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Abstract – In a few years, Tesla Motors Inc. has succeeded in the stator and rotor geometry and windings. Several authors
establishing itself as one of the market leaders in the electric car have also studied or tested these data and even sometimes
market. The Tesla Model S, its first flagship vehicle, still arouses completed them with measurements from the real motor [6]-
the interest and curiosity of engineers around the world, thanks [8]. Moreover, general performances information given by
to the manufacturer’s technological secrets and bold choices, in Tesla or available Model S dynamometer charts are used as
particular about the unusual use of an induction machine in a
mass-produced car. Thus, this article aims to present an accurate
references in order to validate the modeling of Tesla Motors
2D finite element model of the Tesla Model S 60 induction motor. induction machine.
For this purpose, all the needed data are gathered and A. General data
completed. Then, a model of the machine is made with Altair
Flux2DTM software and several operating points are simulated in Thus, the machine used by Tesla for its “standard” Model
order to validate the created model, according to data available S 60 is a four poles squirrel cage induction motor [6]. The
in literature. Finally, an analysis of the machine design or studied version of the Model S can deliver up to 225 kW, with
operating conditions is made in order to propose possible a maximum torque of 430 Nm and a maximum speed of
justifications to some of the technical choices made by Tesla 15,000 rpm. It has 60 stator slots and 74 rotor bars, as it is
engineers. shown in figure 1. The squirrel cage is made of pure copper,
which provides several benefits that will be discussed later in
Index Terms—2D finite element modeling, die-cast copper the paper. As no information could be found on the electrical
rotor, reverse engineering, squirrel cage induction machine,
steel used by Tesla, M250-35A non-grain oriented electrical
Tesla Model S
steel sheets are used for the modeling [7], [8]. Indeed, thanks
to their high magnetic performances and thickness, it can be
I. INTRODUCTION
quite confidently assumed that real electrical sheets would
1
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP*, G2Elab, F-38000 Grenoble, *Institute of Engineering Univ. Grenoble Alpes
France
B. Main geometrical data coil of 1-2-2 [7]. The conductors are composed of 26 stranded
As it has been said previously, Tesla patents offer one of round wires with a diameter of 1.08 mm and an individual
the main sources of information especially concerning the insulation of 0.074 mm [6]. Each phase is separated into two
geometry dimensions, with several range of values or ratios paths that are connected in parallel. This enables to use a 3-
[9], [10]. Thus, some of the values are directly given and some phase or 6-phase configuration, depending on the desired
others are found using these ratios with different levels of control system, as it is presented in paper [7], but also for
uncertainty. The main dimensions used for the model are safety reasons, to prevent a potential power supply failure or
summarized in table 1 and can be seen in figure 3. the destruction of a stator winding. Moreover, it enables to
In order to select and validate all the model geometrical increase the resulting voltage across each coil.
dimensions, different possibilities are tested and the values In order to simulate the motor model, the equivalent
that enable to reach the desired performances are kept. electrical diagram needs to be implemented. Thus, it is created
However, even though these values might not be the exact from the phase schematic provided by Tesla in its patents, as
dimensions of the real motor, they are still used as the main it can be seen in figure 4. The stator winding resistance is
goal here is to propose a model close enough to the reality to computed using the machine and conductor geometry and
be usable for other purposes, e.g. pedagogical, reverse- considering that the motor working temperature is around
engineering or optimization projects. The data with the 150°C [7]. The resistances and leakage inductances of the
greatest uncertainty are indicated using italic in table 1. stator winding end turns and the squirrel cage end rings are
TABLE I also computed using geometrical parameters and analytical
TESLA MODEL S INDUCTION MOTOR MAIN DIMENSIONS methods [12]. Finally, these different components are
Symbols Values used in the connected together to voltage or current sources depending on
Parameter name
used proposed model the desired kind of simulations. The obtained values for these
Stack length L 152 mm components in the 6-phase configuration and the used
Air gap e 0.5 mm materials properties are presented in table 2. These six phases
Stator are then connected together to form three phases, as it is
Stator outer diameter D 254 mm shown in figure 4. The data with the greatest uncertainty are
Stator inner diameter D 156.8 mm indicated using italic.
Slot depth L 19 mm
Slot opening width W 2.9 mm
Tooth tip depth L 1 mm
Tooth width W 4.5 mm
Rotor
Rotor outer diameter 𝐷 155.8 mm
Rotor inner diameter 𝐷 50 mm
Slot depth 𝐿 19.6 mm
Slot bridge 𝐿 0.55 mm
Tooth width 𝑊 4.5 mm
𝑊 𝐿
Fig. 4. Tesla Model S induction motor equivalent electrical diagram [8]
TABLE II
𝐿 VALUES OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL DIAGRAM
𝑊
OF THE TESLA MODEL S INDUCTION MOTOR AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
USED MATERIALS
Symbols Values used in the
Parameter name
used proposed model
Materials
𝐿 𝐿 Copper resistivity
𝜌 ° 2.6 . 10 Ωm
(150°C)
Electrical steel sheet
𝑊 / 0.35 𝑚𝑚
thickness
Fig. 3. Axial view of stator slots and rotor bars with dimensions [8] Initial relative
𝜇 16,642
permeability
C. Main electrical data Mean evaluated
𝜇 5,114
permeability
The motor is directly fed by an inverter. The DC bus Saturation magnetization 2T
𝐽
voltage is 366 V, which means a maximum phase-to-neutral
Electrical diagram components (6-phase configuration)
rms voltage of 150 V. The maximum peak current for the
Stator winding resistance 𝑅 3.32 𝑚Ω
stator windings is 1,273 A, which means a maximum rms
Winding end turns
current of approximately 900 A [7], [8]. resistance
𝑅 3.83 𝑚Ω
The Tesla patent [11] depicts several possible windings. Winding end turns
These different configurations were studied in paper [8], but L 0.71 μH
leakage inductance
only one winding pattern seems to be possible as it is the only Squirrel cage resistance
𝑅 0.27 𝜇𝛺
one enabling to reach the theoretical performances. Thus, this (between two bars)
configuration consists of a concentric set of three coils per Squirrel cage leakage
pole and per phase with a coil pitch of 10-12-14 and turns per inductance (between two 𝐿 5 𝑛𝐻
bars)
III. 2D FINITE ELEMENT (FE) MODEL 1 2 3
A. Hypotheses
Once the necessary data are gathered and completed, the
next step is to carry out the modeling with Altair FluxTM
software, taking into account the following hypotheses:
- Parameterized simulations in order to study how the
motor performances (e.g. stator rms voltage or 𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
current, input and output power, torque, efficiency, 4 𝑅
power factor…) vary according to the slip;
𝐿
- Simulations are running under magneto harmonic
conditions: sinusoidal steady state at a given
frequency. Thus, the machine is supplied by a Fig. 6. Electrical diagram of the studied machine 2D FE model with (1)
current sources, (2) field-circuit coupling components, (3) stator end winding
balanced three-phase sinusoidal power supply;
impedances and (4) squirrel cage
- Depending on the studied operating point, the motor
is fed by three current or voltage sources with a TABLE III
MAIN NUMERICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FE MODEL
specified frequency. Indeed, at low speed operating
Characteristics Values
points the current is imposed at its maximum value Nodes 99,992
to study this operating limitation. On the contrary, at Linear
high speed operating points the voltage is imposed. 13,573
Mesh elements
The several studied working points are reached by Surface
changing the value of the (current, frequency) or 49,927
elements
(voltage, frequency) couples within the operating Computation time
45 min
limitations; (for 36 different slip values)
- Stator and rotor Joule losses are considered in this PC, 8.00 Go RAM, Intel Core i7, 3.40 GHz, Windows 10
model as well as iron losses that are estimated thanks
C. Operating points studied
to a Bertotti model using electrical steel sheet
characteristics. Several (current, frequency) couples are tested in order to
However, these hypotheses can easily be modified or study the main operating points that are described in the
adapted by the user of the presented model according to his literature, like the maximum power operating point [8]. The
needs, if he is not satisfied with them. aim is to find the (current, frequency) couple that enables to
reach the desired performances and then to compare it to the
B. Finite Element Model theoretical one. For each simulation, the entire torque Γ vs
The resulting induction machine model is shown in figure speed Ω characteristic is drawn as the results are obtained as
5. The flux density levels and the field lines for the maximum a function of the slip. Moreover, the curve Γ(Ω) describing the
power operating point are also represented. operating limitations is calculated considering current, power
The FE model is coupled with the machine equivalent or voltage limitations [13]. Then, this operating limitations
electrical diagram as it is shown in figure 6. The stator curve is used as a reference for our model in order to check if
windings and the squirrel cage, which are also represented it can reach these limitations with the announced
with FE, are represented using field-circuit coupling elements performances and, thus, validate this modeling. Finally, an
such as coil conductors (2) or a squirrel cage component (4). efficiency and total Joule losses maps are drawn and
This electrical diagram enables to define all the external compared to the maps found in papers [7] and [8].
electrical elements that shall be considered, such as the power
sources or the impedances of the stator windings end turns. IV. SIMULATION RESULTS AND MODEL VALIDATION
1 2
Fig. 9. Machine FE model efficiency map (considering only stator and rotor A. Rotor material choices
Joule losses and iron losses) As it has been presented before, Tesla made the uncommon
choice for its induction machine rotor to use a squirrel cage
made up of pure copper instead of aluminum. This choice may
look logical as copper has a lower resistivity than aluminum.
Thus, the rotor Joule losses are much lower and the induced
currents are higher, leading to a higher torque and lower rotor
temperature, which is one of the main operating limitations
for induction machines [15], [16]. Hence, copper rotor
induction machines have a higher efficiency than aluminum
rotor machines.
The comparison with papers [7] and [8] shows that the
global shape of the two maps and the main efficiency and total Fig. 11. Tesla Model S induction motor copper rotor picture [17]
Joule losses levels are corresponding. Thus, these maps could
be used to study an entire operating cycle of the motor. However, this technical choice is not widespread among
manufacturers because the rotor manufacturing method is
more complicated and expensive compared to the aluminum
rotor one, as it is presented in papers [15] and [16]. Even if 2) Thermal considerations
copper die-casting is similar, a main difference is that copper Although this design may have several disadvantages,
melts at 1,083°C while aluminum alloys only melt around based on the arguments outlined above, a thermal analysis of
670°C. Therefore, the manufacturing process requires to work the machine also reveals several advantages. Indeed,
at higher temperatures and pressures. Moreover, copper has temperature is one of the main operating limitations in an
other drawbacks, such as its higher density, which means a induction machine and cooling is a key element. The
higher rotor mass, a greater inertia and a higher mechanical extraction of the heat produced at the stator is generally
stress on rotor sheets. Copper also oxidizes quickly when carried out by simple methods, using for example a cooling
getting in contact with air. fluid through a cooling jacket, as it is the case for the Tesla
Thus, the Tesla Model S motor model presented in the Model S induction motor and as it has been presented
paper has been used to compare the motor performances when previously in the paper [7]. However, the extraction of the
the squirrel cage is made up of copper or aluminum. The heat produced at the rotor is more complex since it concerns
simulation results are given in table 7. The simulated rotating parts. Yet, rotor cooling is essential to push back
operating point is the same than previously. It can be seen that operating limits and reach the desired performances. Thus,
the aluminum squirrel cage motor logically produces more Tesla have found an innovative solution [21] by using a
rotor Joule losses, which leads to a lower efficiency. cooling fluid that is flowing along the machine shaft through
Moreover, as the resulting motor equivalent impedance is a spiral groove in order to extract the produced heat. Since the
higher, the needed stator line-to-neutral voltage is slightly rotor bars are made up of copper, having a thermal
higher but the power factor approximately remains the same. conductivity higher than the one of aluminum, the use of deep
TABLE VII bars could have the advantage of directing the produced heat
MAIN SIMULATION RESULTS AT MAXIMUM OUTPUT POWER OPERATING flow on the rotor center where Tesla rotor cooling system
POINT WITH THE PRESENTED MODEL FOR COPPER AND ALUMINUM ROTOR
enables to extract the heat, as it is shown in figure 12.
Parameter Copper rotor Aluminum rotor
Input
Frequency 166.7 Hz 166.7 Hz
Rotor bars
Stator rms current 950 A 950 A
Stator rms voltage 97.45 V 97.72 V
Output
Output power 225 kW 225 kW
Torque 430 Nm 430 Nm
Slip 2.45 % 4%
Rotor joule losses 5.5 kW 9 kW Cooling fluid
Stator joule losses 9.7 kW 9.7 kW Heat flow
Iron losses 365 W 365 W
Total losses 15.6 kW 19 kW
Efficiency Fig. 12. Schematic of the assumed rotor heat transfers
93.4 % 91.9 %
Power factor 0.85 0.84 This design would therefore have an interest other than
B. Geometrical dimension choices simply electromagnetic, especially since rotor cooling is one
of the main challenges in the design of induction machines.
1) Electromagnetic considerations
The studied machine is made of a high number of stator or C. Operating condition choices
rotor slots. This presents the advantage of smoothing the air The various carried out simulations have shown that the
gap flux density distribution, making it appear more main operating limitations of the powertrain are not directly
sinusoidal. Thus, the resulting electromotive force harmonics due to the motor. Indeed, the real operating limitations of an
are also reduced, leading to less torque ripple. induction motor are mainly related to thermal considerations,
Rotor slots are closed by bridges that remain usually highly laminations saturation or mechanical resistance. This gives
saturated. These slot bridges enable to simplify rotor die- current, voltage or speed limitations, depending on the
casting by preventing melted copper to flow out and provide cooling system efficiency and the materials performances, but
higher mechanical strength [18]. Moreover, closed-slot rotor these limitations can still be pushed back during a short delay.
has a higher leakage impedance, which helps to reduce However, in most cases, powertrains operating limitations are
electromagnetic noises, vibrations, stator current harmonics lower than the real motor limits. Indeed, they are coming from
and torque ripples. However, it also damages the power battery (power or voltage limits) or power electronics (current
factor, the starting and maximum torques and the efficiency. or voltage limits).
Rotor bars are deep which could also be seen as a drawback As it has been shown previously, the main operating
because this design increases the leakage fluxes, as the limitation is due to the maximum output power. In fact, this
resulting leakage conductivity is larger than before [19]. Thus, limitation comes from the used battery technology and
the efficiency could be changed and reduced. As the low- represents the maximum power it can deliver at once [22].
starting-current high-starting-torque objective can be Indeed, in more recent Model S versions, the battery
obtained thanks to the inverter control law, by applying performances have been improved and, therefore, the
adapted starting voltage and frequency, it does not seem maximum output power of the powertrain is higher [23].
interesting to use a deep-slot rotor [20]. Moreover, depending Concerning the voltage limitation, it has been shown that
on the frequency and slip, the resulting rotor resistance and the theoretical limitation that appears after 8000 rpm might
leakage inductance vary, for example because of the skin not really exist as the motor is still able to deliver a higher
effect, and, therefore, the resulting model implemented in the torque at maximum input voltage. However, the powertrain
control law has to be adapted regularly. control system always needs to be able to quickly increase or
decrease the stator voltage in order to maintain its imposed
View publication stats
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https://g2elab.grenoble-inp.fr/fr/le-laboratoire/download-the-
new-2d-finite-element-model-of-the-tesla-model-s-60-
VIII. BIOGRAPHIES
induction-motor
Robin Thomas graduated from Grenoble INP - ENSE3 engineering school,
Grenoble, France, with a specialization in electrical engineering in 2019. The
VII. REFERENCES same year, he integrated the Grenoble Electrical Engineering laboratory
[1] J. Cobb, “Tesla Model S is world’s best-selling plug-in car for second (G2Elab) as a Ph.D. student. His thesis is focusing on the optimal design of
year in a row”, Hybrid cars, January 26, 2017. [Online]. the coupling between electrical machine and unconventional power
Available: https://www.hybridcars.com/tesla-model-s-is-worlds-best- electronics system.
selling-plug-in-car-for-second-year-in-a-row/
[2] N. Hashemnia and B. Asaei, "Comparative study of using different Lauric Garbuio received the M.S. degree from Ecole Normale Superieure
electric motors in the electric vehicles," 2008 18th International de Cachan, Paris, France in 2001 and the Ph.D. degree in electrical
Conference on Electrical Machines, Vilamoura, Portugal, Sept. 6-9, engineering in 2006 from the Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse,
2008, pp. 1-5. France. He joined the Electrical Engineering and Ferroelectricity Laboratory
[3] Z. Yang, F. Shang, I. P. Brown and M. Krishnamurthy, "Comparative (LGEF) of INSA Lyon as Associate Professor from 2007 to 2010 where he
Study of Interior Permanent Magnet, Induction, and Switched worked on self-powered harvesting systems with smart materials for
Reluctance Motor Drives for EV and HEV Applications," in IEEE powering sensors or autonomous Health Monitoring Systems. Since 2010, he
Transactions on Transportation Electrification, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 245- joined the Grenoble Electrical Engineering Laboratory (G2ELab) as
254, Oct. 2015. Associate Professor. His current research interests include the modeling and
[4] TIME Staff, “Best inventions of the year 2012”, TIME Tech Magazine, conception of new electrical systems.
Nov. 01, 2012 [Online]. Available:
https://web.archive.org/web/20121103135534/http://techland.time.co Laurent Gerbaud received the Ph.D degree in electrical engineering from
m/2012/11/01/best-inventions-of-the-year-2012/slide/the-tesla-model- Grenoble-INP, Grenoble, France, in 1993. He was successively a Researcher,
s/ an Assistant Professor, and now a Professor at the Grenoble Electrical
[5] Tesla team, “The longest-range electric vehicle now goes even farther”, Engineering laboratory (G2Elab) and Grenoble-INP–UGA–CNRS. His
Tesla, April 23, 2019 [Online]. researches deal with the simulation and design of electrical systems. His
Available: https://www.tesla.com/fr_FR/blog/longest-range-electric- research interests include electrical drives and power electronics applications.
vehicle-now-goes-even-farther?redirect=no
[6] D. A. Staton and J. Goss, “Open source electric motor models for Hervé Chazal received an engineering degree from the Ecole Nationale
commercial EV & Hybrid traction motors.”, presented at Coil Winding, Superieure d’Ingénieurs Electriciens (ENSIEG) and the Ph.D. degree in
Insulation & Electrical Manufacturing Exhibition (CWIEME) 2017, electrical engineering in 2004 from the Joseph Fourier University of
Berlin, Germany, June 20-22, 2017. Grenoble, France. He joined the Grenoble Electrical Engineering Laboratory
[7] M. Popescu, J. Goss, D. A. Staton, D. Hawkins, Y. C. Chong and A. (G2Elab) as Associate Professor in 2005. His current research interests
Boglietti, "Electrical Vehicles—Practical Solutions for Power Traction include soft magnetic materials, magnetic behavior characterization and
modeling, but also electromagnetic devices design.