roman numeral is no longer widely used today due to its inherent
limitations, quite a number of enthusiasts would still use it over other more popular
number systems, like the Hindu-Arabic system, due to its aesthetic and historical value.

CHINESE CIVILIZATION
The Chinese civilization is considered to be the oldest civilization in Asia, if not in the
world.

Silk
One of the things that connected Far East China to the world is silk. Although silk is
naturally produced by silk worms, the Chinese were the ones
who developed the technology to harvest the silk and process it to
produce paper and clothing. Silk production resulted in the creation of a product for trade.
The silk trade opened China to the outside world, making way for cultural, economic, and
scientific exchanges. It bridged the gap between the western world and the middle
kingdom.

Figure 23: Silk Weaving in China

Tea Production
Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded
dried tea leaves. It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese emperor. Tea
production was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that
was able to shred tea leaves into strips. This machine was done using a wheel-based
mechanism with sharp edges attached to a wooden or ceramic pot.

Because of this invention, the Chinese were able to increase their production of tea and
trade with other nations. China thus became known for its tea exports aside from its silk
products.

Figure 24: Chinese tea

Great Wall of China

Once considered the only man-made structure that could be seen from outer space, the
Great Wall of China is said to be the largest and most extensive infrastructure that the
nation built. It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of
China. Made with stone, brick, wood, earth, and other materials, it showcased the extent
of Chinese engineering technology at that time. The structure was so massive and strong
that it was said to have literally divided China from the rest of the world. The wall’s
construction put the nation among the powerful civilizations during the ancient times. It
was the pride of their land and their crowning glory.

Figure 25: The Great Wall of China

Gunpowder
The gunpowder is one of the most interesting inventions in China. Originally, it was
developed by Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality. Ironically, instead of
prolonging life, gunpowder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons which
cause countless deaths. In fact, gunpowder-propelled weapons are preferred by raiders
who plan to attack at a distance. The same weapons are also used to dissipate any
attempts of invasion. On the other hand, gunpowder is also used in fireworks during
important celebrations in China.
MEDIEVAL/MIDDLE AGES

The start of the middle ages was marred by massive invasions and migrations. Wars were
prevalent during this time. As such, great technology was needed in the fields of
weaponry, navigation, mass food and farm production, and health. Trade and commerce
among nations increased, which resulted in greater demands for transportation
technology. Some of the most innovative minds came from this period.

PRINTING PRESS

After the Chinese developed woodblock printing, Johann Gutenberg was able to invent
the printing press, a more reliable way of printing using a cast type. He utilized wooden
machines that extracted juices from fruits, attached to them a metal impression of the
letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece of paper, which then made an exact
impression on paper.

Figure 27: Gutenberg Press

This general invention soon evolved to be the mechanical printing press which was
eventually used all over the world. This invention also made works accessible to
individuals who could not even write (Streissguth, 1997).

MICROSCOPE
Another invention in the Middle Ages is the microscope. Growing populations caused
massive migration and urbanization during the period. More and more people transferred
to polluted and populated urban areas which resulted in more people getting sick and
needing medical attention. To develop the proper medicines for illnesses, experts must
understand the sickness through an investigation. Thus, they needed a device that could
magnify things invisible to the eye. With this device, people were able to observe
organisms that were normally unseen by the naked eye. The microscope was key in
discovering new means in preventing and curing various illnesses (Davidson, 2015).

Figure 28: Early microscope

TELESCOPE

Since the Middle Ages was also known as the Age of Exploration. The need for nautical
inventions was high. Considering the vast and empty oceans that separated lands,
ship captains needed to see far and wide for them to navigate 01' to avoid dangers at
sea. The invention of the telescope, an optical instrument that helps in the observation
of remote objects, was a great help for navigators during this time. Together with the
telescope, the invention of the compass, oars, and rudders made sea travelling easier
and safer (Helden, 1989).

Figure 29: Sketch of Galileo’s refractor

WAR WEAPONS

Since wars were widespread during the middle Ages, great development in the weaponry
technology also occurred. All sides must develop weaponries not only as offensive tools
but also as defensive instruments.
For open-area battles, people developed cross bows and long bows so that they could
attack the enemies at long ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of walls
and fortresses.
Additionally, in close-range hand-to-hand combat, soldiers should wear something to
protect themselves, a need addressed by the creation of iron body armors. However, body
armors were heavy and limited their movements. The problem was eventually solved by
the invention of the chainmail.

REFERENCE/S:

1. Dr. Mariano M. Ariola, LL.B.; Ed.D, L.P.T. (2018). Science Technology and
Society.UNLIMITED BOOKS LIBRARY SERVICES & PUBLISHING INC: Cabildo St.,
Intamuros Manila
2. McNamara. Valverde. Beleno. (2018). Science Technology and Society. C&E
Publishing, Inc. EDSA South Triangle, Quezon City