ADVENTURES ON PAPER

Math-Art Activities for Experience-centered

Education of Mathematics
Edited by Kristóf Fenyvesi, Ilona Oláhné Téglási
and Ibolya Prokajné Szilágyi

Tempus Project “Visuality & Mathematics: Experiential Education of Mathematics

through Visual Arts, Sciences and Playful Activities”
530394-TEMPUS-1-2012-1-HU-TEMPUS-JPHES
Web: http://vismath.ektf.hu/

Publisher:

Eger, 2014
 ADVENTURES ON PAPER
Math-Art Activities for Experience-centered
Education of Mathematics

Edited by Kristóf Fenyvesi, Ilona Oláhné Téglási and Ibolya Prokajné Szilágyi

Tempus Exercise Book International Editorial Board:

Dirk Huylebrouck (University of Leuven)
Raine Koskimaa (University of Jyväskylä)
Kálmán Liptai (Eszterházy Károly College)
Ruth Mateus-Berr (University of Applied Arts Vienna)
Ljiljana Radovic (University of Nis)

Reviewed by Miklós Hoffmann and Miroslava Ignjatovic

Translation of Hungarian language materials: Erika Gyöngyösi
Proofreading: Charles Somerville
Lay-out: Zoltán Peternák

This book is published and copyrighted by the Eszterházy Károly College, Eger, Hungary, © 2014.
All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise – for
business purposes, without written permission from the publisher or the authors.

Supported by:

Tempus Project “Visuality & Mathematics: Experiential Education of Mathematics

through Visual Arts, Sciences and Playful Activities”
530394-TEMPUS-1-2012-1-HU-TEMPUS-JPHES
Web: http://vismath.ektf.hu/

ISBN: 978-615-5297-25-0

Eszterházy Károly College

Eger, 2014
 ADVENTURES ON PAPER
Math-Art Activities for Experience-centere
Education of Mathematics

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION (Kristóf Fenyvesi-Ilona Oláhné Téglási-Ibolya Prokajné Szilágyi) 5

Puzzling Symmetries
Slavik Jablan-Ljiljana Radovic: Patterns, Symmetry, Modularity and Tile Games 11
Robert Fathauer: Decoration of Polyhedra using Escher-like Tessellations 27
Ilona Oláhné Téglási:Tangram-type Games and Matchstick Puzzles 37
Eleonóra Stettner: Möbius Strip and Frieze Symmetries 45

Arabesques and Quasicrsystals

Jay Bonner: The Polygonal Technique in Islamic Geometric Design 61
Jean-Marc Castera: Arabesques and Quasicrsystals 73
Reza Sarhangi: A Geometric Activity in Patterning Platonic and Kepler-Poinsot Solids based 85
on the Persian Interlocking Designs

Tricky Structures, Playful Perspectives

Tamás F. Farkas: Impossible Objects, Paradox Figures 101
Georg Glaeser-Lilian Wieser: Let Us Play Native American! 119
Kristóf Fenyvesi-Ildikó Szabó: Build a Geodesic Dome and Design Anamorphosis 125
with the Experience Workshop – International Math-Art Movement
Dirk Huylebrouck: Spatial Fractal Workshops 139

Paper Sculptures
George Hart: „Slide-Together” Geometric Paper Constructions 149
Rinus Roelofs: Leonardo’s Elevated Polyhedra Models 160
Ferhan Kiziltepe: Two Exercises on Dimension, Surface and Volume in Mathematics 177
Kristina and Wojtek Burczyk: Mathematical Adventures in Origami 191
 Kristóf Fenyvesi
Ilona Oláné Téglási
Ibolya Szilágyi

Adventures on Paper
INTRODUCTION
 Kristóf Fenyvesi-Ilona Oláhné Téglási-Ibolya Szilágyi:

INTRODUCTION
1 Adventures on Paper – Not Only for the Math Class!
The Visuality & Mathematics – Experimental Education of Mathematics through Visual Arts, Sciences and Playful Activities
Tempus project was supported by the European Union and launched in 2012 with the cooperation of eight institutions
in Austria, Belgium, Finland, Hungary and Serbia. One of the main objectives of this two year international joint effort
was to develop educational materials, methods and learning tools that contribute to experience-centered teaching of
mathematics. With an interdisciplinary team of mathematicians, artists, educationalists, teachers from both the
secondary and tertiary level and university students, our pedagogical aim was to bring about a reawakening of the
connections between mathematics and the visual arts. For this purpose we recommended various art-based activities
and tasks of a playful and creative nature for use in the math classroom.

This publication is a pedagogical toolkit, which presents hands-on materials and detailed methodological descriptions
for the realization of almost forty interactive math-art workshops in the classroom. A number of significant
international representatives of visual mathematics, mathematical art and experience-centered mathematics teaching
have contributed and we have tried to cover a wide variety of topics. Most of the activities we selected can be
completed with paper or cardboard on a cost-effective way and equipment readily-available in most educational
institutions such as scissors and colouring pencils, and, at most, a photocopier.

We hope that the teachers who use our toolkit will succeed in encouraging their students to see mathematics as a
joyful endeavour rather than the dry and boring subject many believe it to be.1 Moreover, we hope that this collection
is adopted as a handbook not just by math teachers, but also by art teachers wishing to illuminate the links between
the two disciplines of art and math.

2 New Trends in Education: Competency and Experience

Society moves at such a pace today, that it is essential our schools equip students with the competencies required
to embrace change, to cooperate, to approach challenges successfully at both an individual and collective level and to
be prepared for life-long learning. Mathematical competency is one of the key competencies needing to be improved
in public education. However, teaching mathematics in elementary and secondary schools purely as an abstract science,
utilising only traditional tools and methods has become outdated. Mathematics, like all the other sciences is developing
so fast that it is impossible to integrate into the curriculum all the developments taking place in the field. There is also
a paradox in that mathematics, although widely used in all industrialized societies, is experienced by most school pupils
as a difficult and unpleasant subject.2 Changes in the approach to mathematics education are therefore overdue and,
more importantly, absolutely vital.

Math education in schools should develop systems thinking and be based on applicable knowledge,
experience-centered approaches and, above all, the learning process needs to become a more joyful and appealing
experience. At the same time, however, learning content cannot be in contradiction with the state of the art
mathematics as a science. To implement all of this into everyday teaching practice is not an easy task, yet it is a
realizable proposition. This exercise book is an attempt to offer one such alternative contribution, by engaging and
familiarizing learners with mathematical contents in an active, hands-on way while revealing mathematical connections
in visual arts through creative, playful and engaging activities.
1
Cf. Fenyvesi, Mateus-Berr, Koskimaa, Radovic, Takaci, Zdravkovic (2014) Serbian Students’ Attitudes towards Mathematics and Mathematical Education. Tempus Attitude
Survey (TAS) 2013-2014 Report. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä.
2
Cf. Rogerson, A. (1986), MISP - A New Conception of Mathematics, International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 17. 5.

7
 The visual, playful and experience-centered approach to mathematics learning has a rich methodological background
and history, beginning with the work of Jerome Bruner3, Martin Gardner, Zoltán Dienes4, or Tamás Varga5. Recently
international interdisciplinary communities such as the Bridges Organization (www.bridgesmathart.org), the International
Symmetry Association (www.symmetry.hu), the Experience Workshop – International Math-Art Movement
(www.experienceworkshop.hu) and others organizations have done great work in bringing this approach to a larger
audience. The importance of research and education programs connecting art and science and their possible role in
offering useful new ideas and inspiration for teachers cannot be underestimated.
Providing sufficient motivation for students is maybe one of the greatest challenges in education today as the young
are increasingly exposed to a multitude of stimuli. But endearing students to the subject is one of the keys to their
learning mathematics well.. This book is devoted to furthering this cause. It was the Romanian mathematician, Grigore
Moisil who said: “A mathematician is concerned with mathematics because she sees something beautiful in it, something
interesting which she likes, which makes her think and which carries her away. Imagination is a source of information
itself.”6 Let your students use their imagination! Encourage students to recognize patterns, to understand systems
and to think mathematically, through creative and playful activities!

3 Contents
Our handbook covers fifteen topics in all, arranged into four chapters. The first chapter, Puzzling Symmetries opens
with Slavik Jablan and Ljiljana Radovic’s article and workshop material. The authors are internationally renowned
representatives of the interdisciplinary areas of visual mathematics and symmetry studies, as well as knot theory. Their
article provides characteristic evidence on the exceptional educational potential of their main research fields, and
their discussion concerning symmetry studies can serve as a theoretical introduction to all the topics in our book. A
former NASA engineer and presently the art curator of the Bridges Conferences Robert Fathauer’s article follows
the path of one of the most famous mathematical artists, M. C. Escher, and links the topic of planar tessellations with
research on spatial solids. Specialist of playful mathematics education and competency development, teacher at Eger
University and one of the editors of our book, Ilona Oláhné Téglási’s article utilize tangram- and match-stick games,
which are easy to execute in the classroom, for improving several competency-groups. Next Eleonóra Stettner, a
mathematician and research coordinator at the Experience Workshop, invites students into the world of graphs and
frieze symmetries with her special patterned Moebius strips.
The second chapter Arabesques and Quasicrsystals begins with the math-art-education tools developed by Jay Bonner,
a renowned expert in Islamic ornamentation and design, and a leading restorer who has worked on the conservation
of several historical buildings in the Islamic world. Bonner lets the reader in on the secrets of creating complex Islamic
geometric ornamentation and patterns. Jean-Marc Castera from France, a designer and leading art specialist in several
architectural projects in the Middle-East expands on Bonner’s activity and describes further methods of Islamic pattern
design and links it with research on crystallographic studies on quasi-crystals. Ancient Persian art authority and
president of the Bridges Organization, Reza Sarhangi presents the application of Islamic patterns on the surface of
some special solids.
At the beginning of the third chapter Tricky Structures, Playful Perspectives, the artist Tamás F. Farkas shares the
geometrical knowledge behind his artistic “impossible figures”, which are worth studying from both an aesthetic and
scientific viewpoint. F. Farkas’ piece enables the reader to show that creating “impossible” figures is not impossible at
all and it is not exceptionally difficult, if someone has the requisite mathematical knowledge. Georg Glaeser,
mathematics professor and photographer, author of several scientific and popular math books on visual representations
of mathematics, together with the artist Lilian Wieser, invites students on an extraordinary adventure: everybody can
speculate and test for themselves the mathematical knowledge required for the Nazca people to create gigantic figures
3
Bruner, J. (1977), The Process of Education, Harvard University Press.
4
Dienes, Z. P. (2002), Mathematics as an Art form. An essay about the stages of mathematics learning in an artistic evaluation of mathematical activity. Retrieved from
<http://www.zoltandienes.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Mathematics_as_an_art_form.pdf>
5
Varga, T.-Servais, W. (1971), Teaching School Mathematics, Penguin, Harmondsworth.
6
Aforizmák, anekdoták matematikusokról, matematikáról (1999), ed. Bitay, László. Kolozsvár: Radó Ferenc Matematikamûvelô Társaság.

8
in the Nazca desert in southern Peru. Kristóf Fenyvesi, one of the book’s editors, coordinator of several math-art
organizations and researcher at the University of Jyväskylä, along with the math teacher and pedagogical coordinator
of the Experience Workshop Ildikó Szabó get students to build a large model of Buckminster-Fuller’s famous geodesic
dome. In their article they also introduce the methods of creating anamorphosic images in the classroom. Mathematics
professor and noted mathematics populariser, Dirk Huylebrouck, the Belgian coordinator of our Visuality & Mathematics
project, provides the “magic formula” and requirements for building a three-dimensional fractal tree, as well as a
Sierpinski-pyramid from balloons.

In the final chapter, Paper Sculptures, mathematics professor and genuine “star” of the international math-art scene
and one of the directors of the Bridges Organization, George Hart, familiarizes readers with three-dimensional
structures created by paper modules in an ingenious and simple way. Hart’s “slide-togethers” are followed by the rich
material from the Dutch mathematical sculptor Rinus Roelofs, who offers specific solutions for three-dimensional
modelling of figures designed by one of the greatest math-art genius of all-time Leonardo Da Vinci. Turkish
mathematician and artist Ferhan Kiziltepe demonstrates how to make highly aesthetic minimalistic art compositions
based on very simple geometrical procedures.

Of course, we couldn’t possibly have a book espousing the math-art connection without at least one activity
involving origami. The mathematical connections in paper folding and origami’s great potential in mathematics education
are widely known and accepted. The closing article of our collection allows shines a light into all of this, based on the
materials and methods of Polish origami artists and internationally recognized math education specialists Wojtek and
Krystyna Burczyk.

4 How to use this book?

Thanks to the unique features of the book, all of the workshop templates are printed on pages that can be put into
a photocopier and copies given to the students participating in the particular workshop. It is necessary for the teacher
not only to be immersed in the topic of the selected workshop but also to plan the accompanying activities carefully
and to try and test each of the planned workshops and required procedures before holding the selected workshop.
During the workshop activities, it is important to plan fewer, rather than more exercises to be covered in a given
period of time and to let students enough space and time to discuss. Moreover, it is important to plan and direct
workshops according to didactical considerations of inquiry based mathematics education7, and experience-centered
education of mathematics8, to create an atmosphere required for productive learning and to facilitate creativity, to
motivate teamwork and collective discussions and to help students possibly lagging behind with patience and
encouragement.

Computer applications to complement our handbook’s hands-on materials with exercises in digital problem-solving
can be downloaded from the following page: http://vismath.ektf.hu/exercisebook

5 Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the representatives of the eight partner institutions taking part in the Tempus
programme for their constructive work. Many thanks to our collaborators at Belgrade Metropolitan University, ICT
College of Vocational Studies, University of Applied Arts Vienna, University of Jyväskylä, University of Novi Sad,
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Sint-Lucas School of Architecture, and colleagues at the consortium leader
Eszterházy Károly College, Hungary.

7
Artigue, M., & Blomhøj, M. (2013), Conceptualising inquiry based education in mathematics, ZDM—The International Journal on Mathematics Education, 45(6). 901-909.
8
Fenyvesi, K. (2012) The Experience Workshop MathArt Movement: Experience-centered Education of Mathematics through Arts, Sciences and Playful Activities,
Proceedings of Bridges 2012 World Conference. Baltimore: Towson UP, 239-246.

9
 Slavik V. Jablan
Ljiljana Radovic

Patterns, Symmetry,
Modularity and Tile Games

Puzzling Symmetries

11
SLAVIK V. JABLAN (born in Sarajevo on 10th June 1952)
graduated in mathematics from the University of Belgrade (1971),
where he also gained his M.A. (1981), and Ph.D. degree (1984).
Participated in the postdoc scientific programs in Kishinev (Moldova,
1985), USA and Canada (1990). Fulbright scholar in 2003/4. Published
a few monographs (Symmetry, Ornament and Modularity, World
Scientific, New Jersey, London, Singapore, Hong Kong, 2002;) LinKnot-
Knot theory by computer, World Scientific, Singapore (2007) and
webMathematica book Linknot (http://math.ict.edu.rs/), more than 70
papers on the knot theory, theory of symmetry and ornament,
antisymmetry, colored symmetry, and ethno-mathematics, and
participated at many international conferences (Bridges, ISIS Symmetry
Congresses, Gathering for Gardner, knot-theory and mathematical
crystallography conferences) and created visual-mathematics course
at Belgrade Metropolitan University. The co-editor of electronic
journal “VisMath” (http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/). As a painter
and math-artist he has more than 15 exhibitions under his belt and an
award from the International Competition of Industrial Design and
New Technology CEVISAMA-’87 (Valencia, Spain).

LJILJANA M. RADOVIC (born in Nis, Serbia on 28th October

1969) graduated in mathematics at the University of Nis (1993), where
she also gained her M.Sc. in Mathematics (2000), and Ph.D. degree
(2004) supervised by Professor Slavik Jablan. Works as Associate
Professor at the University of Nis, Serbia. Published more than 30
papers on the theory of symmetry and ornament, colored symmetry
and antisymmetry, ethno-mathematics, the knot theory. Participated
at many international conferences (Bridges, ISAMA, ISIS Congress,
Geometry Congresses). Participated in creating visual-mathematics
course at Belgrade Metropolitan University with Professor Slavik
Jablan. Co-author of the book The Vasarely Playhouse (Association for
South-Pannon Museums, Hungary, 2011) and the co-editor of the
book Experience-centered Approach and Visuality in the Education of
Mathematics and Physics (Kaposvar University, Hungary, 2012). The
co-editor of electronic journal “VisMath” (http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/).
Participated in several research projects in geometry, education and
visualization.

12
 Patterns and Symmetry
A pattern is a discernible regularity in the natural world or in a manmade design, where the elements of pattern repeat
in some predictable manner. In the world of patterns we can distinguish and classify patterns according to the types
of regularities they use, but also according to the degree of freedom.
The most usual patterns originate from symmetry: the regular use of geometrical rules, based on repetition. It is
possible to find symmetry in nature almost everywhere, so we can say that ”nature loves patterns”. The reason for
this is the universal principle of economy in nature: a single element (e.g., a tile) is periodically repeated, and as a result
produces ornamentation (lat. Ornamentum – decoration), one of the oldest and basic decorative elements in visual
arts. Artists and artisans of different epochs, cultures and civilizations used the repetition and combination of motifs
for the creation and construction of different decorative patterns on bone, textile, ceramics, paintings, and jewelry.
Throughout human history, there have existed unbreakable connections between geometry and art, where the visual
presentation often served as the basis for geometrical consideration. This applies especially to ornamental art, referred
to by Hermann Weyl1 as ”the oldest aspect of higher mathematics given implicitly”. However, the relatively
independent development of geometry and painting resulted in the formation of two different languages, using
completely different terms for describing symmetrical forms. In the 20th century, the dynamic progress of the
mathematical theory of symmetry meant that the first, more significant impulse for the study of ornamental art came
from mathematicians. In the appendix of his monograph about infinite groups, Andreas Speiser2 proposed using
ornaments from the Ancient world (like Egyptian ornaments) as the best possible illustration of symmetry groups.
The approach to the classification and analysis of ornaments based on symmetries was enriched by the contributions
of different authors (A. Müller, A.O. Shepard, N.V. Belov, D. Washburn, D. Crowe, B. Grünbaum). In their works,
descriptive language was replaced by geometric-crystallographic terminology. The approach to ornamental art from
the point of view of the theory of symmetry offers possibilities for the more profound study of the complete historical
development of ornamental art, regularities and laws on which constructions of ornaments are based, as well as an
efficient method for the classification, comparative analysis and reconstruction of ornaments.
The basic, simplest symmetry which generates all the other symmetries is a mirror reflection (or just: reflection): a
mirror image. We are mirror symmetrical, most living creatures and human creations are mirror symmetrical. Our
mirror image is congruent to us, but the orientation is changed: the ”left” figure is transformed into ”right”, where all
distances between pairs of points remain unchanged.
A mapping (or transformation) assigns to every point of the plane its image and vice versa. An isometry is a
transformation which preserves distances between points.
The simplest examples of isometries are the motions of a rigid body: if you move it, all distances between pairs of
its points (including the complete shape) will remain unchanged. We say that a figure is invariant under the action of
some transformation if it remains unchanged under this action. For example, if you rotate a square around its center
by 90 , or if you make its mirror image in a vertical or horizontal symmetry axis, or its diagonal, the square maps to
itself. Such a transformation (in our example the rotation or mirror reflection) is called the symmetry of this figure.
The concept of symmetry exceeds the domain of isometries, and it is related to the invariance with regard to arbitrary
transformations (e.g., similarity symmetries, etc.).
Each figure possesses at least one (trivial) symmetry, the so-called identical transformation, leaving unchanged
(invariant) every point of the figure. A figure with a single symmetry – the identical transformation, is called
asymmetrical; otherwise, it is called symmetrical. For example, the capital letters A,B,C,D,E,K,M,T,U,V,W,Y are mirror
symmetrical with regard to the vertical axes; H,I,O,X are double-symmetrical (in vertical and horizontal mirror) and
centro-symmetrical, and F,G,J,P,Q,R are asymmetrical. Letters bd or pq are mirror-symmetrical pairs, and bq or pd
are centro-symmetrical pairs. In a similar way, in the sequence every letter can be moved by one step, or by two
steps, and this is a translation. The minimal translation is one-step translation.
Mirror reflections generate all other isometries. Every plane isometry can be represented as the composition of at
most three mirror reflections. Because each reflection has its own axis, the problem of the classification of plane
isometries can be reduced to the question about possible mutual positions of three lines in the plane (reflection axes)
and resulting isometries (Fig. 1). If the two reflections are parallel, their composition is a translation (parallel motion).

1
H. Weyl, Symmetry, Princeton, 1952
2
A. Speiser, Theorie der Gruppen von endlicher Ordnung, Berlin, 1927

13
 Figure 1: Plane isometries: (a) identity transformation; (b) mirror reflection;
(c) rotation; (d) translation; (e) glide reflection

If the two reflection axes intersect, the result of the composition of these two reflections is a rotation around the
intersection point. A composition of the three reflections with axes not intersecting in the same point is a glide
reflection.
Mirror symmetry (i.e., mirror reflection) changes the orientation of every figure: a ”left” oriented figure transforms
to the ”right” oriented and vice versa. If we apply a mirror reflection two times, or an even number of times to the
same figure, its orientation remains unchanged; if we apply it an odd number of times, the orientation of the object
changes, so we can distinguish among plane isometries:
1. even isometries (the sense-preserving transformations): identical transformation, rotation, and translation (the
parallel shift) – compositions of two reflections, and
2. odd isometries (the sense-reversing transformations): reflection and glide reflection (”footprints in the snow”)
the composition of three reflections.

All symmetries of an object make a mathematical structure called group (in our case, a symmetry group). All elements
of a group satisfy four properties. The first property is the closeness: the result of a composition (successive action)
of two symmetries is symmetry. The second is the associativity: there is no difference if the composition (successive
action) of two transformations is followed by a third, or the action of the first is followed by the composition
(successive action) of the other two transformations. The third property is the existence of a neutral element – a trivial,
identity transformation, preserving all points of a figure unchanged. The fourth property is the existence of the inverse
symmetry: if some figure F is transformed by some symmetry into a figure F1, then the inverse transformation maps F1
back to F.
We are interested in the symmetric figures and plane patterns, remaining unchanged by the action of nontrivial
transformations – symmetries. We distinguish three kinds of symmetric figures in a plane:
1. the figures which have preserved a single invariant (unchanged) point of the figure (the center) under the action
of symmetries – the rosettes (circular patterns),
2. the figures without the invariant points, with an invariant direction, the translation axis – the friezes (linear
patterns),
3. the patterns without invariant points, and with two invariant directions – the plane ornaments.
To each ornament we will assign the corresponding symmetry group and divide the rosettes, friezes, and ornaments
into a (finite) number of classes, using their symmetry groups as the classification criterion. There are two infinite
classes of the rosettes: cyclic and dihedral. Every frieze belongs to one of the seven types, and every ornament belongs
to one of the 17 types of plane ornaments.
For the recognition and construction of friezes and ornaments we can use flowcharts showing in the schematic
way their symmetry structure. As homework you can try to recognize the symmetry of different friezes and ornaments
coming from ornamental art, as well as construct different symmetry patterns derived from different initial
asymmetrical basic elements.

14
Figure 2: Flowcharts for
the recognition of friezes

Figure 3: Flowcharts for the

recognition of ornaments

15
Game 1: Symmetry recognition
Try to recognize the symmetry group of the friezes and plane ornaments shown in the Fig. 4 following flow charts
instructions.

Figure 4: Examples of
friezes and ornaments
(Medieval Serbian
frescoes).

Modularity
As we already mentioned, symmetry is merely the simplest way to create patterns, which, thanks to periodicity,
provides the lowest degree of freedom and complexity. The next possibility for economy in nature is the recombination.
One of its manifestations is the principle of modularity: the possibility to create diverse and variable structures,
originating from some (finite and restricted) set of basic elements, by their reordering, where from a minimal number
of initial elements (modules) we construct the maximum number of possibilites. In this construction it is best to make
equal use of the modules. Scientists have always searched for the basic building blocks of nature in physics, chemistry,
biology, and the other sciences. In Plato’s philosophical treatise “Timaeus“, (written in the style of a Socratic dialogue),
the four basic elements in nature: earth, fire, air, and water, are identified with the regular polyhedra: cube, octahedron,
icosahedron, tetrahedron, and the fifth regular polyhedron, dodecahedron, represented the Universe. In physics,
beginning from subatomic particles, atoms, or elementary energy entities, quarks – the units of matter or energy –,
scientists try to explain nature by using modularity. A similar tendency occurs in art, architecture and design (especially
ornamental).
Further, we will illustrate some examples of modularity, designed as types of modular games, and their potential
use in mathematical education. Also, we will explain their origin and show that the principle of modularity has been
used from the since the beginnings of human history as the basis for the construction of diverse structures.
The oldest example of modularity based on geometric figures and structures comes from the Paleolithic excavation
site, Mezin (Ukraine, 23 000 B.C.). ”Op-tiles“ are a set of modular elements which consists of two rectilinear
antisymmetrical tiles (a positive and negative). It can be extended to the set consisting of five elements, including two
curvilinear tiles and one antisymmetrical tile (an ”Op-tile“ based on the same principle as the Truchet tile,
antisymmetric with respect to a diagonal). From these tiles it is possible to construct an infinite collection of plain
black-white used in the twentieth century artform known as ”Op-art“ (optical art). For such a modular element –
a square with a set of parallel diagonal black and white stripes and its negative, we also use the name ”Versitile”,
proposed by the architect Ben Nicholson who discovered the same family of modular tiles by analyzing Greek and
Roman meander friezes and mazes. Key patterns constructed from Op-tiles produce powerful visual effects of flickering
and dazzle, thanks to the ambiguity which occurs due to the congruence between ”figure“ (the black part) and ”ground“
(white part) of the key-pattern when our eye oscillates between two equally probable interpretations. This kind of
visual effect is abundantly used in ”Op-art“, which makes use of the visual effects of different geometric forms and
colors from the theory of visual perception and visual illusions.

16
 Let’s see how the creative process for the design of this ornament may have developed. Imagine a modern engineer
who begins a construction project. At first he makes a rough sketch, and then he begins to work more seriously on
solving the problem. The next series of ornaments from Mezin is more advanced. In Figure 5a we see the masterpiece
of Paleolithic art – the Birds of Mezin decorated with meander ornamentation. The man of prehistory has applied the
symmetry constructions that he learned, and he has preserved them for posterity. On the mammoth bone, modelled
in the form of a bird, he engraved the meander pattern which represents the oldest example of a rectilinear spiral in
the form of a meander ornamentation.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5: (a) Bird of Mezin; (b) Mezin bracelet; (c) developed bracelet
For the drawing of Op-tiles and similar modular elements, today you can use graphic computer programs. Some of
the computer drawing programs are free and can be downloaded from the Internet, while for others you will need a
license. From the address http://www.inkscape.org/ you can download the free program Inkscape, which can be
substituted for Corel Draw. However, if you have a licensed version of Corel Draw or Adobe Illustrator, you can
draw all the illustrations in these programs. After printing the tiles obtained on the transparencies, you can produce
different 3D structures, similar to those created by the artist Victor Vasarely, or make the Op-tile game.

Game 2: Op-tile game

From Op-tiles make your own design. Certainly, you can put the pieces together edge-on-edge (Fig. 6a), but more
interesting effects you can obtain by shifting (Fig. 6b). The final design glue on the paper. You can also create “Op-tile
letters” (Fig. 6c)

(c)
Figure 6

17
Game 3: Transparent Op-cubes
1. Fold the edges denoted by the broken lines (Fig. 7) and glue together the other two edges by using pieces of
adhesive transparent tape.
2. From the obtained parts make the Op-cube (Fig. 8).

Figure 7

Figure 8

Game 4: Op-tile Hypercube

1. Fold the edges denoted by the broken lines and glue together two opposite edges (Fig. 9a).
2. The resulting 6 pieces should be joined by gluing together the upper edges denoted by the bold lines (Fig. 9b).
3. Make the hypercube from the structure 2) by fixing together the corresponding inside edges by using pieces of
adhesive transparent tape (it is not necessary to completely seal the edges, just fix the central parts (Fig. 10).

Figure 9

Figure 10

Materials for producing transparent Op-cubes, Op-tile hypercube and Op-tile game, ready for use, can be
downloaded from the address: http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/TileGames.zip

18
 Labyrinths
The word ”labyrinth“ is derived from the Latin word labris, meaning a two-sided
axe, the motif related to the Minos palace in Knossos. The walls of the palace
were decorated with this ornamentation, while the interior of the palace featured
bronze double axes. This is the origin of the name ”labyrinth” and the famous
legend about Theseus, Ariadne, and the Minotaur. The Cretan labyrinth is shown
on the silver coin from Knossos (400 B.C.) (Fig. 11a). How does one construct
a unicursal maze? Figure 11 shows the most elegant way: draw a black meander
(Fig. 11b), remove several rectangles or squares, rotate each of them around its
center by the 90o angle, and bring it back to obtain a labyrinth (Fig. 11c). Even
very complex mazes can be constructed in this way (Fig. 12).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11: Top: “Do you like Paleolithic Op-Art?” Slavik Jablan’s exhibit at Bridges Pécs 2010 Conference (Hungary),
curated by Kristóf Fenyvesi. Below: (a) Silver coin from Knossos with image of Cretan labyrinth;
(b) meander which can be composed from Op-tiles; (c) its transformation to maze

Figure 12: Construction of a more complicated maze

Game 5: Labyrinths exhibition
In larger spaces, you can produce labyrinths by making them from square tiles and plastic adhesive tape (Fig. 13).

Figure 13

19
 Mirror Curves, Celtic Knots and ”Knot-tiles”
Mirror-curves originated from matting, plaiting and basketry. They appear in arts of different cultures (as Celtic knots,
Tamil threshold designs, Sona sand drawings etc.), as well as in the works of Leonardo Da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer.
Paulus Gerdes recognized their deep connection with the mathematical algorithmic-based structures: knot mosaics,
Lunda matrices, self-avoiding curves and cell-automata (find Paulus Gerdes’ books at: http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/pgerdes).
Mirror curves can be used for the construction of Celtic knots. Celtic knots are one of the highlights of knot-art.
Some researchers believe that the root of Celtic knot art is in knot designs in the 10th-11th century eastern mosaics
patterns, especially Persian tiling. The very beginning of knotwork art probably originated in mirror curves constructed
from plates, which have been also recognized as the basis of all Celtic knotwork by the archaeologist J. Romilly Allen
whose twenty years’ work is summarized in the book ”Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times”.
Mirror curves are trajectories of (imaginary) rays of light emitted from edge mid-points in the regular square grid
RG[a,b], with sides a and b, with one-sided mirrors on their external sides and two-sided mirrors placed between
cells, coinciding with internal edges (cell borders) or perpendicular to them at their mid-points. After a series of
reflections, a ray of light creates a closed path – a component of the mirror curve. If the complete RG[a,b] is covered
by a single mirror curve we have a perfect (monolinear) Sona drawing. Otherwise, after closing the path of one
component we start with a new ray of light emitted from another starting point and continue in this way until the
whole RG[a,b] is uniformly covered by mirror curves. How do we draw these curves? Usually we begin with a regular
square grid RG[a,b], but the same can be done with regular triangular or hexagonal grids. In the middle of a square
we draw a black dot which will be surrounded by the mirror curve and multiply this square in order to obtain the
regular square grid RG[a,b] (Fig. 14).

Figure 14: Rectangular grid with monolinear mirror curve

We begin with RG[a,b] with no internal mirrors. The ray of light reflects and is emitted from the mid-point of an
edge, reflects in the mid-points of the external edges of bordering squares, and travels through the grid. In order to
simplify this, you can divide RG[a,b] into small squares, without deleting the internal edges, and remove them after
finishing your work. If the numbers a and b are relatively prime, i.e. if GCD(a,b)=1 (as in our example where a=4 and
b=3, so c=GCD(a,b)=1), we obtain a single curve surrounding all dots and uniformly covering RG[a,b]. Otherwise, a
multi-component mirror curve is obtained, where its number of components is c = GCD(a,b) . Instead of completely
covering RG[a,b] with dots you can use a system (a scheme) consisting only of dots, but in this case you need to
consider the correct direction of the light-ray, especially when turning it in the border ends (Fig. 15).

Figure 15
Different situations can occur depending on the dimensions of RG[a,b], i.e., GCD(a,b). Try to prove the previous
statement that the number of components (it is useful to represent them with different colors, so they can be easily
distinguished) is equal to c= GCD(a,b). For example, for a=2 and b=2 the number of components is c= GCD(2,2)=2,

20
for a=4 and b=2 the number of components is c= GCD(4,2)=2, for a=5 and b=2 the number of components is c=
GCD(5,2)=1, for a=6 and b=2 the number of components is c= GCD(6,2)=2, for a=6 and b=3 it is c= GCD(6,3)=3
(Fig. 16), etc.

Figure 16
In order to draw curves with smoothed, rounded corners, for reflecting a ray of light in the external edges and in the
corners of the grid, you can use the following rules shown in Figure 17 (this can be done in Adobe Illustrator by the
command Filter>RoundCorners, or by command Effect>Stylize>RoundCorners).

Figure 17
Let’s see what will happen if the numbers a and b are not relatively prime. As before, we draw a rectangular grid, but
now of dimensions 4 4, and we place the rays of light (components) in it. In order to surround all the dots and
uniformly cover RG[4,4] by the mirror curve, we need four components (Fig. 18).

Figure 18
Every mirror curve can be converted into a knotwork design by introducing the relation “over-under”. The next
question is how to place internal two-sided mirrors within the existing scheme, in order to join our components into
a single mirror curve, i.e. to get a single ray of light that traces it. When inserting an internal mirror, we have two
possible choices (Fig. 19):
1, place it between square cells, incident to the internal edge;
2, place it perpendicular to the edge at its mid-point.

Figure 19
A mirror placed at the crossing point of two components (denoted by different colors) will join them into one. If
placed at a self-crossing of an oriented component, a mirror between arrows breaks the component in two; otherwise,
after inserting the new mirror, the number of curves remains unchanged (Fig. 20).

21
Figure 20
We repeat this algorithm until a single curve is obtained. After inserting internal mirrors, we again make a smoothing
of the mirror curve obtained (Fig. 21 left). The next image shows the smoothing of zig-zag lines (Fig. 21 right).

Figure 21
Notice that symmetrical placements of mirrors result in symmetrical mirror curves. Let’s return to the example of
the 4x4 grid covered by four components. After inserting an internal mirror at the crossing point of two different
curves (represented by different colors), the number of components reduces to three, since the two curves are joined
into one (after this, you need to make a new coloring of the components, representing the joined curves by a single
color). Continuing in this way, by inserting new internal mirrors at the crossing point of two components, at each
step the number of curves decreases by one, so that after three steps we obtain a single component – monolinear
mirror curve uniformly covering RG[4,4]. Figure 22 shows one possible way to introduce three internal mirrors in
order to get a single curve. Certainly, the solution of this problem is not unique; you can choose different arrangements
of three internal mirrors each resulting in a monolinear mirror curve.

Figure 22
In Figure 22 the mirrors are not symmetric, so the resulting mirror curve is asymmetric as well. Figure 23 shows a
symmetric arrangement of four internal mirrors according to a rotation of order 4, so the resulting drawing has the
cyclic rotational symmetry of the group C4. However, we have not completely followed the rule about pairing
components of different colors, and so we obtained a 4-component (imperfect) mirror curve. Try to make another
symmetrical arrangement of internal mirrors in the same 4x4 grid resulting in a perfect (monolinear) mirror curve.

Figure 23: Symmetrical

arrangement of internal
two side mirrors
Figure 24 illustrates the same exercise within a 3x3 grid. At the beginning, we have 3 components, so it is necessary
to insert at least 2 internal mirrors in order to obtain a single curve. By using two internal mirrors, placed
asymmetrically, we obtain the drawing shown on the left. The right part of Figure 24 shows the same curve turned
into the diagram (projection) of an alternating knot, by introducing at every crossing the relation “over-under” in an
alternating manner. You will find many similar examples in books describing Celtic knotwork or in computer programs
for drawing Celtic knots.

22
Figure 24: Mirror curve
and corresponding knot
In order to obtain interlacing knot ornaments (mirror curves similar to Celtic designs) you can use a few basic tiles
(5 modules) as shown in Figure 25. These tiles (“KnotTiles”) represent all possible “states” of a single small square
with regard to the portion of a mirror curve that it contains along with the relation “over-under”. By (re)combining
them, you can obtain all possible mirror curves (or knot mosaics). For the knot game made from “KnotTiles”, please
see http://www.mi.sanu.ac.rs/vismath/op/tiles/kt/kt.htm

Figure 25
Consider the possibility to insert internal mirrors into a regular square grid lacking internal mirrors and covered by
a single curve with c= GCD(a,b)=1, i.e., when the sides of the grid are relatively prime numbers. We can try to plan
the choice of positions for mirrors in advance, in order to obtain more interesting and visually pleasing single curves.
In many cases this can be achieved by using symmetry (translational = repetitional, rotational, or any other). After
some experimentation, you can obtain single curves similar to those created by the Tchokwe people (Fig. 26) from
6x5 square grids (initially containing one component) and 5x5 grids (initially containing 5 components).

Figure 26
Figure 27 shows the 5x4 grid initially containing a single component mirror curve, but still we can add some internal
two sides mirrors. After a few steps, by introducing six internal mirrors in the appropriate (symmetrical) positions,
the Celtic people once again obtained a monolinear mirror curve.

23
Figure 27
Figure 28 shows examples of Celtic knots from the front cover of “Celtic Art – the Methods of Construction”
(Dower, New York, 1973) by G. Bain. All Celtic knots can be (re)constructed by taking a grid (part of a plane
tessellation; in the simplest case a part of a square grid), placing internal mirrors in it, and introducing the relation
“over-under” (interlacing) at every crossing of the mirror curve.

Figure 28
The next knot (Fig. 29) is created in Adobe Illustrator. Beginning with the 4x3 grid, we introduce eight internal mirrors
and create the mirror curve, drawn by a 20pt line with the use of neon effects. Isn’t that simple?

Figure 29
In Figure 30, different mirror schemes are shown. They can be used to create Celtic neon knots in the same manner
as we constructed knots in Fig. 29.

Figure 30

24
It is also possible to combine several rectangular schemes and extend our mirror-curve designs to obtain friezes or
more complicated ornamental knots. By combining, joining, or overlapping parts of basic rectangular grids, we obtain
composite mirror-curve designs (Sona drawings of animals made by the Tchokwe people, or monolinear Tamil
threshold designs, called “pavitram” or “Brahma mudi”) (Fig. 31).

Figure 31
The same approach can be used in order to obtain composite Celtic knots (e.g., in the
form of a cross) (Fig. 32)

.
Figure 32

Game 6: Knot tile

Every knot or link you can make from these five Knot-tiles (Fig 33, left). A set of knot-tiles is called perfect if it contains
tiles of every of five kinds. Goal of the game: make a knot or link from all 9 knot-tiles.

Figure 33

25
Game 7: Mirror curve and Celtic knot
Experiment with different shapes of mirror curves (Fig 34).

Figure 34

26
 Robert Fathauer

Decoration of Polyhedra
using Escher-like
Tessellations

Puzzling Symmetries

11
 ROBERT FATHAUER is a visual artist, author, and puzzle designer.
He has a B.S. degree in Physics and Mathematics from the University of
Denver and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Cornell University. He
worked for several years as a research scientist at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Dr. Fathauer currently owns a small
business based in Arizona called Tessellations that produces books, puzzles
and other products for mathematics education. His art draws on a range of
mathematical ideas, including tessellations, fractals, knots, polyhedra, and
hyperbolic geometry. Dr. Fathauer’s books include “Designing and Drawing
Tessellation” and “Designing and Building Tessellated Polyhedra”.

Tessellations
A tessellation is a collection of shapes, called tiles that fit together without gaps or overlaps to cover the infinite
mathematical plane. There are three types of symmetry found in tessellations in the plane. A tessellation is said to
possess translational symmetry if it can be moved by some amount in some direction and remain unchanged. Such a
tessellation is periodic, or repeating. For such a tessellation, an infinite number of different translation arrows can be
drawn. In the example at left below, the arrow indicates one such translation.
A tessellation is said to possess rotational symmetry if it can be rotated about a point and remain unchanged.
Patterns with both 2-fold and 5-fold rotational symmetry can be constructing using the three types of tiles shown
below. This refers to rotation by 1/2 and 1/5 or a full revolution, respectively. In the example at right below, the
arrow indicates rotation by 1/5 of a full revolution about the center.

28
 A tessellation is said to possess glide reflection symmetry if it can be moved by some amount along a line and then
be reflected about that line and remain unchanged. If the glide distance is zero the tessellation is said to possess mirror
or reflection symmetry. In the example at left above, solid lines indicate lines of mirror symmetry. In the example at
right above, the two dashed lines indicate two distinct lines of glide reflection symmetry.

The Dutch graphic artist M.C. Escher was famous for creating tessellations in which the individual tiles were
recognizable motifs like birds and lizards. An Escheresque tessellation is created by choosing a geometric template
and then modifying the edges of the tiles to suggest a natural motif. Interior details are then added to further suggest
the motif. In the example below, two different rhombi are modified to form three different types of tiles, squids, rays,
and sea turtles.

29
 Activity 1: Symmetry in Plane Tessellations
Teacher’s guide
Materials: Copies of Worksheet 1 for students. Colored pencils or markers for coloring in the black-and-white
tessellations.
Objective: Become familiar with the three types of symmetry found in plane tessellations and learn how to indicate them.
Vocabulary: Tessellation, translational symmetry, rotational symmetry, and glide reflection symmetry.
Activity Sequence:
1. Pass out the worksheet. Make sure the students understand that the groups of tiles shown represent portions of
tessellations that extend to infinity.
2. Write the vocabulary terms on the board and discuss the meaning of each one.
3. Have the students complete the worksheet. Then have students share their answers for each tessellation.
The upper left tessellation has translational symmetry, as well as mirror symmetry and glide reflection symmetry about vertical lines.
The upper right tessellation has mirror symmetry about a single horizontal line and a single vertical line, as well as two-fold
rotational symmetry about the center.
The middle left tessellation has 5-fold rotational symmetry about its center.
The middle right tessellation has 2-fold rotational symmetry about its center.
The lower left tessellation has both translational symmetry, and mirror symmetry about horizontal lines.
The lower right tessellation has translational symmetry, and glide reflection symmetry about vertical lines.
4. The students may color the black-and-white tessellations if they would like.

30
Worksheet 1. Mark each of the tessellations to indicate the symmetry it possesses. Use a “T” to indicate the
translation, along with an arrow to indicate the translation distance and direction, a solid line to indicate simple
reflection, a dashed line to indicate glide reflection, and a large dot to indicate a center of rotation. For those with
rotational symmetry, write a number n to indicate n-fold symmetry.

11
Polyhedra
A polyhedron is a geometric solid, the faces of which are polygons. A face of a polyhedron is thus a flat region of
polygonal shape. An edge of a polyhedron is a straight line shared by two adjacent faces. A vertex of a polyhedron is
a point where three or more faces meet. A convex polyhedron is one for which any line connecting two points on
the surface lies in the interior or on the surface of the polyhedron. Euler’s polyhedron formula gives a simple
relationship between the number of vertices V, edges E, and faces F for a convex polyhedron: V - E + F = 2.
The five Platonic solids are the only convex polyhedra for which each face is the same regular polygon and all
vertices are of the same type. From left to right, their names are tetrahedron, cube (hexahedron), octahedron,
dodecahedron, and icosahedron.

A regular dodecahedron has 12 faces

that are regular pentagons. Another type
of dodecahedron is the rhombic
dodecahedron, in which each face is a
rhombus. The rhombic dodecahedron is
closely related to the cube and octahedron.
Lines along the short diagonals of the
rhombi delineate a cube, while lines along
the long diagonals delineate an octahedron,
as shown below.
The ratio of the length of a long diagonal to a short diagonal is √2, making the angles in the rhombi approximately
70.53° and 109.47°. These are only slightly different than the angles of 72° and 108° used in the squid and sea turtle
tiles above. For the last worksheet, the squid and sea turtle tiles were distorted to make them fit the rhombi of a
rhombic dodecahedron.

Activity 2: Attributes of the Platonic Solids and Euler’s Formula

Teacher’s guide
Materials: Copies of Worksheet 2 for students.
Objective: Become familiar with basic attributes of the Platonic solids, such as number of faces, edges, and vertices
possessed by each, and become familiar with and learn to apply Euler’s formula, in different arrangements, relating
these quantities.
Vocabulary: Platonic solid, face, vertex, edge
Activity Sequence:
1. Pass out the worksheet.
2. Write the vocabulary terms on the board and discuss the meaning of each one.
3. Have the students complete the table at the top of the worksheet. Then have students share their answers and fill
in the table on the overhead copy of the worksheet.
Tetrahedron 4 6 4 3
Cube 6 12 8 3
Octahedron 8 12 6 4
Dodecahedron 12 30 20 3
Icosahedron 20 30 12 5
4. Have the students complete the next three tasks on ordering and grouping the solids. Then have students share
their results and write the results on the overhead copy of the worksheet.
5. Discuss Euler’s formula. Ask the students to calculate the value of n for each of the five Platonic solids. Be sure they
all understand why it is 2, and then have them solve the remaining problems on the worksheets. Have the students
share their answers.
14, 6, 36.

32
Worksheet 2. Attributes of the Platonic Solids and Euler’s Formula

Fill out the table below for the properties of each of the Platonic solids.
Name of the solid Number of Number of Number of Number of faces meeting
faces F edges E vertices V at each vertex

List the Platonic Solids by number of faces, from least to most.

Group the Platonic Solids by the number of edges possessed by each polygonal face, from least to most. How many
groups are there?

Group the Platonic Solids by the number of faces meeting at each vertex, from least to most. How many groups are
there?

Euler’s formula provides a simple relationship for the number of vertices, faces, and edges in a convex polyhedron: V
+ F - E = n. Using the table above, determine the value of n. Then use the formula to answer the questions below.
A cuboctahedron has 12 vertices and 24 edges. How many faces does it have?
A truncated octahedron has 24 vertices, 36 edges, and 8 hexagon faces. The remaining faces are square; how many
square faces are there?
A truncated cube has the same number of faces as a truncated octahedron, and 24 vertices. How many edges does it
have?

33
 Activity 3: Rhombic Dodecahedron Decorated with a Tessellation
Teacher’s guide
Materials: Copies of Worksheets 3a and 3b for students. Colored pencils or markers, scissors, and glue or tape. If
possible, use a heavy paper such as card stock for the copies, as the polyhedra will be sturdier.

Objective: Understand the relationship between the rhombic dodecahedron and the cube and octahedron, and learn
how a plane tessellation can be adapted to tile a polyhedron.

Vocabulary: Rhombic dodecahedron.

Activity Sequence:
1. Pass out Worksheet 3a. Three copies are needed to form one polyhedron.

2. Write the vocabulary term on the board and discuss its meaning.

3. Have the students draw the diagonals of each rhombus on Worksheet 3a using colored pencils or markers.

4. Have the students construct the polyhedron on Worksheet 3a.

5. Ask students to describe how one set of diagonals shows the edges of a cube, and the other shows the edges of an
octahedron.

6. Have the students construct the polyhedron on Worksheet 3b.

7. If there is time, students can draw their own decorative design on copies of Worksheet 3a and construct a
polyhedron with their own decoration.

34
Worksheet 3a. Use a colored pencil or marker to draw the long diagonal of each rhombus. Then use a second
color to draw the short diagonals. Finally, build the rhombic dodecahedron, by cutting along the solid lines and then
folding along the dashed lines. The tabs go under the faces, and tape or glue can be used to hold it together.

35
Worksheet 3b. Construct a rhombic dodecahedron decorated with squid and sea turtle motifs.

36
 Ilona Oláhné Téglási

Tangram-type Games and

Matchstick Puzzles

Puzzling Symmetries

11
 ILONA OLÁHNÉ TÉGLÁSI graduated from Eötvös Lóránd University
in Budapest as a secondary school teacher of Mathematics and Physics. For
20 years she has been teaching in secondary schools, including a 5 years
mentoring student teachers in the Training School of Eszterházy Károly
College, Eger. She started to work in the Department of Mathematics at
Eszterházy Károly College in 2008, and at the same time commenced her
PhD studies at the University of Debrecen. Her thesis is on the
development and evaluation of mathematical competencies. She is now
teaching foundation mathematical subjects and mathematics didactical
subjects – at Eszterházy Károly College to students studying to become
mathematics teacher.

1. Tangram-type games developing the concept of area and volume

General introduction: When teaching the area of polygons, teachers often recognize that pupils just blindly learn
the formula of the area of different polygons. However, there’s no real understanding behind the formula. This can be
remedied with the ancient Chinese game “Tangram” which requires players to make different figures from a square
divided into 7 pieces. This can help pupils to develop a deeper understanding of the concept of area. The objective of
the puzzle is to form a figure (given only in silhouette) using all seven pieces, which may not overlap. It was originally
invented in China, and then brought over to Europe by trading ships in the early 19th century. It became very popular
in Europe for a time. During World War I it was one of the most popular dissection puzzles in the world. Over 6500
different tangram problems have been compiled from 19th century texts alone, and the number is still rising – the
number of possible figures is, however, finite. Fu Traing Wang and Chuan-Chin Hsiung proved in 1942 that there are
only thirteen convex tangram configurations.[5]
One important property of the area of a plane figure – according to Hilbert’s axiom – is that if we divide a plane
figure into pieces, the sum of the area of the pieces is equal to the area of the original figure. We often use this
property when we have to measure the area of a complex figure: we divide it into simple polygons we can measure
easily. In such problems we find, that pupils, who have only learned the formula, cannot even begin to solve them,
because they are not aware of Hilbert’s axiom.
It is very helpful to play Tangram when students are first introduced to the
concept of area (5–6 grade), so that pupils will be able to use this method later in
secondary school tasks. We can use the original game, as there are many websites
on the Internet from where we can get the figures [4, 5, 6]. (The original dissection
you can see in Fig.1.)
From the thousands of possible shapes we should select those that best fit to
the requirements of the mathematics curriculum. Or we can make new forms,
such as in the following problem.

Figure 1. Original Chinese Tangram square

Problem: From this square – divided into 5 pieces – form a rectangle, a

parallelogram, a triangle and a cross by putting all the elements together in another
way, without gaps or overlapping!(originally devised by Sam Loyd)[3, 4, 6]

Figure 2. Sam Loyd’s tangram

38
 Figure 3. Conversed figures

Solutions:

Figure 4. How to form the cross Figure 5. How to form the triangle

Figure 6. How to form the rectangle Figure 7. How to form the parallelogram

After creating the different polygons, we can conclude with our students, that the area of these four different polygons
is equal to the area of the original square: T = a2. For lower grades we can discuss other properties of these polygons
too. We can also produce other problems based on these figures (depending on the grade), for example [2]:

1.1 Using the original square’s area, determine the area of each of the 5 pieces!

Answer: the blue square’s area is –1 T the ”big” triangle’s area is 1– T the ”small” triangle’s area is —1 T the trapezoid’s
3 5 7 4 20
area is — T the concave hexagon’s area is — T.
20 20

39
 1.2 What are the lengths of the sides of the 5 pieces when making up the original square’s side?
How many different lengths are there?

Answer: We can discuss with the pupils that E, G and F points are midpoints of the sides of the square. If we draw
————
in some auxiliary segments, we can see, that there are four different lengths we have to determine: BE, GH, HI, ED.
We can easily find these lengths by using the Pythagorean theorem and similarity.(Fig. 8.)

Figure 8: Construction view of the puzzle

Because . (both are

rectangular, and have a common angle at vertex B), so and
so thus . Because of the similarity of these
two triangles, we can also conclude that so ,
and . And we know, that (Fig. 8.).

1.3 What are the peripheries of the 5 pieces?

Answer:

1.4 What are the peripheries of the conversed figures?

Answer: We have already discussed, that the area is the same, and now we can see, that we could make figures with
the same area and a different periphery. The periphery of the cross (Fig.4) is , the periphery of the triangle
(Fig.5) is , the periphery of the rectangle (Fig.6) is
and the periphery of the parallelogram (Fig.7) is .

With this simple dissection of a square we can motivate pupils, and by solving this series of exercises we can develop
their concept of area and periphery.
With 3D dissection puzzles we can reach a similar development in the concept of volume. We can also use 3D
dissection puzzles to help the students understand the properties and volume of polyhedra. There are different
polyhedra you can obtain: cubes, tetrahedron, pyramid, 3D cross, ”star”, etc [8].
For pupils it is often difficult to understand why the volume of a 3-unit long sided cube is equal to that 27 volume
units. Maybe, because they cannot imagine the inside of the cube. If they take the ”cubic snake” (Fig.9-10) apart, they
can physically count the number of volume units in the cube.

Figure 9. Cubic snake packed Figure 10. Cubic snake opened up

40
Another example is the following puzzle cube, which can be taken apart to three cubic units and four cubic units
(Fig.11-12). One task is to put the parts together, to form the cube, and another to measure the volume. Through
these games we can combine playing with serious learning – and thus the pupils will be motivated to do the tasks.

Figure 11. 3D puzzle cube packed Figure 12.3D puzzle cube taken apart

At first sight they are only good games – but on reflection they also make our children think things through, motivate
them to learn, and show them how to problemsolve. For a teacher of mathematics these games give so much more:
they are good tools for developing mathematical skills such as: spatial ability, logical thinking, analogical and deductive
thinking and, learning problem solving strategies.[2]
In short, by using the Chinese game “Tangram” in the classroom we can create a series of problems which can be
interesting, motivating and also fit into the mathematics curriculum.

2 Matchstick puzzles in mathematics lessons

General introduction: Most of us can recall matchstick party games, where we have to remove or replace
matchsticks in a given figure to form another figure. Everyone likes such puzzles, they are useful for developing
teamwork and need only a few boxes of matchsticks. There are many different types of this puzzle, one can create
one’s own or use the Internet to locate those, that fit to the topic of a particular mathematics lesson. These puzzles
can develop logical thinking skills, recognition of spatial connections, properties of plane figures, geometrical
transformations, measuring length and area – just to mention a few.
We can divide these puzzles into different groups, according to the task we have to solve:
1. forming other polygons from given polygons, using the properties of the polygons;
2. forming different polygons from a given number of matchsticks;
3. logical problems – visualization of non-geometric problems.[1]
In the present book we can show only a few of the possible problems, and make some methodological remarks on
them. We can find many of these puzzles on the Internet [7].
Problems:
1. In these problems we use the matchsticks as length units, and we play with the different places and size of the
polygons, as in the following examples. These exercises are good for younger age groups, when introducing the
different polygons and transformations.
1.1 Move 2 sticks to get 3 small and 1 big square!

Figure 13.3+1 squares puzzle

41
 1.2 Move 2 sticks to get 4 regular triangles!

Figure 14. Four triangles puzzle

1.3 Move 4 sticks to get 6 regular triangles!

Figure 15. Six triangles puzzle

Solutions:
1.1 The key is, that the ”big square” has sides measuring 2 units each, thus we use translation, so the transformed
figure is:

Figure 16. Solution of 3+1 square puzzle

1.2 The key is that we use a central symmetry to get 4 triangles:

Figure 17. Solution of four triangles puzzle

1.3 In this case we use translation when we move the matchsticks:

Figure 18. Solution of six triangles puzzle

2. The next problems can help the pupils understand the difference between area and periphery, and can be used to
introduce the ”isoperimetric problem” in secondary school. Again we use the matchstick as length unit, and the
area of a square formed by 4 matchsticks as area unit.
2.1 Form as many different simple polygons as you can using 12 matchsticks, they cannot cross each other
(every matchstick has to be on the periphery of the polygon)!
2.2 Form convex and concave polygons from 12 matchsticks!
2.3 What is common to all formed polygons?
2.4 Try to give the area of each polygon you’ve formed (for secondary school students)!
2.5 Which polygon has the biggest area, and which the smallest?

42
Solutions:
2.1 Pupils can form many different polygons – ask them to define, which polygon they’ve formed (triangle, rectangle,
hexagon, etc.). Maybe, you could explain what a ”simple polygon” means. The number of formed polygons can
give us a view of the pupils’ creativity (they can also work in groups) [2]. Maybe, all the polygons will be convex
– so comes the next task.
2.2 If they didn’t form concave polygons in the first task, they will probably now form crosses, different ”stars”,
etc. There are plenty of possible figures, we cannot state a number, it all depends on the time given to the task
and also the pupils’ creativity.
2.3 What these polygons have in common, is that the periphery is the same, 12 units long. We can discuss with
the pupils, that the same periphery can encompass different areas (”dual” problem to the square dissection
problem above).
2.4 This task is mainly for secondary school students, because in some cases trigonometric formulae need to be
applied. This exercise is also useful for discussing the original meaning of measurement – we give the length
unit and the area unit, use the axioms of measurement – and the length of the matchstick as unit (don’t use
centimetres, because it detracts from the uniqueness of this exercise!). We can also ask the students to put
the polygons into a sequence of increasing or decreasing area.
2.5 After giving the area of some formed figures, the students can draft a hypothesis: that the regular 12-sided
polygon has the biggest area– even at this stage we are encountering the isoperimetric problem. It depends on
the group and students’ age, how deeply we get into discussing this problem. On the other hand, which polygon
has got the smallest area, is another interesting question: try to ask the students leading questions that take
them to the hypothesis: we can give a smaller area from every given positive number. For example, forming a
parallelogram, and decreasing angles of the sides from 90° to 0° (Fig.19.). To prove this thesis we need analytical
tools, so this part of the problem also depends on the group we are working with.

Figure 19. Decreasing the area and keeping the periphery

3. The next problems are for developing logical skills, require creativity and can be used as motivation before a more
serious mathematical problem with matchsticks, like those above, or perhaps as a wind down at the end of a lesson.
But before we think that these are just for fun, we should mention that the solutions to these problems exercise
students’ thinking skills (such as analytical-synthetical thinking, changing view, recognizing spatial connections,
forward and backward thinking, even cultural and linguistic skills, etc.).[1,2]
Problems:
3.1 Make the equation true by moving only 1 matchstick!

Figure 20. Equation puzzle

3.2 Arrange 6 matchsticks together, so that each stick touches every other stick!

43
 3.3 This is a running horse. Move 1 matchstick to make the horse move in another direction!

Figure 21. Horse puzzle

3.4 How could we make this equation true without adding, taking away or moving any matchsticks?

Figure 22. Tricky equation puzzle

I won’t give the solutions to the last four problems – it is a challenge for the teachers too. You can exercise your own
logical thinking skills! I hope everyone will enjoy thinking about them.

Finally I’d like to mention that these are only a small selection of how we can use matchsticks in mathematics lessons.
I hope I have given you the inspiration to try them, and to create your own matchstick puzzles for your classes!

References:
1. Jerome Bruner: The Process of Education (Harvard University Press, 1999)
2. Robert Fisher: Teaching Children to Think (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 2005)
3. http://www.samloyd.com
4. http://www.puzzles.com/puzzleplayground/TrapezoidalTangram
5. http://www.tangram-channel.com/
6. Sam Loyd’s book of tangrams (Dover Publications Inc., 2007)
7. http://matchstickpuzzles.blogspot.hu/
8. http://www.theiqgames.com

44
 Eleonóra Stettner

Möbius Strip and

Frieze Symmetries

Puzzling Symmetries
 ELEONÓRA STETTNER is associate professor, and head of the
Mathematics and Physics Department at Kaposvár University. Before she
started teaching, at Kaposvár University, she had taught mathematics, physics
and computer studies in a secondary school for 25 years. Eleonóra then
undertook her Ph.D. thesis in surface topology. In her thesis computational
surfaces were created, and symmetries of non-orientable surfaces were
demonstrated. She has also taken part in the work of Experience Workshop
International Math-Art Movement (www.experienceworkshop.hu) as a
research coordinator ever since it was established in 2008. She now teaches
mathematics at bachelor, master and Ph.D. levels at Kaposvár University and developed the syllabus of a new subject:
mathematics and arts. She teaches it as an optional subject available to students of the university.

Introduction
The aim of this paper is to show how many interesting problems and areas of mathematics can be explored from
a simple strip of paper. For example, we can examine the sides of a surface or we can create a coloured map on an
interesting surface that leads us to a special graph. Graphs can be represented by matrices in many ways. For example
if a symmetrical line-pattern is drawn on a paper strip, then the pattern can be made infinite by joining the ends of the
strip together. Thus we return to our original question as to whether a surface with one or two sides preserves the
given frieze symmetry?

Some Simple Features of the Möbius Strip

The Möbius strip or Möbius band is the best-known surface with only one side or as it is also referred to,
non-orientable. What does it mean that a surface has only one side? It can be determined in various ways. If a relatively
long rectangle is taken, then the two shorter sides can be joined together in two different ways: as a cylindrical surface
or as a Möbius strip by taking a paper strip and giving it a half-twist, and then joining the ends of the strip together to
form a loop (Figure 1). The entire length of the Möbius strip (on both sides of the original paper) can be painted with
a wide paintbrush without ever crossing an edge. It does not work on a cylindrical surface that has two sides, that is
orientable. The Möbius band has one surface not like the cylindrical surface with an inside and outside surface.

Figure 1: a) A cylindrical surface from a paper strip b) A Möbius strip from paper
An interesting result is gained if we cut out the second strip in Figure 13 joining the two shorter ends together as
a Möbius band. Then we cut the surface along the broken line (along the midline). What dowe get in this way? How
many times is the band twisted? Does the resulting surface have one or two sides? This latter feature can be decided
on by drawing a line approximately parallel to the edge of the strip along the midline from a point on the surface and
if the line ending up in the starting point was drawn along the length of the entire strip then the surface has one side,
however, if there is any part of the surface where the midline was not drawn then the surface has two sides. We gain
a surprising result even if we cut out the third strip in Figure 12, giving it a half-twist, and then joining the ends of the
strip together to form a loop and cutting it along the trisecting line of the surface.

46
 Möbius Strip and Map Colouring
A classic problem with a long history is the so-called “four colour problem” or the “four colour map theorem”
stating that, on a plane or on a sphere no more than four colours are required to colour the regions of the map so
that no two adjacent regions have the same colour. Two regions are called adjacent if they share a common boundary
that is not a corner, where corners are the points shared by three or more regions. The theorem was proven in
1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, by reducing the infinite number of potential maps into particular sets
of maps and then by using a special-purpose computer program to confirm that each of these maps had this property.
It is interesting and surprising that the problem of map colouring was solved on a Möbius strip earlier than in the case
of planar maps. How many colours are required to colour any map on a Möbius strip so that no two adjacent regions
have the same colour? On a Möbius strip this number is six, see Figure 2. Cut out the coloured paper strip in Figure
13, make a Möbius strip and count how many neighbours each region has. Is it five?

Figure 2: ‘’Map” on the Möbius strip, each ‘’country” has five neighbours

The Tietze Graph

Map colouring of the Möbius strip leads to some problems for graph
theory. Regions on this map are rectangles (it is certainly not necessary,
regions can be of other shapes). Label the vertices of the rectangles as
shown in Figure 2. In this way a graph is obtained. Vertices of the
graph are the labelled points, its edges are those of the rectangle.
The Tietze graph can also be studied on the Möbius strip, the
second strip in Figure 14 shows the graph with colouring, and the
third strip contains only the graph. If we cut out the third strip and
glue it together in the usual way and then we cut out regions so
that only vertices and edges remain, then the Tietze graph is
obtained on the surface of the Möbius strip. Count the vertices
and edges of the graph and determine the degree of vertices (the
number of edges that connect to each of them). Try to draw the
graph on a sheet of paper. We can see that it is not a planar graph as
it cannot be drawn so that its edges only intersect at their endpoints. On
a Möbius strip no edges cross each other that only intersect at their endpoints.

Figure 3: A potential appearance of the Tietze graph in a plane

Isomorphism and Colouring of the Tietze Graph

What does it mean in the description of Figure 3 there is ‘a potential appearance of a graph’? Can it be drawn in a
different way? If two graphs seem to be different, it is possible that they represent the same thing. In such a case we
say that the two graphs are isomorphic. Two graphs G and H are isomorphic if there is a bijective map f from the
vertices of G to the vertices of H that preserves the “edge structure” in the sense that there is an edge from vertex
u to vertex v in G if, and only if, there is an edge from ƒ(u) to ƒ(v) in H. It is easy to construct isomorphic graphs, for
example in a GeoGebra computer application (find GeoGebra here: www.geogebra.org). Draw the third Figure in
GeoGebra. While giving instructions use only point and edge but no polygon. This is important because the graph can
be formed/deformed arbitrarily in this way that is, isomorphic graphs can be drawn easily. Create isomorphic graphs
with some having an axis of symmetry, rotational symmetry of order three and non-symmetric between them.

47
 Colour vertices of the graph so that no two endpoints of an edge have the same colour (the edges should be black).
What is the minimum number of colours required? The number obtained in this way is called the chromatic number
of the graph. Reproducing Figure 14 allows us to try colouring.
Colour edges of the graph so that no two edges joining vertices have the same colour (now vertices should be black)!
What is the minimum number of colours required? (Figure 15) The number obtained in this way is called the chromatic
index of the graph. Figure 15 will help you.

Matrices Featuring the Tietze Graph

How can we store graphs using little of a computer’s memory so that from the data we could unambiguously
recreate and draw graphs at any time? Features of a graph are arranged in a table (it is called matrix in mathematics).
Several matrices are known to store graphs. One of them is the adjacency matrix. In the first row and column of the
table letters of the vertices in the graph are inputted. The rest of the table is filled in as follows. 1 is written at the
place where row D and column C intersect because vertices D and C are connected by an edge, 0 is written at the
place of intersection of row E and column H because vertices E and H are not connected directly by an edge. The
table can be made more expressive if 0 and 1 are written using different colours and a more aesthetically pleasant,
coloured table can be obtained in this way. What kind of features, symmetries can be observed in the matrix?
A more colourful and nicer figure can be obtained if a distance matrix is used. In order to fill it consider the Tietze
graph again in Figure 3. At the intersection of row G and column D number 3 is written as from vertex G we can get
to vertex D in 3 connecting edges. As the graph is connected we can get to each vertex along connecting edges so 0
is put only in the main diagonal of the table. Different colours are assigned again to different numbers and in this way
the graph can be featured again with a new and
more colourful table. Observe symmetries and
rules even in this matrix! Fill or colour in the
table in Figure 17 to feature the adjacency,
distance matrix with numbers or colours. Hence
four different expressions of a graph can be
provided by a table.
The third table is the incidence (point-edge)
matrix. Here edges featured by their endpoints
are written in the first row and vertices are
written in the columns. Number 1 is written in
the row of vertices E and F in the column of the
edge EF and 0 is written everywhere else.
Therefore this matrix shows which two vertices
belong to a given edge. This matrix can also be
coloured. By making two copies of Figure 18 a
version of the incidence matrix filled with Figure 4 A map colouring of the Möbius strip, graph and matrices
numbers and coloured in can be obtained. belonging to it illustrated on a knitted jumper

Frieze Symmetries and Line Patterns

Grouping of planar symmetries can be found in Slavik Jablan and Ljiljana Radovic’s chapter in this book.
The discrete group of symmetry comprising one translation is called the frieze group, or simply line patterns, patterns
on a strip. Infinite line patterns, that is frieze groups generated by repeating a motive (infinitely many times), can be
created in exactly seven different ways.
Grouping of the seven frieze groups can also be found in Slavik Jablan and Ljiljana Radovic’s chapter in this book.
Therefore here we only illustrate a list revealing all the transformations leaving the pattern of an infinite strip invariant
up to each symmetry pattern, as well as demonstrating these transformations.

48
11 – Translation

m1 – Translation followed by a reflexion through an axis

perpendicular to the direction of the translation where the
distance between the axes of symmetry is half of that of the
translation vector

1m – Translation followed by a reflexion through an axis

parallel to the translation vector and glide reflections

1g – Translation and translation-reflection, the broken arrow

denotes the glide reflection and its length is half of that of the
translation

12 – Translation and rotation with an angle of 180°, the

distance between centres of rotation with an angle of 180° is
half of that of the translation vector

mg – Translation, rotation with an angle of 180°, reflection

through an axis of symmetry perpendicular to the direction
of the translation and glide reflection

mm – Translation, rotation with an angle of 180°, reflection

through an axis perpendicular to the direction of the
translation, reflection to an axis parallel to the translation and
glide reflection, where the centre of the rotation with an
angle of 180° is in the point of intersection of the horizontal
and vertical axes of symmetry

Cutting out paper strips shown in Figures 19, 20 and 21, bookmarks can be made with frieze symmetries. Certainly
you can also design your own bookmark according to frieze symmetries. Freehand drawings can be made or several
well-known computer programmes can be used to design frieze symmetries easily. One of these programmes is for
example the Kali, which can be found on the website http://geometrygames.org/.

Möbius Strip and Frieze Symmetries

By printing patterns of Figures 15, 16 and 17 on a transparent sheet and forming a cylindrical surface or Möbius strip
from the paper strips we can see whether the pattern continues in the same way in both cases (i.e. thepattern is
‘’made infinite”). Figure 5 shows an example where the pattern does not continue according to the rule, on the Möbius
strip, however, in Figure 6 it does. Which are those frieze patterns that can be put on a Möbius strip and preserve
the adequate rule according to the frieze symmetry on the entire strip and which are those thatdo not? Print each of
the seven patterns on a transparent paper (transparent paper is required so that the pattern could appear equally on
both sides demonstrating that the thickness of the surface is negligible), create Möbius strips from them and find those
transformations that must comprise frieze groups so that a given pattern could be placed orderly on the Möbius strip.

Figure 5 1g: Frieze symmetry on a cylindrical surface and on a Möbius strip

49
Figure 6 mm: Frieze symmetry on a cylindrical surface and on a Möbius strip

References:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TietzesGraph.html
http://matek.fazekas.hu/portal/tanitasianyagok/Pogats_Ferenc/sor/sorfriz.html

Illustrations and Figures:

Figure 7 Illustration of the chromatic number and the chromatic index of the graph

Figure 8 Some forms of appearance of the Tietze graph constructed in GeoGebra

50
Figure 9 Adjacent matrix of the Tietze graph featured by numbers and colours

Figure 10 Distance matrix of the Tietze graph featured by numbers and colours

51
Figure 11 Incidence matrix of the Tietze graph featured by numbers

Figure 12 Incidence matrix of the Tietze graph featured by colours

52
Figure 13 Möbius strip, cutting the Möbius strip along the midline and along the trisecting line

53
Figure 14 A “map colouring” of the Möbius strip and the Tietze graph on the Möbius strip

54
Figure 15 Illustration to determine the chromatic number of the Tietze graph

Figure 16 Illustration to determine the chromatic index of the Tietze graph

55
Figure 17 Table to feature the adjacency and distance matrices of the Tietze graph with
numbers and colours

Figure 18 Table to feature the incidence matrix of the Tietze graph with numbers and
colours

56
Figure 19 1g, 1m, m1: frieze groups

57
Figure 20 mg, mm: twelve frieze groups

58
Figure 21: 11 frieze groups and 7 frieze patterns together on a bookmark

59
 Jay Bonner

The Polygonal Technique

Arabesques and Quasicrsystals

in Islamic Geometric Design
JAY BONNER is a specialist in the field of Islamic architectural
ornament, and is a recognized authority on Islamic geometric design
methodology. His many ornamental projects include work on the
Grand Mosque in Mecca, and the expansion of the Prophet’s
Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. He has taught seminars and
lectured widely on the subject of Islamic geometric design
methodology, including in Europe, the USA, Morocco and Turkey.
His publications on design methodology are available for free
download from the archive of the Bridges Math and Art website at
http://archive.bridgesmathart.org.
Jay Bonner’s book on Islamic geometric design methodology and
historical development is being published by Springer Verlag, and is
scheduled for release in early 2015. Examples of his work can be
seen at his website: www.bonner-design.com.

Introduction to the Activities

Islamic geometric design is a particularly sophisticated visual expression of mathematical principles. Muslim
artists were innovators of new forms of filling the two-dimensional plane with ever more complex patterns
that included not just isometric and orthogonal symmetries, but 5-fold and 7-fold symmetrical systems as well.
By the 14th and 15th centuries geometric designs were being produced that fulfill the modern mathematical
criteria of self-similarity.

The principle historical method of creating Islamic geometric patterns is the polygonal technique. This uses
key points upon a polygonal tessellation to construct a design. After the pattern has been completed the
polygonal tessellation is discarded, leaving only the geometric design. Because the tessellation does not form
part of the completed geometric pattern, it is referred to as an underlying tessellation. The construction of
most geometric designs involves the placement of crossing pattern lines at the midpoints of the polygonal
edges within a given tessellation. Depending upon the angle of the crossing pattern lines, different aesthetic
characteristics are achieved. The different conventions for placing the crossing pattern lines led to the
development of the four pattern families that are ubiquitous to this tradition.

There are two varieties of pattern created from the polygonal technique: systematic and non-systematic.
The underlying tessellations of non-systematic patterns are comprised of regular and irregular polygons that
only work together in one unique arrangement. They cannot be reassembled into other tessellations. By
contrast, the underlying tessellations of systematic patterns are comprised of a limited set of polygons that
can be assembled into an unlimited number of different combinations. There are five distinct systems that
were used historically: (1) the system of regular polygons; (2) the 4-fold system A; (3) the 4-fold system B; (4)
the 5-fold system; and (5) the 7-fold system. Each of these has its own geometric characteristics and aesthetic
qualities, and each is capable of tremendous design versatility and beauty. The following activities are based
upon three of these systematic design methodologies.

62
Activity 1 – the System of Regular Polygons:
As the name suggests, the system of regular polygons is comprised of regular polygons. The illustrations below are
the eight semi-regular tessellations, as well as a selection of twelve demi-regular tessellations. The semi-regular
tessellations have more than one type of polygon and have identical vertices, while the demi-regular tessellations have
more than one type of polygon and two varieties of vertex. All of these will create very good geometric designs in
each of the three pattern families.
As the name suggests, the system of regular polygons is comprised of regular polygons. The illustrations below are
the eight semi-regular tessellations, as well as a selection of twelve demi-regular tessellations. The semi-regular
tessellations have more than one type of polygon and each has a single variety of vertex configuration. These are
identified by their respective numeric intervals, for example: 3.6.3.6; 3.3.3.4.4; and 3.12.12, etc. The demi-regular
tessellations have more than one type of polygon and two varieties of vertex; also identified by the numeric intervals
of the two types of vertex, for example: 3.3.6.6 – 3.6.3.6; and 3.4.6.4 – 4.6.12, etc. All of these will create very good
geometric designs in each of the three pattern families provided below.

63
 The pre-decorated polygons in this activity combine together to make attractive geometric patterns. There are
three sets of polygons. The first makes acute patterns, the second makes obtuse patterns, and the third makes 2-point
patterns. Step 1: make several color photocopies of this and the following pages. Step 2: carefully cut out the polygons
with a pair of scissors. Note: it helps to use heavy paper stock. Step 3: assemble the cut out polygons into geometric
patterns using the semi-regular and demi-regular tessellations from the previous page. Try many different combinations.
Step 4: once an appealing pattern is found, the polygons can be glued down to another piece of paper for permanence.

64
65
Activity 2 – the 4-Fold System A:
The polygonal elements that comprise this system create patterns with 4-fold symmetry. Generally these patterns
have square repeat units, but sometimes rhombic, rectilinear, non-regular hexagonal and radial repeats are also
encountered. The four pattern families are applied to the polygonal elements below. The primary polygon in this
system is the octagon. The applied pattern lines of the acute family are determined by drawing a line from a midpoint
of an edge of the octagon to the midpoint of the third edge in sequence. This creates a star with 45º angles. A line
that connects every second midpoint determines the 90º angles of the median family. The angle of the obtuse family in
this system is 135º and is produced by connecting every adjacent midpoint. The lines of the 2-point family connect
every second edge, but originate from two points along each edge. Notice how the polygonal elements have two
varieties of edge length. This makes the process of tessellating more interesting.

66
 In this activity, pattern lines are drawn onto provided underlying tessellations. To assist this process, midpoint and
2-point indicators are provided on each polygonal edge. Step 1: make four photocopies of this page and the following
page with the provided tessellations. Step 2: as a practice run, complete the pattern lines in the initial four tessellations
below. Step 3: using the previous illustration as a guide, draw pattern lines onto each of the provided underlying
tessellations in each of the four pattern families. Note: it helps to begin with drawing the pattern lines within the
octagons, and to extend the lines outward from the octagons into the adjacent polygons. Step 4: color the results for
added visual interest.

The 4.8.8 tessellation below is one of the most commonly used generative tessellations used historically to make
Islamic patterns. This grid of octagons and squares makes a variety of very beautiful designs. Once you have completed
making patterns in each of the four pattern families with this underlying tessellation you can experiment with your
own variations to these designs. Additive arbitrary design variations were a vital part of this design tradition.

67
 These two underlying generative tessellations make very good geometric patterns in each of the four pattern
families. The upper tessellation repeats upon the orthogonal grid. The lower example is unusual in that the repeat is
rhombic. As an added exercise, determine the repeat units by drawing lines connecting the centers of the octagons.

68
Activity 3 – the 5-Fold System:
Patterns created from the 5-fold system were among the most popular in the Islamic world. The primary polygonal
elements of the 5-fold system are the regular decagon and pentagon. The pre-decorated elements below are the most
regularly used polygons, but others also exist. Drawing a line from the midpoint of an edge of the decagon and
connecting it to the fourth midpoint in sequence determines the 36º crossing pattern lines of the acute family. The
angles of the 72º median family skips three edges, and those of the obtuse skip two edges. The 2-point patterns also
skip two edges, but employ two points on each polygonal edge. Each of these pattern types produces very beautiful
geometric patterns.

Activity 3A - Step 1: make four photocopies of the tessellation from the following page. Step 2: using the illustration
below as a guide, draw the pattern lines onto the photocopied underlying tessellations in each of the four pattern
families. When finished, color the designs for visual interest.

Activity 3B - The second activity in this section involves (1) photocopying the two sets of pre-decorated polygons; (2)
carefully cutting them out; (3) assembling them into different design; (4) deciding upon a favorite design; and (5) gluing
the favorite arrangement of polygons onto another piece of paper for permanence. Try multiple tessellations with
each set before deciding upon a favorite.

69
 The following tessellation is the most widely used historically from the 5-fold system. It works extremely well with
each of the four pattern families.

70
 The upper set of polygons is decorated with pattern lines from the median family. The lower set is decorated with
obtuse pattern lines. The tessellations that these polygonal elements will create can have rhombic repeat units, as well
as rectangular and non-regular hexagonal repeat units. It is also possible to make tessellations and patterns with radial
symmetry.

71
 Jean-Marc Castera

Arabesques and

Arabesques and Quasicrsystals

Quasicrsystals

11
JEAN-MARC CASTERA is an artist working in the field of geometric art. Having a background in mathematics, he
first taught at a university in Paris, then began working on 3D animation, and later on his own projects. Now his goal
is to explore new paths in arabesque art, benefiting from connections with the theory of quasicrystals. Some practical
applications, that were carried out with the well-knowed architect Norman Foster, can be seen in the Emirates.

Short bibliography:
“Arabesques”, ACR editions, Paris 1996. English edition published in 1999.
“Géométrie douce”, with Helene Jolis, Atelier 6 1/2, Paris, 1991.
“Flying Patterns”. Source: http://castera.net/entrelacs/public/articles/Flying_Patterns.pdf
His recent papers are available on his website: castera.net
I propose two activities, using two set of tiles, related to the art of zellij (mosaics made from cut glazed ceramic
tiles), and to the theory of quasicrystals. For each set of tiles you can make periodic or non-periodic patterns, and
experiment with the property of self-similarity.
The first set of tiles belongs to the traditional repertory of the octagonal family of zellij, which is prevalent in the
western part of the Islamic world, although the second set generate patterns with local 5-fold symmetry, more visible
in the Persian style.
The related 2D quasicrystals are the Ammann patterns with the first set, and a system similar – but not identical –
to the Penrose patterns with the second set.

Some Remarks about the Relationship between Octagonal Arabesque

and Quasicrystals
We can talk about two levels in a zellij motif: the collective level, which means the structure of the whole panel,
and the individual level considering the tiles individually.
The first connection with quasicrystals, which appeared when I was working on zellij patterns, concerns the collective
level: the structure which I call the skeleton (first publication in “Géometrie douce”, with Helene Jolis, Atelier 6½,
Paris, 1991). The second connection appeared when working on a project in Abu Dhabi with Foster+Partners
architects. It concerns the individual level: each tile can be broken into squares, rhombuses and half-squares, in such
a way that when put together, in respect with the rules of the zellij, they compose a network similar to Ammann patterns.

74
Figure 1.1. Three levels of connections between the octagonal family of zellij and the Ammann pattern: collective level (left),
individual level simple (middle) or with interlaces (right).

Figure 1.2. Example from Egypt (with obvious Western style influence). Left: actual pattern. Center: Drawing simple lines in
place of the interlaces. Right: tiles decomposition, Ammann pattern.

Figure 1.3. The first practical application of

the connection between Ammann patterns
and octagonal zellij, at the individual level,
in architecture. Abu Dhabi Central Market.

75
Activity N°1 : Two Variations on the "Zellij Octagonal Puzzle" (Plate 1.1 ;
plate 1.2)
Print and cut as many copies as possible (4 is ideal) of the set of tiles, then put the tiles together in order to make
a pattern according to the rules of zellij (tiles connected side by side, continuity of the line in between, alternation of
colours).
You can use the first model (Plate 1.1) or the second (Plate 1.2). You can also make a reverse side set, using one
side from the first model, and the reverse side from the second. Use aerosol glue.
The shapes of each tile belong to the traditional repertory of octagonal zellij. The novelty is that each tile is decorated
with squares, rhombuses and half-squares. When the tiles are correctly put together, each half-square naturally finds
its mate, thus you can see a pattern made of squares and rhombuses superimposed on the zellij pattern. This pattern
is similar to Ammann patterns, and can sometimes be considered as a part of an octagonal 2D quasicrystal.
Note: with these tiles you can make both periodic patterns or non-periodic patterns.

Figure 1.4. The different tiles, with decoration into squares, rhombuses and half-squares.
These are the shapes you get from the plate 1.1.

Exercise n°1.1.

You can study the property of self-similarity with this set of tiles. The figure bellow shows the way in which each
tile can be made of tiles belonging to the same set, on a smaller scale (although along the edges the tiles in red are
truncated).

Figure 1.5. Self similarity of the “zellij” tiles.

1. What is the ratio between the two scales?

2. Application: in an opposite way each tile, for example the “Saft”, can be constructed on a larger scale (see fig. 3.2).

Cut the tiles of Plate 1.1. and Plate 1.2. along the median lines in red. On Plate 1.2. the second page, the secondary
level of zellij tiles and the secondary level of octagonal pattern have been drawn.
When assembling the tiles, pay attention to how the colours alternate.

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Plate 1.1. Octagonal family of zellij patterns and Ammann patterns. Cut the tiles along the red line.

77
Plate 1.2. Octagonal family of zellij patterns, self similarity. Cut the tiles along the red line (same thing as for the previous page).

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Activity N°2: The X-Puzzle
X-puzzle is made of a set of only two different tiles (the “X-tiles”) decorated in a simple way, using only two lines
to make an X (the “X-lines”).
The length of each side is equal, and the angles are such that 10 small tiles can make a 10-pointed star, and 5 large
ones can make a 5-pointed star.
These tiles are the same as the ones in Penrose patterns, but the rules are not the same: although Penrose matching
rules avoid making periodic, the patterns made from the X-Puzzle can be periodic or non-periodic.
The idea of the X-tiles arose when I was looking for a kind of morphogenesis of the pentagonal family of traditional
patterns (especially in Persian style, see: Jean-Marc Castera, “Flying Patterns”, source: http://castera.net/entrelacs/
public/articles/Flying_Patterns.pdf). Those simple shapes were the very first step in my system, eventually it transpired
that, despite their uncomplicated pattern, they were powerful in their simplicity: they can be used to generate a
sophisticated family of patterns in that style (I do not claim, however, that this method was used by craftsmen in the
historic period). The most fascinating to see here is the relationship between complexity and simplicity.
The matching rules are obvious: the shapes have to be put together side by side respecting the continuity of the X-lines.

Figure 2.1. Top and bottom-right: All the correct arrangement of tiles around a vertex, and the corresponding “zellij” shapes
drawn by the X-lines. Bottom-left: Incorrect arrangements.
The numbers indicate the angles around the vertex. “1” is for 36°, “2” for 72°, etc.
You can see that a finite number of “zellij-like” shapes can be drawn by the X lines.

Different Kinds of Compositions

Figure 2.2. Compositions with the two kind of rhombuses. (1,2): periodic, (5): hexagonal => periodic; (3,4,6): radial; (7,8):
pentagonal symmetry => non periodic;
This works with simple rhombuses. But with X-lines decoration, compositions (1, 2, 3, 4, 8) are incorrect.
On the other hand, we can also play freely with the tiles.

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Remark: “Irreductible Holes”
Sometimes you can get stuck when a space limited by some tiles cannot be filled. The natural reaction is to change
the pattern in a way to avoid that situation. But don't be afraid of the void: you can always find a way to go around it
so that the pattern can continue. In the end what you get is a pattern... With one or more holes.
A hole is irreductible when it is impossible to put any X-tile in it respecting the continuity of the X-lines (considering
the surrounding X-tiles).

Figure 2.3. Different kinds of irreductible holes.

Remark: The X-tiles are decorated using large white lines, one crossing over the other. The amusing thing is the
way the interlaces naturally run on the pattern in respect to the alternation: above, below, above...

Exercise 2.1: What is the relationship between the angles in each tile and the ones between the X-lines?

Exercise 2.2: The holes.

How many different shapes of “irreductibles holes” can exist? The answer is not obvious!

Exercise 2.3: Self-similarity.

Can you define a self-similarity property for each of the two tiles? That is, a way to compose the same shapes of
rhombuses, but on a larger scale with the X-tiles.
In such case, what is the self-similarity ratio?

Exercise 2.4: Can you imagine a similar puzzle from the octagonal square/rhombus system?

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Plate 2.1. Cut the rhombuses (each tile is the same as the separate one at the bottom).

81
Plate 2.2. Cut the rhombuses (each tile is the same as the separate one at the bottom).

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 Examples of patterns

Figure 3.1. Children playing with two versions of the “X-Puzzle” at a math festival in Paris.

Figure 3.2. A way to use the octagonal tiles: People making a big “saft” by “deflation” at the Palais de la découverte
(Science museum) in Paris.

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 Figure 3.3. An example of using traditional art: a door at ûç Serefeli mosque, Edirne, Turkey.
Left: The original door; Middle: decomposition into rhombuses. Right: reconstruction with the X-tiles.

Figure 3.4. An other door at the same mosque (ûç Serefeli mosque, Edirne, Turkey).
Left : The original door; Middle: decomposition into rhombuses. Right: reconstruction with the X-tiles.

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 Reza Sarhangi

A Geometric Activity

Arabesques and Quasicrsystals

in Patterning Platonic and
Kepler-Poinsot Solids Based
on the Persian Interlocking
Designs

11
 REZA SARHANGI is a professor of mathematics at Towson
University, Maryland, USA. He teaches graduate courses in the study
of patterns and mathematical designs, and supervises student research
projects in this field. He is the founder and president of the Bridges
Organization, which oversees the annual international conference
series “Bridges: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music, and Science”
(www.BridgesMathArt.Org). Sarhangi was a mathematics educator,
graphic art designer, drama teacher, playwright, theater director, and
scene designer in Iran before moving to the US in 1986.

Related articles:

Reza Sarhangi (2014), Decorating Regular Polyhedra Using Historical Interlocking Star Polygonal Patterns – A Mathematics
and Art Case Study, Refereed Conference Proceedings, Bridges 2014 - Mathematical Connections in Art, Music, and
Science, Seoul, Korea.
Web-access: http://archive.bridgesmathart.org/2014/bridges2014-243.pdf

Reza Sarhangi (2012), Interlocking Star Polygons in Persian Architecture: The Special Case of the Decagram in Mosaic
Designs, Nexus Network Journal, Architecture and Mathematics, Volume 14, Number 2, Birkhäuser Verlag, Springer,
Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 345-372.

Reza Sarhangi (2010), Making Modules for Mosaic Designs, The Journal of the Symmetrion (Symmetry: Culture and
Science), Michel Petitjean, Editor-in-Chief of Symmetry, MTI, INSERM UMR-S 973, University of Paris, France, Vol.
21, No. 4, PP. 381-392.

Introduction
The regular polyhedra are highly organized structures that possess the greatest possible symmetry among all
polyhedra, which makes them aesthetically pleasing. These solids have connected numerous disciplines including
astronomy, philosophy, and art through the centuries. The five that are convex are the Platonic solids and the four
that are not convex are the Kepler-Poinsot solids. They admit the properties that for each (a) all faces are congruent
regular polygons (convex or non-convex), and (b) the arrangements of polygons about the vertices are all alike.

Platonic solids were known to humans much earlier than the time of Plato. On carved stones (dated approximately
2000 BCE) that have been discovered in Scotland, some are carved with lines corresponding to the edges of regular
polyhedra. Icosahedral dice were used by the ancient Egyptians. There are many small bronze dodecahedra that were
discovered from the time of Romans of the second to fourth century that are decorated with spheroids at each vertex
and have circular holes in each face. Evidence shows that Pythagoreans knew about the regular solids of cube,
tetrahedron, and dodecahedron. A later Greek mathematician, Theatetus (415 - 369 BCE) has been credited for
developing a general theory of regular polyhedra and adding the octahedron and icosahedron to solids that were
known earlier. The name Platonic solids for regular polyhedra comes from the Greek philosopher Plato (427 - 347
BCE), who associated them with the “elements” and the cosmos in his book Timaeus. “Elements,” in ancient beliefs,
were the four objects that constructed the physical world; these elements are fire, air, earth, and water.

There are four more regular polyhedra that are not convex. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 CE) discovered two of
them, the small stellated dodecahedron and the great stellated dodecahedron. Later, Lovis Poinsot (1777 – 1859 CE)
completed the work by finding the other two non-convex regular polyhedra of the great icosahedron, and the great
dodecahedron. For a comprehensive treatment and for references to the extensive literature on solids one may refer
to the online resource Virtual Polyhedra – The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra [3].

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 The Schläfli Symbols (n, m) in the following table present the relationships between the n-gon, as the face of the
regular polyhedron, and m, which is the number of faces around a vertex for that polyhedron. By a regular pentagram
in this table, we mean a 5/2 star polygon, which is the regular non-convex pentagon. Figure 1 demonstrates the
regular solids.

Polyhedron Schläfli Symbol Complete Face Visible Face

Tetrahedron (3, 3) Equilateral Triangle Equilateral Triangle
Octahedron (3, 4) Equilateral Triangle Equilateral Triangle
Icosahedron (3, 5) Equilateral Triangle Equilateral Triangle
Hexahedron (Cube) (4, 3) Square Square
Dodecahedron (5, 3) Regular Pentagon Regular Pentagon
Small Stellated Dodecahedron (5/2, 5) Regular Pentagram Golden Triangle
Great Stellated Dodecahedron (5/2, 3) Regular Pentagram Golden Triangle
Great Icosahedron (3, 5/2) Equilateral Triangle Two triangles in Fig 12
Great Dodecahedron (5, 5/2) Regular Pentagon Obtuse Golden Triangle

Table1: The regular polyhedra

Figure 1: Top – tetrahedron, octahedron, icosahedron, hexahedron, and dodecahedron. Bottom – small stellated
dodecahedron, great stellated dodecahedron, great icosahedron, and great dodecahedron
The goal of this article is to present methods for the decoration of the regular polyhedra using Persian girih patterns
and to provide instructions for making these polyhedra from paper. Girih (knot in Persian) refers to a (usually)
rectangular region consisting of a fundamental region with bilateral or rotational symmetry, for a pattern that includes
the nodal points of the web-like geometric grid system and construction lines for generating the pattern.

2 Some Examples in Patterning Solids

There are numerous interesting examples of patterning regular solids. The left image in Figure 2 exhibits the
Screened Icosahedron created by artist Phil Webster from Pittsfield, Massachusetts. The artwork was presented at the
2013 Bridges Conference Art Exhibition, Enschede, the Netherlands [2]. The right image in Figure 2, the ornamented
great dodecahedron created by Richard Kallweit, an artist from Bethany, Connecticut, was presented at the 2014
Joint Mathematics Meeting Art Exhibition, Baltimore, Maryland, USA [2].

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 Figure 2: Screened Icosahedron and embellished Great Dodecahedron

Captured Worlds by artist Dick Termes (http://termespheres.com) is a set of Platonic Solids that are decorated with
fanciful scenes rendered in six-point perspective, which allows an entire three-dimensional surrounding to be projected
onto the polyhedra (left in Figure 3). B.G. Thomas and M.A. Hann from the School of Design, University of Leeds,
United Kingdom, used the projections from duals to the surface of the Platonic solids, in particular the dodecahedron,
in order to decorate the faces of the polyhedra (right in Figure 3) [10].

Figure 3: Captured Worlds by artist Dick Termes, and an example of the

projection of the pattern on the cube to the dodecahedron by B.G. Thomas and M.A. Hann

During a workshop in the 2010 Bridges Pécs Conference, Hungary, E.B. Meenan of the School of Education and
B.G. Thomas of the School of Design, University of Leeds, UK, guided their workshop participants to a process of
creating Escher-type tessellations. Then they used presented ideas to extend the workshop into three-dimensions
with pull-up Platonic solids constructions that were patterned with Escher’s designs [6].

3 Historical Patterns for Embellishment of Solids

It is important to note that since a pattern on one face of an ornamented solid should appear on all faces identically,
all the pattern lines should be in complete coordination and harmony with each other in such a way that they can
continue from one face to another without any ending or interruption.

There are only a limited number of scrolls (tumār) and booklets (daftar) from the past that recorded patterns and
designs for the decorations of the surfaces of buildings, or as geometric experimentations of interlocking star-polygon
patterns. But in general, such designs come with no instruction about the steps of the geometric construction using
traditional tools of compass and straightedge or any other tools.

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3.1. Patterning Platonic Solids. To decorate regular polyhedra using historical and traditional interlocking star
polygonal patterns, one needs to search the documents for ornamented polygons of the equilateral triangle, square,
and regular pentagon. Beginning with the dodecahedron and its face, the regular pentagon, the author searched most
of the available old documents for a decorated pentagon with the following specifications:
a, The center of the pentagon coincides with the center of a k/l star polygon that covers the central region of the
pentagon.
b, The vertices coincide with the centers of the same or other k/l star polygons that cover corners of the pentagon.
c, Some segments connect star polygons together in a harmonious way to generate a single design.
Mathematically speaking, if all the k/l star polygons that are used for ornamenting the pentagon are identical, then
(5–2)π
since each interior angle of the regular pentagon is = 108°, and since each vertex of the dodecahedron
5
includes three copies of the pentagon, on a successful patterning, a type of star polygon will appear on each vertex
that covers 324°. This means the k/ l star polygon on the center, which is an n-leaved rose that covers 360°, should
be constructed in a way that the number of degrees in each leaf divides both 360 and 324, as does their difference,
36. Therefore k should be equal to 5i, i∈N. Hence, star polygons such as 5/l, 10/l, 15/l and so on will provide proper
central designs for the pentagon (that will create concave star polygons of 3/l, 6/l, 9/l and … on the corners of the
dodecahedron).

Figure 4: The decorated pentagon from the Mirza Akbar collection, and the ornamented pentagon created by the author
based on the mathematics in the Mirza Akbar ornatemented pentagon

There are many sources, including buildings of the past, that we can search for Persian traditional patterns and we
may find many examples. One source of interest for finding such a pattern was the Mirza Akbar Collection, which is
housed at the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. This collection consists of two architectural scrolls along with
more than fifty designs that are mounted on cardboard. The collection was originally purchased for the South
Kensington Museum (the precursor of the Victoria & Albert Museum) by Sir Caspar Purdon Clarke, Director of the
Art Museum (Division of the Victoria and Albert Museum) 1896–1905 in Tehran, Iran, in 1876. Purdon Clarke
purchased them after the death of Mirza Akbar Khan who had been the Persian state architect of this period [7].

The left image in Figure 4 is from the Mirza Akbar collection. As is seen, the constructed lines in this image are not
accurate and the pattern looks like a draft. Nevertheless, the design and the 10/3 star polygon at the center satisfy
the aforementioned constraints. The image on the right in Figure 4, which was created by the author, using the
Geometer’s Sketchpad program, illustrates the same pattern but includes interwoven straps, which changes the
symmetry group of the pattern from the dihedral group of order 10, D5, to the cyclic group of order 5, C5.

Obviously, for the geometric construction of the pattern, there were no instructions in the Mirza Akbar collection,
so it was necessary to analyze it mathematically, to discover the construction steps.

89
 One should notice that the radius of the circumscribed circle of the pentagon in Figure 5, OA, which is the distance
from the center of the pentagon to a vertex, is twice the radius of the circle that is the basis for the 10/3 star polygon
at the center (AM = MO in the top left image in Figure 5). The reason for this is that the two 10/3 star polygons, one
at the center O and the other at the vertex A, are each others reflections under the tangent to the circle at point M
(see the middle bottom image in Figure 5 that also includes a tangent to the circle at point N that is necessary to be
used as the reflection line, to complete the star). By following images from the top left to the bottom right a person
may complete the design properly.

Figure 5: The steps for the geometric composition of the Mirza Akbar ornamented pentagon

The photographs in Figure 6 are from a workshop conducted by the author that was presented at the Istanbul
Design Center. The workshop was a part of a conference on geometric patterns in Islamic art that was scheduled
during 23rd-29th September 2013 in Istanbul, Turkey. The workshop included the construction of the dodecahedron
using the Mirza Akbar ornamented pentagon.

Figure 6: Photographs from a workshop in the Istanbul Design Center in Turkey

The next selected polygon for embellishment was the square. It was not difficult to find a decorated square in the
Mirza Akbar collection. However, the design, as can be noted in the left image of Figure 7, was a very rough draft
with no accuracy on any part of the design, showing only the type of polygons that constituted the structure, but
nothing to assist a designer to determine the steps of the geometric constructions. Searching a book by J. Bourgoin
[1], plate 118 in this book exhibits the same structure, but the proportions are slighly different from the sketch in the
Mirza Akbar collections. This book consists of 190 geometric construction plates that appeared in the French edition,
Les Eléments de l’art: le trait des entrelacs, Firmin-Didot et Cie, Paris, 1879. The book does not provide step-by-step
instructions for the geometric constructions. Nevertheless, there are underlying circles and segments using thin dashed
lines that are instrumental for forming such instructions.

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 To form the instructions for the pattern illustrated in Figure 8, plate 118 was used but a few steps were changed,
to be more in tune with the traditional approaches to complete the ornamented square in Figure 7 (right image).

Figure 7: The decorated square from the Mirza Akbar collection, and the ornamented
pentagon created by the author based on the types of tiles that constituted the Mirza Akbar square

The construction approach, the radial grid method, follows the steps that the mosaic designer Maheroannaqsh
suggested for another pattern in his book [5].
Divide the right angle ∠A into six congruent angles by creating five rays that emanate from A. Choose an arbitrary
point C on the third ray, counter-clockwise, and drop perpendiculars from C to the sides of angle ∠A. This results in
the square ABCD, along with the five segments inside this rectangle, each with one endpoint at A, whose other endpoints
are the intersections of the five rays with the two sides of BC and CD of square ABCD. Consider C and the dashed
segments as the 180° rotational symmetry of A and the five radial segments under center O. Make a quarter of a circle
with center at A and radius equal to 1/3 of AC. We repeat all these and the future construction steps for C. Two
quarter circles can be constructed at B and D with radius congruent to the distance from B to the intersection of the
first ray and BC. The two right angles at B and D are divided each into four congruent angles. The intersections of
some new rays emanating from B and D and the previous constructed rays emanating from A and C, as are illustrated
in the second top image, are the centers of the circles that are tangent to the sides of the square ABCD and some
rays. Dropping a perpendicular from the intersection of the quarter circle with center A and the fifth ray emanating
from A to AB will result in finding some new points on other rays for the construction of a quarter of a 12-leaved star
with center at A (the top right image). With a similar approach one can construct one quarter of an 8-leaved star
with center at B, as is illustrated in the first bottom image. As is illustrated in the bottom middle image, some segments
are constructed that connect the four stars in the four corners. Morover, some other segments connect the
intersections of the four small circles with the sides of ABCD. The last part of the construction, as is seen in the bottom
right imgae, is to complete the pattern. The right image in Figure 7 is the result of the reflection of this decorated
square under the two sides of AB and AD.

Figure 8: The steps for the

geometric construction of the
Mirza Akbar ornamented
square
 For patterning the tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron, one needs an ornamented equilateral triangle. To
follow the types of patterning in the pentagon and the square, a 12/4 star polygon was inscribed inside the given
equailateral triangle. Then similar to the steps in Figure 5, steps were taken to ornament the triangle (Figure 9).

Figure 9: The steps for the geometric construction of the ornamented triangle

3.2. Patterning Kepler-Poinsot Solids. The faces of these solids

are the regular pentagram 5/2 in Figure 10, regular pentagon, and
equilateral triangle. However, faces cross each other and therefore,
the physical models have visible faces that are different from the actual
faces. The visible faces of the physical models of (5/2, 5), (5/2, 3), and
(5, 5/2) are either the golden triangle (DABD in Figure 10, an isosceles
triangle with angles 72, 72, and 36 degrees) or an obtuse golden triangle
(DBDC or DADE in Figure 10, an isosceles triangle with angles 36, 36,
and 108 degrees). Therefore, for patterning the above three Figure 10: The regular pentagram 5/2, and the
Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra, we need to ornament these two triangles. pentagon divided into the golden triangle and
obtuse golden triangle

Figure 11: Ornamenting the golden triangle and the obtuse golden triangle using girih tiles
For this, the girih tile modularity method presented in [4] was used. In [4] the authors proposed the possibility of
the use of a set of tiles, called girih tiles (top left corner of Figure 11) by the medieval craftsmen, for the preliminary
composition of the underlying pattern. The pattern then would be covered by the glazed sâzeh tiles (top right corner
of Figure 11) in the last stage. On the top right image in Figure 11, we see the three girih tiles, which are used to
compose the underlying pattern on the two triangles of the golden triangle and the obtuse golden triangle. After
finding the pattern, all line segments that constitute the girih tiles are discarded (see the two triangles in Figure 11).
Then the sâzeh tiles that are presented on the top right corner are used to cover the surface area. For a comprehensive
explanation of this and other modularity methods the interested reader is referred to [8].

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 Figure 12: Dance of Stars I, the hexagon, bowtie, and the decagram, and the golden triangle
Dance of Stars I in Figure 12 is one of the four Kepler-Poinsot solids, the small stellated dodecahedron that the author
sculpted that has been ornamented by the sâzeh module tiles. The girih tiles were used to create an artistic tessellation
for adorning the surface area of the golden triangle. Similar to panel 28 of the Topkapi scroll in Figure 13, the dashed
outlines of the girih tiles were left untouched in the final tessellation. The author also included off-white rectilinear
patterns that appear as additional small-brick pattern in the 12th century decagonal Gunbad-i Kabud tomb tower in
Maragha, Iran, as is shown in Figure 13. For the hexagon and bowtie girih tiles (middle column of images in Figure 12),
these additional patterns posses internal two-fold rotational symmetry. But then this symmetry was followed to
create a ten-fold rotational symmetry, in order to cover the surface area of the decagonal tiles as well. It is important
to mention that the final tessellation had to conform to three essential rules: (1) Each vertex of the triangles had to
be the center of the main motif of the tiling, the decagram; (2) The tessellation should be bilaterally symmetric, (3)
The sides of the triangles should be the reflection lines of the motifs located on the edges. Without a thorough
mathematical analysis of the pattern, it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to create a satisfactory artistic
solution.

Figure 13: A rendering of plate 28 in the Topkapi Scroll, and the design on the Gunbad-i Kabud tomb
Similar to the previous star in Figure 12, Dance of Stars II and III in Figure 14 are the other two Kepler-Poinsot
solids, the great stellated dodecahedron, and great dodecahedron, which have been decorated by the sâzeh module tiles.

Figure 14: Dance of Stars II-III, ornamented Great Stellated Dodecahedron and Great Dodecahedron

93
 The triangles that constitute the great icosahedron are
different from the previous triangles, which were parts of the
regular pentagon. So it is possible that we cannot adorn their
surfaces using the sâzeh module tiles. To construct the two
triangles, we need to start with an equilateral triangle and
divide the edges at the golden ratio points to create six new
vertices on the edges. We then connect them to make “the
stellation pattern of the icosahedron” as illustrated in Figure
15 [11]. The two triangles 1 and 2 are the desired triangles
(or 1 and D JGK, which is congruent to 2). It remains an open
question whether we can have a sâzeh module tiling solution
or if such a solution is impossible.

Figure 15: The stellation pattern of the icosahedron

References
[1] Bourgoin, J., Arabic Geometrical Pattern & Design, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1973.
[2] Bridges Mathematical Art Exhibitions: http://bridgesmathart.org/bridges-galleries/art-exhibits, 2014.
[3] Hart, G.W., http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html,1996.
[4] Lu, P.J. & Steinhardt, P.J., Decagonal and quasi-crystalline …, Science 315, 2007, pp. 1106-1110.
[5] Maheronnaqsh, M., Design and Execution in Persian Ceramics, Abbasi Museum Press, Tehran, 1984.
[6] Meenan E.B. and Thomas B.G., Escher-type Tessellations and Pull-up Polyhedra: Creative Learning for the Classroom,
Bridges Pécs Conference Proceedings, Hungary, 2010, pp 539-544.
[7] Necipo lu, G., The Topkapi Scroll: …, Getty Center Publication, Santa Monica, USA, 1995.
[8] Sarhangi R., Interlocking Star Polygons …, Nexus Network Journal, Springer, 2012, pp. 345-372.
[9] Sarhangi, R. and Séquin, C. H. (Editors), Bridges Conference Proceedings, Winfield, Kansas, 2004.
[10] Thomas B.G. and Hann M.A., Patterning by Projection: Tiling the Dodecahedron and other Solids, Bridges Leeuwarden
Proceedings, the Netherlands, 2008, pp. 101-108.
[11] Wenninger M., Polyhedron Models, Cambridge University Press, 1974, pp. 41-42.

94
Activity 1: A Workshop in Constructing a Dodecahedron
Using the Mirza Akbar Pentagon

To construct the dodecahedron we need 12 ornamented

pentagons (Figure 1). If you would like to make the
decorating pattern yourself, follow the construction
steps of Figure 2. We also can attach three
pentagons to each other to make the cutting
and pasting process easier. We then need 4
copies of the attached triangles (Figure 3).
For gluing together the pieces, use transparent
adhesive tape.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

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 Activity 2: A Workshop in Constructing the Ornamented Kepler-Poinsot Polyhedra
During this activity the workshop participants construct three of the four Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. These solids
are the small stellated dodecahedron (Figure 1), the great stellated dodecahedron (Figure 2), and the great dodecahedron (Figure
7). For this, using girih tiles, we construct the shape in Figure 3. Then from Figure 3 we find the ornamented Golden
Triangle in Figure 4. We need 60 copies of the triangle in Figure 4 for building the small stellated dodecahedron (Figure 1)
and the same number of copies for constructing the great stellated dodecahedron (Figure 2). It is also possible that we
use Figures 5 and 6 instead. In this case all the required triangles for a pyramid have already been attached. We then
need 12 copies of the polygon in Figure 5 to build Figure 1 and 20 copies of the polygon in Figure 6 to make Figure 2.
For gluing together the pieces, use transparent adhesive tape.

Figure 1: Small stellated dodecahedron Figure 2: Great stellated dodecahedron

Figure 3: The girih tiles pattern for the Golden Triangle Figure 4: The ornamented Golden Triangle

Figure 5: Five connected Golden Triangles to make one pyramid of one side in Figure 1.

96
 Figure 6: Three connected Golden Triangles to make one pyramid of one side in Figure 2.

To construct the great dodecahedron (Figure 7) we need 60 copies of the Obtuse Golden Triangle in Figure 9. We
also can construct this polyhedron using 20 copies of the polygon in Figure 10. Please note that in this activity the
ornamented side of each triangle should be inside of the constructed pyramid.
For gluing together the pieces, use transparent adhesive tape.

Figure 7: great dodecahedron

97
 Figure 8: The pattern for the Obtuse Golden Triangle

Figure 9: The Obtuse Golden Triangle

Figure 10: Three connected Obtuse Golden Triangles to make one pyramid of one side in Figure 7.

98
 It is important to mention that
for Figure 1, we should connect
3 copies of the pyramids around
each vertex. For Figure 2, we
need 5 copies of the pyramids
around each vertex. For Figure 7,
we also need 5 copies of the
pyramids around a vertex. We
also may use the following two
ornamented triangles that include
extra patterns (Figure 11, 12).

Figure 11: The Ornamented Golden Triangle with extra lines

Figure 12: The Ornamented Obtuse Golden Triangle with extra lines

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 Tamás F. Farkas

Impossible Objects,
Paradox Figures

Tricky Structures, Playful

Perspectives

11
 The artist TAMÁS F. FARKAS’s creative career is as outstanding
and unconventional as you can get in contemporary art. According
to Dr. György Darvas, a researcher of Symmetry Studies: “Farkas’s
work defies categorization. If we want to label it – although this is
never going to able to capture its uniqueness – then perhaps we
could proceed from M. C. Escher’s activity, that is, geometry is
always at the root of his works. However, while Escher’s geometry
is always connected in some way to figurative representations
(strange buildings, animal and human figures), Farkas’s work
eschews any link to the ‘real’. His art is built on clear-cut,
geometric figures. He does not want to remind us of real objects,
living creatures; the substance of his pictures is about governing
the space or the structure of the space when either real shapes or a projection of higher dimensional figures in the
plane are concerned or even while venturing upon the unreal. It is a new »suprematist« art at the end of the 20th
century but Farkas’s work bears no resemblance to that of his suprematist predecessors. He cannot be considered
as their disciple as his focus on basic geometric forms is built on his own research work. His pictures are the
culmination of years of extensive study in geometry. Therefore Tamás F. Farkas’s career is considerable, not only
from the point of view of art but also science; he looks at geometry not with the eye of a scientist nor that of an artist
but both, thus achieving results that can be utilised in unique ways, ways that would never have been possible with
traditional geometry. So his works can, for example, be used to illustrate phenomena of other sciences based on
mathematics (such as crystallography, quantum physics etc.), allowing us to better understand abstract-rational results
incomprehensible by sensory organs. Farkas has a unique gift but due to its nature – however much his results are
appreciated – science cannot accept him as a scientist”. Whilst he represents a scientific-minded creator among artists,
he is an artist among scientists.

Tamás F. Farkas’s website: www.farkas-tamas.hu

E-mail: f.farkastamas@freemail.hu

1 Get Acquainted with Impossible Objects!

An impossible object is a kind of optical illusions. Figure 1: Penrose’s
A two-dimensional image visually perceived as a planar impossible triangle
projection of a three-dimensional object, however after
observing the image carefully it turns out that the
structure represented in two dimensions has such
geometric features that cannot be implemented in
three dimensions, this is called an impossible object.
There are several noted examples of impossible
objects from the fine arts, but the phenomenon is
equally fascinating and challenging to psychologists and
mathematicians too.
Figure 2: Penrose’s
Impossible objects were scientifically described for impossible steps
the first time by psychiatrist, Lionel Penrose and his
son, the later world famous mathematical physicist
Roger Penrose, in their paper: Impossible Objects: A
Special Type of Visual Illusion (1956). The paper was
illustrated by the impossible triangle (figure 1) and the
impossible steps (figure 2) and these were also used
by both the Swedish painter Oscar Reutersvärd and
the Dutch artist M. C. Escher in their works.

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 In the case of impossible objects a specific correspondence develops between the two and three dimensional space.
Therefore studying or drawing these solid objects can play an important role in visual art training as well as in
mathematics education. Studying impossible objects not only helps in thinking creatively but it also improves depth
perception. Furthermore, getting acquainted with impossible objects can open the way to understanding higher (upper
than 3) dimensional spaces and the conceivable structures within them.

Exercise: study Tamás F. Farkas’s paradox artworks as structures in space!

Why are these structures paradoxical? Study and think about their planar and spatial representation!

Which parts of the structures are possible and which are impossible to create in the space?

Figure 3: Tamás F. Farkas’s artworks as two-dimensional visual representations of paradox three-dimensional structures

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 2. Creating Impossible Objects: Is It Possible? Try It!
The first step of the activity is to observe thoroughly the artwork of the chosen template. With students of an
appropriate age it is also possible to analyse the given artwork geometrically, too.
Copies of templates A and B belonging to the given artwork are printed according to the number of participating
students. The figure on template A is cut into elements along the black line bordering elements with a pair of scissors.
Afterwards, the students’ task is to recompose the figure on the raster net B belonging to the given form. It may help
if the facilitator of the activity draws the participants’ attention to the rule that two elements of the same colour
cannot border each other. After completing a figure it is worth both giving a verbal description of the creation, defining
their specific geometric features and discussing observations obtained during the construction together. The raster
net B can also be used by students to draw the figure as well. After becoming familiar with the geometric features of
impossible objects, students can try to design impossible objects on the raster net B independently too.
Some information to aid the facilitator of the workshop in discovering geometric features of each figure are as follows:
• Template 1AB: Pyramid - the illustrated three-dimensional figure can be divided into three symmetric parts.
• Template 2AB: Paradox Triangles – the two paradox triangles are symmetric diagonally.
• Template 3AB: Paradox Three-dimensional Form – the three-dimensional elements visualise a
three-dimensional form that closes back in itself in the plane.
• Template 4AB: Relationship of Paradox Forms – two distinct paradox forms are chained together.
• Template 5AB: Impossible Object – elements that seem to be three dimensional are chained together in the
planar representation constituting a continuous paradox figure. Three identical elements generate a form that closes
back in on itself.
• Template 6AB: Relationship of Paradox Forms II. – two diagonally symmetrix paradox spatial forms are
chained toghether into one structure.
• Template 7AB: Paradox Figure – in the two-dimensional illustration, the illustrated three-dimensional figure
appears when viewed from both beneath and from above, thus causing a paradox phenomenon.

Figures 4-10: Building a pyramid with lower

primary school pupils in F. Farkas Tamás’s
workshop in Experience Workshop – International
Movement of Experience-Centred Mathematics
Education (www.experienceworkshop.hu) event at
ANK School in Pécs. Photos: Csaba József Szabó.

16
Template 1A: Pyramid

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Template 1B: Pyramid

106
Template 2A: Paradox Triangles

107
Template 2B: Paradox Triangles

108
Template 3A: Paradox Three-dimensional Form

109
Template 3B: Paradox Three-dimensional Form

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Template 4A: Relationship of Paradox Forms

111
Template 4B: Relationship of Paradox Forms

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Template 5A: Impossible Object

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Template 5B: Impossible Object

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Template 6A: Relationship of Paradox Forms II.

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Template 6B: Relationship of Paradox Forms II.

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Template 7A: Paradox Figure

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Template 7B: Paradox Figure

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Georg Glaeser-Lilian Wieser

Let Us Play Native

American!

Tricky Structures, Playful

Perspectives
 GEORG GLAESER was born 1955 in Salzburg, Austria. He studied mathematics
and received his PhD in geometry, before completing his habilitation in
computational geometry at the Technical University of Vienna. Glaeser was a
visiting fellow at Princeton University before becoming a tenured professor at the
University of Applied Arts Vienna in 1998. Author of more than a dozen books in
different fields: Computational Algorithms, Mathematics, Geometry, Photography,
Evolution Biology.

LILIAN WIESER was born 1985 in Vienna, Austria. Under her pseudonym “Lilian
Boloney” she works as a textile artist in Vienna. She also studies art education at the
University of Applied Arts Vienna and the teachers training for mathematics to
combine both disciplines. She followed Glaeser with great curiosity on the traces of
the Nazcas.

Introduction: An amazing World Heritage Site

The pre-Columbian Nazca culture (300 B.C. to 600 A.D.) in the southern Peruvian coastal valleys used to decorate
their pottery and embroideries with stylized animal motifs. They are more famous, however, for scraping gargantuan
animal depictions into the dry desert ground, often many hundreds of meters across.
These images can only be seen in their entirety from an airplane (Fig.1, Fig.2) and even appear perfectly symmetric
from certain angles. This masterful accomplishment has also led to far-out speculations. Some, for instance, have
claimed that the Nazca people must have employed hot-air balloons!

Figure 1: A hundred meter-long hummingbird in the dessert.

Wikimedia. Photo by Bjarte Sorensen
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazca-Linien#mediaviewer/Datei:Nazca_colibri.jpg

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 Figure 2: A monkey in the
same size. How can such
“geoglyphs” be produced?
Wikimedia. Photo by Markus
Leupold-Löwenthal.
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Nazca-Linien#mediaviewer/
Datei: NazcaLinesMonkey.jpg

The giant animal figures do not appear symmetric from straight above, but rather seem to exhibit perspective
distortions as in a skewed photograph. Quite paradoxically, this leads to an appearance of symmetry from certain
positions, which some commercial airplanes are fortunate to cross on their flight path.
Without any claim to truth, one may imagine the following story of how these figures came about:

Figure 3: Left: The leader of this huge project tells his assistants where to go to put stones on the ground. Right: The
image has to be enlarged afterwards to achieve the giant dimensions we can see today in Nazca. Drawn by Stefan
Wirnsperger.

It might have been a high priest standing on a tall and wooden tower (Fig. 3 on the left), holding the symmetric
drawing of an animal. He then may have directed his assistants to lay stone blocks to mark a system of lines, that
would be consistent with the image from his point of view. His helpers of course would have had to work in quite a
distance from the tower, because otherwise, the priest would have needed a “panoramic view”. This would make the
animal motif appear symmetric from the low perspective of the tower, while seeming distorted like a skewed
perspective view from far above. To build an animal that appears symmetric from a divine point of view – what the
Native Americans might have wanted to achieve – the picture has to get enlarged in a certain ratio. Therefore a rope
has to be stretched from a fixed center to one of the many contour rocks. Then the length of the rope has to be
applied multiple times in the course of the enlargement process (Fig.3 right). This must involve at least two people:
one person at the center point of view directing the other at the end of the rope, which ensures the straightness of
the ray. At the end of the multiplied distance, the point is marked with another rock. This technique makes it possible

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to construct an enormous contour in a relatively short period of time. It may also have allowed the Native Americans
to create those gargantuan depictions without having access to today’s airplane perspectives.

From the square to the humming bird

Let us make an experiment, and try to act like a high priest (or project leader) with their subjects (co-workers). A
school gym is the perfect place to carry out such an experiment (Fig. 4, 5, 6) which we performed as follows:
Parameters and instruments:
• Some rope (about 20 meters)
• a roll of adhesive tape (painters use it), because it is easy to remove from the floor without leaving
traces (or chalk, if the experiment is conducted on asphalt)
• a square piece of paper (about 7x7cm)
• at least two persons, although it can also be a group experiment
• a place, where one can reach a higher viewing point and a wide enough space in front of this point
(it depends on the dimension of enlargement)
The leader stands at the bottom of a ladder for example and holds the square piece of paper “frontally” in his or
her outstretched hands such that the square appears undistorted from one of the “viewing eye” (compare to Fig. 3
on the left, just without the tower, and the co-workers not so far away). Now the co-workers have to react on his
or her command. They put some marks at the position on the floor that is “behind” each of the four corners of the
square with the adhesive tape. In the next step, the four marked points also need to be connected with the tape (if
one is working with chalk, it is possible to use the stretched rope as a ruler, to achieve a straight line). The result on
the floor of the gym is an irregular quadrangle or a trapezoid, if two sides of the square were taken horizontal. The
leader now replaces the paper square in the hand by a camera which has to be as close to the viewing eye as possible
(the back of the camera should be parallel to the former paper position) and takes a picture. Logically, the generated
quadrangle will then appear as a square in the picture (but only from the leaders’ point of view!).

Figure 4: Left: Only from one viewpoint, the quadrangle will appear as a square.
Right: If we change the position, the quadrangle has nothing to do with a square.
Photos by Georg Glaeser

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 Enlarge the quadrangle
In the next step, we want to double (or also triple, or even quadruple if the gym is large enough) the size of the
quadrangle. We do this with the “stretch center” S (Fig. 5), the “original stand point” of the leader. We span a rope
from S to each of the four points A, B, C, D of the quadrangle, and add this length (or a multiple of it) in the other
direction (the enlarged line has to stay straight, of course). Thus we get new points A*, B*, C*, D* with twice (triple,
etc.) distance from S, and the new quadrangle is similar, but scaled with a factor of two (or three, etc.).

Figure 5: Scaling of the quadrangle (in this case with factor 2) by adding the rope length from S to the four vertices
A, B, C, D once more. The eye point E is also scaled and marked on the ladder. Photo by Georg Glaeser

Can the scaled quadrangle also appear as a square?

Originally, the smaller quadrangle appeared as a square
exactly from the leaders’ eye point E (Fig. 5). Because of the
scaling, it will now appear in the same matter from the “scaled
eye point” E* , which is twice as high (or triple, etc.). So, if we
now climb up the ladder to the adjacent height and take a
picture from there, the enlarged quadrangle will appear as a
square. The smaller quadrangle, however, will not be a square
anymore (Fig. 6 left).

Figure 6: If we climb up the ladder to the double height, the

larger (=upper) quadrangle will now appear as a square.
Photo by Georg Glaeser

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 What has the quadrangle to do with the humming bird?
Each Figure can be “polygonized”, like the Native Americans did with the hummingbird, which we can find in the
Peruvian desert. So, after the simple case of the quadrangle one has to gain enough practice to conduct a more
sophisticated experiment, and create a figure that is more complicated (for example, regular triangles, or regular
pentagons etc.). But not only the Native Americans experimented with shapes and perspective. Also the French
contemporary artist Georges Rousse applied this phenomenon on local conditions of abandoned houses. In his work
it is possible to perceive the principle of a centered perspective in different manners. He might just have created his
images to play with mathematical facts, geometrical shapes, color and the local conditions. The Nazcas could have
matched each of their images by another special viewing point or viewing direction. Perhaps it was the direction of a
divine star. But this is of course pure speculation…
In any case, this is an exercise that teaches us about polygons, standpoints and viewpoints, viewing angles, etc. It does
so both theoretically and practically. The experiment is very easy to realize in a school gym or any other place which
provides a high vantage point and enough space. The tools necessary for this exercise are regular household items.
As a simple experiment, this project allows us to connect to several disciplines, such as mathematics, art, geography,
history and archeology.

References
Ahrens, Sönke. 2011. Experiment und Exploration: Bildung als experiementelle Form der Welterschließung. Bielefeld

Glaeser, Georg. 2012. Geometry and its Applications in Arts, Nature and Technology. Vienna/New York

Rousse, Georges: http://www.georgesrousse.com/

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 Kristóf Fenyvesi - Ildikó Szabó

Build a Geodesic Dome and

Design Anamorphosis with

Tricky Structures, Playful

the Experience Workshop –
International Math-Art
Movement Perspectives

11
 KRISTÓF FENYVESI is a postgraduate researcher of
contemporary culture at University of Jyväskylä’s
Department of Art and Culture Studies; director of
community events at the world largest art and
mathematics community, the Bridges Organization
(www.bridgesmathart.org); chief executive officer of
International Symmetry Association (www.symmetry.hu)
and director of Experience Workshop – International
Math-Art Movement for Experience-centered Education
of Mathematics (www.experienceworkshop.hu). His
articles have appeared on fora such as The Notices of the
American Mathematical Society, MAA Focus – Newsmagazine
of the Mathematical Association of America and the Bridges
Conference Proceedings. Organizer of conferences,
math-popularization events, curator of exhibitions, editor
of several textbooks and anthologies. His main areas of
research are mathematical connections in arts, culture and
education; interdisciplinary aesthetics and philosophy.

ILDIKÓ SZABÓ is a mathematics-physics teacher at ANK-School,

Hungary and one of the founding members of the Experience Workshop
– International Math-Art Movement (www.experienceworkshop.hu),
taking part in national and international education development projects
as the Experience Workshop’s pedagogical chief, as well as being the
facilitator of creative school days of the Experience Workshop in
Hungary and abroad. She has been the proud recipient of a number of
professional awards, publishing her results in scientific articles,
conferences and popular articles.

1 Build a geodesic dome from newspaper!

1.1 Introduction
The first geodesic dome was a planetarium built
according to Walter Bauersfeld’s plans for the Zeiss
Company in Jena in 1922. Some decades later
Richard Buckminster “Bucky” Fuller, an American
architect and engineer popularised the special
structure of the geodesic dome throughout the
world. According to his plans, a geodesic dome was
designed to cover the American pavilion for the
World Fair in Montreal in 1967. The building can
still be seen: its diameter is 80 m and it is 65 m high.

- Compare these measurements with your own height!

Figure 1: The American Pavilion covered by a geodesic

dome built at the Montreal World Fair according to
Richard Buckminster Fuller’s plans.
The name of the geodesic dome comes from the

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Greek word Geodos meaning Earth.
- Take a closer look at Figure 1 and Figure 2 and read the captions! Do some Internet research on the content of the pictures.
Discuss why Fuller gave the famous pavilion in Montreal and similar buildings the name of geodesic that is, “Earth-like” structure!

Figure 2: A stamp with Fuller’s portrait and his creations around him, a photo of Fuller at the World Fair
in Montreal in 1967 standing inside the structure designed by him, a photo of the transportation of a
geodesic dome by a helicopter, Fuller showing the tensegrity structure and the so-called Dymaxion map.

- More photos and further information on Fuller’s career and other work can be found on the following website:
http://arttattler.com/architecturebuckminsterfuller.html

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1.2 Discover the shape and analyse a digital model!

A geodesic dome is a spherical or partial-spherical shell structure or lattice shell based on a network of great circles
(geodesics) on the surface of a sphere. The geodesics intersect to form triangular elements that have local triangular
rigidity and also distribute the stress across the structure. (cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic_dome).
Our aim is to build the structure of a large dome from pipes made from newspaper. The dome should be large
enough for a person to fit under it.
Before starting to build the structure, with the help of the shareware software Poly, analyse the digital model of the
structure intended to be built!
The Poly software is available at: http://www.peda.com/poly/
With the Poly software several geodesic structures can be studied. First choose the Geodesic Spheres and Dome
option from the roll-down menu of the software and select some of the icosahedral geodesic spheres in the sub-menu.
Slowly turning the model, the structures and the edges of the body subdivided by two-dimensional shapes can be
closely observed. Turning the model around at speed gives the impression that a sphere and not a polyhedron is
rolling in front of you. This is caused by the spherical structure of geodesic domes.
While experimenting with the software, observe different geodesic structures!
In what ways are they similar to one another and how do they differ?
What do you think, what the frequency number refers to?
The construction of Fuller’s geodesic dome is based on the spatial geometric shape, called icosahedron. If you take
a closer look at Figure 3, you can see that each edge of the icosahedron is of the same length, triangles being components
of the structure are equal in size. The icosahedron is composed of 20 identical equilaterals and a sphere can be
circumscribed around the structure.

Figure 3: The icosahedron, the origin of geodesic domes.

Features concerning the edges of the geodesic dome are denoted by the frequency number. Because of the equal
length of edges the frequency number of a geodesic dome generated from a regular icosahedron is 1.

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 In order to increase the frequency of a geodesic structure, two actions are required:
Firstly sub-divide the triangular shaped sides of the icosahedron into smaller triangles and then project out the
vertices of the triangles on the imaginary sphere circumscribed around the icosahedron as in figure 4:

Figure 4: Increasing the frequency number in the geodesic dome based on a regular icosahedron.
(Source: http://www.geo-dome.co.uk/article.asp?uname=domefreq)
A geodesic sphere with higher frequency number can be generated so that we subdivide the face into smaller
equilaterals. Figure 5 shows geodesic spheres based on an icosahedron with frequency numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4 and their
construction:

Figure 5: Geodesic spheres based on an icosahedron with frequency numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 and their construction.
(Source: http://www.geo-dome.co.uk/article.asp?uname=domefreq)
What is the frequency number of the geodesic spherical house in Figure 6? Would you move in? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of a geodesic spherical house? Discuss!

Figure 6: Geodesic spherical house (Source: http://www.geo-dome.co.uk/article.asp?uname=domefreq)

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 If you want to determine the frequency number of a geodesic sphere then the best way is to find the centre of an
arbitrary pentagon on its surface and count how many struts are there between this centre and that of the adjacent
pentagon (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Determining the frequency number of the geodesic sphere. (Source:

http://www.geo-dome.co.uk/article.asp?uname=domefreq)

With the help of the software Poly, geodesic spheres with

different frequency numbers can be studied (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Visualising a geodesic sphere with

a frequency number 2 in the software Poly.

Moving the cursor you can even unfold solids. Gradually you
leave space and enter a plane (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Unfolding the geodesic sphere by moving the cursor.

We are gradually leaving space and entering into a plane

The cursor can be moved so that the flattened hollow solid,

the net, can be visualised (Figure 10).
Observe that the smallest two-dimensional figure unit into
which the surface is subdivided consists of all regular and
isosceles triangles. You can count how many regular and
isosceles triangles border different geodesic structures.

Figure 10: A geodesic sphere

unfolded into a plane having
a frequency number 2.

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 Rotate the structure in each case then visualise the net and observe different solids.
Finally find the model called 2-Frequency Icosahedral Geodedesic Sphere. For the sake of simplicity we are going to
build this now. Later you can try to build more complex structures!

1.3 Build a geodesic dome from newspaper!

As you can observe and count on our digital model generated in the software Poly you will need 35 pipes 65 cm
long (blue in the pictures) and 30 pipes 58 cm long (red in the pictures) in order to build the geodesic dome shown
in the figure below (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Geodesic sphere to be constructed based on an icosahedron with a frequency number 2 from side-view
(to the left), viewed from above (in the middle), in the space (to the right). (Computer graphics are made by László Vörös)

Using wooden skewers and newspaper, make paper pipes for the frame structure of the dome according to the
sequence of Figure 12. As Figure 12 shows, place the newspaper on the table. Take any skewer, place it perpendicular
to the diagonal of a turned rectangular sheet of paper in the corner of the newspaper. Roll the turned newspaper
tightly around the skewer paying attention that the skewer remains perpendicular to the diameter. When the
newspaper pipe is ready then glue the corner of the newspaper at the screwed end with some transparent glue so
that the paper will not unroll.

Figure 12: Making paper

pipes for the frame
structure of the dome
using wooden skewers
and newspaper.

Measure off and mark the required length on the completed newspaper pipes so that the required length remains 1–1
cm longer and cut off the unwanted bit at the end of the paper pipes (Figure 13). This extra length is required as the
pipes will be joined by a stapler at the junctions during the construction where rods constituting the structure of the
frame join together, and by leaving excess it is easier to join the pipes with a stapler during the construction.

Figure 13: Marking and cutting off

the pipes made of newspaper.

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 Study the base of the dome! You can see that the base of the dome is an area enclosed by a regular decagon. Place
10 blue (long) pipes on the ground as in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Base of a

geodesic dome

Calculate the size of the angles of the regular decagon!

It is worth making 10 templates of the angle of 144 degrees and with their help join the pipes together (forming
the required angles) in order to succeed in joining precisely.
After bordering the area around with pipes staple them together with a stapler and in this way the decagon
constituting the base is ready (Figure 14).
In the next steps follow the pictures below. Join pipes with a stapler, or if possible, you can use glue to seal the
joining points. The construction phases (shown in top view) are as follows (figures 15-21):

Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17

Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20

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 Figure 15-21: Construction phases of the dome shown
from top view (computer graphics are made by László
Figure 21 Vörös, Ph.D.)

Three-dimensional figures of phases of the construction of the dome are as follows (Figures 22-28):

Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24

Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27

Figure 22-28: Three-dimensional figures

of phases of the construction of the dome
(computer graphics are made by László
Figure 28 Vörös)

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 Figures 29-33: Photos of the construction process in a classroom

2 Design Anamorphosis in the Classroom!

Generating optical illusions and other visual effects through playful creative activities offers considerable potential
to arouse and increase interest in mathematics and other sciences, such as physics. Several visual effects are based on
phenomena describable from a mathematical point of view, generated by algorithmic operations that can be formalized.
Several artworks generated with mathematical algorithms are in the repertoire of the travelling exhibit of the
Experience Workshop Math-Art Movement. For instance, István Orosz’s or Jan W. Marcus’ anamorphic artworks
can bring the pedagogical value of anamorphoses, this specific visual effect to teachers’ attention.
Anamorphosis means a distorted projection or perspective requiring the viewer to place a mirror on the drawing
or painting, or occupy a specific vantage point to reconstitute the image.
Anamorphosis opens up the possibility of discovery in many areas. Hereby, we list only some of them hoping that
they will peak your interest and encourage you to explore further. Some areas in which anamorphosis can be
implemented in mathematics: studying the location in the Cartesian coordinate system and with polar coordinates;
one-to-one correspondence (correspondence of cells) of different reference systems; measuring angles; representation
and division of concentric circles into equal sectors, etc; in physics: concepts belonging to geometric optics, such as
light sources, refraction, reflection from different surfaces, etc; in biology: biology of vision and biology of the eye,
etc.

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Figure 34: Artworks by István Orosz. Left to
right: Anamorphic eye by István Orosz (to the
left), and Construction of the anamorphosis
by István Orosz (to the right).

• First activity: read the distorted text on the logo

Figure 35: Anamorphic logo of Experience Workshop

Observations
• Reading: read from left to right and you are required to imagine the mirrored image
of the letters in order to be able to read the text
• The distorted projection is situated in the shape of an almost regular half circle on a paper, etc.

• Second activity: play with mirrors

Try to read the text on the logo with the help of different shaped mirrors.

Observations
• By using a mirror it is easier to read the text
• The shape of the mirror you use does matter!
• With a mirror of cylindrical shape placed at the right place (the center), the picture leads to a more precise
reading of the text
• Formulating the hypothesis: generating the image with a cylindrical mirror, the hidden text can be made instantly
legible.

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 • Third activity: make a cylindrical mirror

Making a cylindrical mirror is very simple: stick mirror film sold in stationary shops to a paper cylinder of the
adequate radius (e.g. use a paper cylinder from a kitchen towel roll). Placing the cylindrical mirror on the half circle
part of the smooth paper sheet, the picture shown in Figure 35 can be seen with legible text.
In order to create the picture used in the list of activities mentioned above the software which generates the
anamorphosis is free to download from http://www.anamorphosis.com/software.html.
In this way illustrations used during activities can be generated by using any picture in advance.
• Fourth activity: observe the technology of making anamorphosis! Find correspondences between networks while generating
anamorphosis!
Everybody gets a sheet of paper on which networks are previously drawn for designing anamorphosis according to
the figure and description below. Added lines drawn in red and blue are not in the figures so that students can discover
the relationships themselves.

Figure 36: A structure of the network

for designing anamorphosis

By drawing the correct lines students can easily design a

detorted network for the original network: by drawing circles
concentric to the circle constituting the base of the cylindrical
mirror and then dividing them into angles delimited by sides
measured 22.5 degrees with a vertex being in the centre, the
already detorted cells are formed. The red arrow points to
the centre of the base of the cylinder, the blue broken lines
are the radii of the first circle drawn around the cylinder
concentric to the circle of its base. The letter ‘r’ denotes the
radius of the circle of the base of the cylinder (see Figure 36).

Figure 37: Placing the cylinder mirror

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 • Fifth activity: use laser

Fix a laser light source on a retort stand. Be careful when using

the laser not to shine it directly into your or anybody else’s eye.
You should set up the laser so that it equates with your sight of
view as if you were looking directly at the paper from above.
Students can observe where points corresponding to each other
get to during the reflection of light: the point of light on the
cylinder, and its image on the net (correspondence of cells). The
same – keeping safety at the forefront of your mind and with a
teacher’s constant presence – should be tried also from the
children’s perspective.

Figure 38: Use laser!

• Sixth activity: design anamorphosis

On a regular square network, students can make their own creations and by copying the corresponding cells on
the detorted structure of the network the detorted picture can be generated. Cells determined by letters and numbers
help again in mapping. Then placing the cylindrical mirror on the marked circle the designed creation can be viewed
immediately.

Figure 39: Design anamorphosis!

• Seventh activity: design your own network

Choose a paper roll and stick a mirror film on its surface. Draw the structure of a network including squares and
denote cells by numbers and letters according to the description in the fourth game. Place the cylindrical mirror on
a sheet of paper and draw around its base. Then, according to the description outlined above, draw the other network
structure in the shape of a circle. Being placed into it, the detorted picture will be seen as an image in the cylindrical
mirror in a predetermined form.

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 Dirk Huylebrouck

Spatial
Fractal Workshops

Tricky Structures, Playful

Perspectives

11
DIRK HUYLEBROUCK spent eight years at universities in the Congo
until a diplomatic incident between Belgium and President Mobutu of
Congo interrupted his stay. He went to the University of Aveiro in
Portugal and the European Division of Maryland University, until the
majority of his American (military) students went to Iraq. He returned
to Africa, to Burundi, but only for three years, because of the genocide
in neighboring Rwanda. In 1996, he finally consented to teach at the
Faculty of Architecture of the KU Leuven (Belgium). Fortunately, he can
still escape abroad, as he has edited the column “The Mathematical
Tourist” in “The Mathematical Intelligencer”, since 1997. However, he
may soon have to flee abroad again, as he has become increasingly
(in)famous due to his work in finding errors in well-known artwork such
as in the Belgian Atomium landmark, in the work of Leonardo da Vinci,
in Michelangelo’s The Forbidden Fruit, in Van Eyck’s Mystic Lamb, and,
most recently, in Norbert Francis Attard’s Fibonacci sculpture.

Fractals
Fractals today are gathering somewhat of a following outside of the mathematical world, this is not really surprising
as they are intriguing structures repeating the same ‘base’ form, sometimes even to infinity. Thus fractals seem to
have many members just as in nature a cloud, a fern leaf or a cauliflower has smaller and smaller parts similar to the
original. In popular mathematics, fractals are much admired, probably because they make graphics pleasing to the eye
as evidenced by their use in psychedelic MTV-videos. The notion, however, is over a hundred years old, and it is
thanks to the Frenchman Benoît Mandelbrot (who emigrated to the US) that this mathematical subject escaped the
academic ivory tower and received the attention it deserved.
The ‘capriciousness degree’ of a curve, or of a surface or of a spatial volume, is called its ‘fractal dimension’. If it is
known how many new elements are used repeatedly to form a new figure, and if the scale factor indicates the number
of these new parts needed to divide one unit length, then the fractal dimension given the number of new elements =
(scale factor)dimension.
For example, a line has dimension 1 since 3 = 31: if the unit length is divided into 3, then 3 parts fill one unit length.
A flat surface has dimension 2, 9 = 32, because if the unit length is divided in 3, than 9 new squares fill up a square
whose side is the unit length. Finally, a spatial volume has dimension 3, because 27 = 33, as 27 cubes fill a cube whose
side were divided into three. For the fractal curves shown in Figure 1, the dimension numbers lie between 1 and 2.

A fractal curve with dimension 1.5 because the scale is 4 and 8 times as many parts are used in each step: 8 = 41.5,
because 8 = (√4)3 = 43/2.

A fractal curve with dimension 2, because the scale is 3, and 9 pieces are used: 9 = 32. Knitting a jersey this way yields
perfectly insulated clothing.

The dimension of the so-called Koch fractal is approximately 1.26 for the scale is 3 and there are four times as many parts
used. A calculator helps to confirm this: 4 ≈ 31.26.

Figure 1: Some fractal drawings and their dimensions.

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 The mathematical theory of fractals uses complex numbers and more involved set-ups. An application of the more
involved mathematical theories can be found in the study of the biological structure of the human lung. In form, a lung
can indeed be considered as fractal. In each alveoli air molecules collide against the inner surface of the lungs: Brownian
motion (a principle first formalized by Albert Einstein). This means that they collide in a completely random way. The
larger the inner lung surface, the greater the opportunity that the air molecules can enter the blood through the
surface.

Figure 2: Abstract alveoli, where air molecules in a Brownian motion collide. One has the shape of a circle (that is, of a sphere,
in three dimensions) and the other of a Koch fractal, having a larger internal colliding surface.

If the inner surface is too irregular, it could happen that some parts of the area are rarely touched by the molecules,
because they lie “around the corner”. Mathematician Tom Wolf demonstrated that surfaces exist with a fractal
dimension greater than 2 that are accessible to Brownian motion (fortunately, because this is why we can breathe).
Princeton’s IAS Jean Bourgain established a formula proving that the dimension of such an accessible area should be
less than 3.

Figure 3: Models of lungs based on fractals; a realistic picture (left) and an

imaginary one (right), called ‘squaring the lung’ (Ryuji Takaki, Tokyo, Japan).

Another popular series of applications can be found in ethno-mathematics. Ron Eglash wrote a complete book on
“African Fractals”, about, for instance, prominent African-American scientist Benjamin Banneker’s so-called ‘quincunx
fractal’ (see [4]). He noted that it is not unusual to encounter this fractal pattern in Senegal as a decoration on small
leather bags worn around the neck. Ethiopian crosses would be other examples where the mathematical fractal
structure is re-discovered. Surely it is correct to state that many African shapes were inspired by nature and thus
incorporated its fractal structure.

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 Figure 4: An imaginary example by Paulus Gerdes showing how African sand curves can lead to fractals.

However, though fractals do indeed turn out to be useful in

describing natural phenomenon in a very simple mathematical
formulation, scientists like David Avnir (The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Israel) have shown that the fractal property of nature is
debatable: very often there are only two or three scale levels, though
the possibility of an infinite continuation is an important part of the
definition of a fractal (see [1]). In Eglash’s ‘African fractals’, there are
often only two or at most three levels. Avnir went so far as to write
to Mandelbrot in person objecting to his theories about the fractal
interpretation of nature. Their discussion did not reach a definite
conclusion though, and so let’s finish with a witty remark raised by
Patrick Fowler (University of Sheffield, United Kingdom) in private
correspondence: “Why isn’t there a book about, for instance,
‘Catholic fractals’, since in some religious art, a saint holds a statue of
Mary, holding the child Jesus (see Figure 5)? Is that fractal art too?”

Figure 5: Is this statue a proof catholic artists knew fractals 600 years
ago? A saint holds a statue of Mary, who holds a statue of Jesus: is that a
‘Catholic ethno-mathematical fractal’?

Spatial Fractals
Though fractals have enjoyed great attention in popular science, most examples show planar images or are at best
spatial extrusions of planar examples. The image of a so-called fractal tree is an icon in fractal imagination, but in most
cases it is a ‘flat tree’, in two dimensions (see Figure 6). One of the most quoted and also earliest examples of a true
spatial fractal is the Sierpinski gasket, named after the Polish mathematician, Waclaw Sierpiński. Its planar original is
the Sierpinski triangle, having the overall shape of an equilateral triangle, subdivided recursively into smaller equilateral
triangles. In space, it corresponds to a tetrahedron, subdivided recursively into 4 smaller tetrahedrons. Variations are
possible, of course, such as using a pyramid with a square base and subdividing it recursively into 5 smaller pyramids.

Figure 6: An iconic image: the planar

fractal tree (right) based on applying
the Pythagorean Theorem (Wikimedia
Commons, drawing by ‘Fractal World’).

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 The three-dimensional analogue of the Sierpinski triangle already illustrated the kind of problems that can arise
with spatial fractals. Indeed, if an initial tetrahedron of side-length L and surface L2√3 is subdivided into 4 tetrahedrons
of side-length L/2, the total surface (including the inside areas) will be 4 ((L/2)2√3) = L2√3. Thus, the initial surface
remains constant after each iteration. The volume on the other hand decreases by one half with each iteration and
thus approaches 0 as the number of iterations increases. Its dimension, using the above formula, is 2, as 4= 22 and this
corresponds to the dimension of a flat drawing (see Figure 7)

Figure 7: A spatial Sierpinski gasket (Wikimedia

Commons, drawing by George Hart).

The fractal tree provides spatial challenges too: the icon drawing is flat, and when making spatial versions, the
branches quickly turn into each other, that is, intersect the neighboring branches. This happened to Michiel Duinslaeger,
a former architecture student at the Faculty of Architecture of the KU Leuven, Belgium (he graduated in July 2014).
He followed an optional math art course and wanted to construct a true spatial fractal tree. When testing some
arbitrary lengths and angles, his results were unsatisfactory (see Figure 8).

Figure 8: A spatial fractal tree does exist, as in nature (photo above), but
when reproducing it, the 3D drawing quickly becomes overcrowded with
intersecting leaves (drawing by Michiel Duinslaeger).

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 Fortunately, Michiel Duinslaeger shared his math/art course with a group of Serbian students on an EU Tempus
project. One of these visiting students, Danka Lučić , of the University of Novi Sad, Serbia, advised Duinslaeger to use
a length reduction of 1/2, and branch angles of 45°. She based her suggestion on existing literature (see [2], [5], [6] and
[7]). Duinslaeger’s design of a 3D fractal tree with 682 pieces and of relatively simple construction will form the basis
of the first 3D fractal activity. The second activity builds on the idea of making polyhedra with balloons; this originated
in chemistry, but has also become popular in in mathematics (see [3]).

Activity 1: 3D Fractal Tree

Teacher’s guide

Materials: Light wood (triplex, or balsa), card board, strong paper.

Paint.
Objective: Students will become familiar with 3D fractals properties, and experience how slowly or quickly each
generation grows.

Vocabulary: Fractals, 3D space.

Activity Sequence:
1. Copy figure 9 in wood (or in cardboard) and paper, or else. What is even easier, use the pieces to be cut out given
separately on several pages available for download at this web-address: vismath.ektf.hu/Dirk_Huylebrouck_Templates.
For instance, use 9mm thick wood for the first generation, 6 mm thick for the second, 3mm for the third, 2mm the
fourth, and finally 1mm thin paper.

Figure 9: These pieces make the trunk of the tree and the support. They can, for instance, be cut from 9mm thick wood.

Note the width of the vertical opening of the longer piece equals the thickness of the used material for the previous
fractal generation, while the width of the vertical opening of the shorter piece equals the thickness of the material for
its actual fractal generation. The other width of the skew openings equals the thickness of the material for the next
fractal generation.
In the given example 2 wooden pieces make the trunk of the tree, 8 the branches, and finally there are 32 twigs;
128 green leaves and 512 white blossoms complete the tree. This gives a total of 682 pieces but 2 pieces are added
for additional support: a large square and a circular shape to keep the trunk firmly together. Here, the lengths of the
Y-shaped branches were 18.5 cm, next 9.25 cm, and 4.625 cm and so on.
2. Paint each fractal generation as desired (here we use none, green and white).
3. Have the students put the tree together. And most of all, be patient.
4. What is the fractal dimension of the tree?

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 Figure 10: From left to right: the 2 pieces for the trunk of the tree, 8 for the branches,
and the 32 twigs; 128 green leaves and 512 white blossoms complete the tree.

Figure 11: The result

with 4 generations.

Figure 12: A branch with the 5 generation (patience was lacking to construct the complete tree up to 5 generations).

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 Activity 2: 3D Sierpinski in balloons
Teacher’s guide

Materials: Balloons and pumps. These balloons are cheap and the small pumps come with them. The pumps are not
strictly necessary, you may need rubber bands to tie off the balloons
Objective: Students will become familiar with 3D fractals properties, and experience how slowly or quickly each
generation grows.
Vocabulary: Fractals, 3D space.
Activity Sequence:
1. Blow up two balloons and put them together as shown below. Try to respect a given edge length as well as possible,
since this will turn out to be important in the end.

Figure 13: Construction of a

tetrahedron using 2 balloons.

2. Make a Sierpinski gasket using 4 balloon tetrahedrons.

Figure 14: Construction of a

Sierpinski gasket using 8 balloons.

3. Make a greater Sierpinski gasket using 4 balloon tetrahedrons and thus using 32 balloons.

Figure 15: Construction of a

Sierpinski gasket using 8 balloons.

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Ambitious mathematical artists or artistic mathematicians can try to break the Guinness world record for the largest
balloon Sierpinski gasket. It was set on March 16th 2014, using 2,048 balloons, in 1,024 pyramids, measuring just over
7m tall and taking six hours to put together.

Figure 16: Belgrade Metropolitan University student Jovana Kovac

in a Sierpinski-like balloon gasket made by her together
with her colleague, photographer Jovana Petrovic.

References:

[1] D. Avnir, O. Biham, D. Lidar and O. Malcai, “Is the Geometry of Nature Fractal?”, Science, 279 (5347), pp. 39-40
(1998).
[2] P.M. Bliss and D.A. Brown, “Geometric properties of three-dimensional fractal trees”, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals,
42, Elsevier, pp. 119–124 (2009).
[3] E. D. Demaine, M. L. Demaine and V. Hart, “Balloon Polyhedra”, in Shaping Space: A Polyhedral Approach, edited
by Marjorie Senechal, Second Edition, pp. 33-40 (2013).
[4] R. Eglash, “African Fractals. Modern Computing and Indigenous Design”, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick
NJ (1999) .
[5] R.M. Frongillo, E. Lock, and D.A. Brown, “Symmetric fractal trees in three dimensions”, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals,
Elsevier, 32, pp. 284–95 (2007).
[6] B. E. Pons, “Generalized self-contacting symmetric fractal trees”, Symmetry: Culture and Science, Vol. 21, Nos.
1-4, pp. 333-351 (2013).
[7] T. Verhoeff and K. Verhoeff, “Mitered Fractal Trees: Constructions and Properties”, Proceedings of the conference
“Bridges: Mathematics, Music, Art, Architecture, Culture”, pp. 25-32 (2011).

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 George Hart

“Slide-Together”
Geometric Paper
Constructions

Paper Sculptures
GEORGE HART is a sculptor and an inter-
departmental research professor at Stony Brook
University. He holds a B.S. in Mathematics and a Ph.D.
in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science from
MIT. Hart is a co-organizer of the annual Bridges
Conference on mathematics and art and the editor
for sculpture for the Journal of Mathematics and the
Arts. His artwork has been exhibited widely around the
world. Hart co-founded the Museum of Mathematics
in New York City and designed its initial exhibits. He
also makes videos that show the fun and creative sides
of mathematics. See georgehart.com for examples
of his work.

Introduction. This activity consists of seven attractive constructions which are fun and relatively inexpensive to
make because one simply cuts out paper pieces and slides them together. A number of mathematical skills are
developed, concerning geometric structure, coloring patterns, and concrete and mental visualization. I have found
these to be good classroom activities for middle-school, high school, and college students. Furthermore, as team-
building projects, these work well if assembled in groups of two or three students. That encourages collaboration and
mathematical communication.
Each “slide-together” is made from identical copies of a single type of regular polygon (e.g., just squares or just
triangles) with slits cut at the proper locations. I make them from colored card stock, simply photocopying the
templates onto the sheets. In most cases, glue or tape is not needed if you use a stiff stock. But you might want to
use a small dot of glue at the corners or bit of scotch tape on the interior to fasten the components together. Having
the corners meet crisply is the key to producing a neat geometric impression.

Paper “Slide-together” Constructions based on triangles, hexagons, squares, decagons, pentagons, decagrams, and pentagrams

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Differentiating Instruction. The seven models are illustrated above in approximately increasing order of construction
difficulty. I suggest starting with the triangles or hexagons, which are straightforward to make based on the image.
The one with squares is more challenging because there are places where three sheets meet. Instructions for it are
detailed below. The later ones, with decagons, pentagons, decagrams, and pentagrams are increasingly more difficult.
One strategy is to have everyone in a class make the triangles model and then have different teams each work on a
different one of the remaining models. Assign the more difficult ones to the teams which want a greater challenge.
Combining the results can make a very attractive display. A mobile I made with all seven models was exhibited first
at the 1997 Math and Art conference at SUNY Albany, NY and then at the Goudreau Museum of Mathematics, in
New Hyde Park, New York.

Constructing the 30-Squares “Slide-Together”

Copy and Cut. For one model, use five sheets of “card stock” of five different colors. (Ordinary paper is too thin.
Card stock is a heavy weight paper, stiffer than standard paper, but thin enough to snake through the rollers of a copy
machine or laser printer. Most copy shops have a selection of colors on hand that they can copy on to for you, or
you can buy it by the ream to put in your own copier.) Copy the squares template (below) on to the five sheets. If
you wish, you can scale it up a bit to make six 3.5 inch squares exactly fit in one sheet of paper; it is only essential that
all thirty squares be the same size. If only a single color of paper is used, the construction still works geometrically,
but much of the beauty is lost.
Using scissors, cut on the lines to release thirty squares. Individually cut the four slits in each, i.e., do not stack
squares and try to make several slits with one cut as that will be too inaccurate. Neatness counts! You do not need to
cut all the pieces before beginning assembly. You can start construction once you have cut and slit at least one square
of each color.
In what follows, keep in mind the following:
(1) the squares are planar; you will bend them temporarily during assembly but they should end up flat;
(2) when two squares are slid completely into each other, two edges of one square intersect two edges of the
other (one crossing occurs at each end of the slit); and
(3) each square will join to four squares of the four other colors, e.g., a blue square never touches another blue
square.

Cycle of Five. Notice that there are two long slits and two short slits in each square. You will always slide a long and
a short slit into each other. Begin by joining two squares of different colors. Then observe in the first photo above
that the central five-fold opening is surrounded by five squares and see how two of those five are arranged like the
two squares you just joined. Continue the pattern and add a third square, a fourth, and a fifth. Join the fifth to the first
to complete a cycle around a five-fold opening. Be sure always to keep the corners of the squares all on the outside
of the construction. A common problem is not sliding the slits completely into each other; you can detect this by
noticing that the edges do not intersect.

Three-way Corners. At this stage, the joints are free to rotate, so the assembly will be very flexible and some joints
may disassemble spontaneously. If this happens, just repair the joints to maintain the pentagon opening. What locks
the parts together are the “three-way corners” which are added next. To visualize where they go, keep in mind that
of each square’s four edges, two (opposite) edges will touch pentagonal openings and the remaining two (opposite)
edges will touch three-way corners. Observe this in the photo above.
To make a three-way corner between squares A and B, you choose a new square C and join it into both A and B.
The first issue is to determine what color C should be. The trick is to look directly across the pentagon from where
A and B touch and see what color square is there; choose a square C of that same color. The second issue is to make
the three-way corner symmetric with a neat little triangle at its center. The trick to this is to first join C into A and
B with a kind of rotation of C, and then temporarily bend and unbend the little points of A, B, and C as needed to get
around each other and make a sort of spiral. It is easier to do than explain in text. Typically some students discover
this then demonstrate it to their peers.

Completing the Structure. Once this trick is mastered it is straightforward to create another three-way corner, and
another, etc, so all five initial joints are locked. In each case, the color of the new square that is added must be
determined by looking across the pentagonal opening to match the color of the square opposite. When all five of the
original joints are locked in this way, you will have used a total of ten squares, so you are a third done. Completing

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the structure is just a matter of noticing there are several incomplete pentagonal openings, choosing any one to
complete, and locking its joints, etc. until all thirty squares have been used. Double check as you go along that every
opening is surrounded by five different colors and each square joins with four other squares of the four other colors.
If properly made, the six squares of any color are arranged like an exploded cube.

Constructing the Other Six ”Side-togethers”

Similar techniques are used to assemble the six other slide-togethers. Each can be visualized as sets of intersecting
polygons, with the slits being used to allow the planes of the paper to get through each other. One tricky issue is the
choice of color of each part so the whole arrangement is symmetric. A second issue is the technique of making more
difficult 3-way corners with larger parts that have to bend around each other. The illustrations above are guides. In
each case, interesting patterns of edges are formed, often five-pointed stars.
The one with triangles and the one with hexagons each have twenty components and should be made with four
parts in each of five colors. These do not have three-way corners, so they are easier to assemble in that respect, but
are correspondingly prone to self-dis-assembly with certain types of paper. A bit of tape can be used on the interior
to lock the slots together if needed. Also, dots of glue can be used to hold the corners to each other. If properly
assembled, the four parts of any color lie in the planes of a regular tetrahedron and all five colors appear around each
pentagon opening. The one with triangles is especially interesting because among its edges you can see the edges of
five cubes; if at first you do not see them, they may pop out if you rotate the model slowly.
The four remaining models each have twelve components. For each, make two parts in each of six colors and
assemble them so pairs of opposite parts are always the same color. Each part will touch five neighbors of the other
five colors. The three-way corners can be tricky at first. The most difficult one is the construction of twelve
pentagrams, because the segments where two stars pass through each other have two pairs of slits to join instead of
just one. It would be impossible to give detailed instructions for these. All I can suggest is that at each step you first
visualize where you want a part to be, then arrange for it to be there.

Classroom Ideas from Middle Grades to Architectural Design

Before attempting these constructions, students should have built all five Platonic solids, to be familiar with their
symmetries. The completed slide-together models can be related to the regular polyhedra and used to explore ideas
of counting or symmetry. For example with the 30 squares construction, you can ask: How many “three-way corners”
are there? (Answer: 20, they correspond to the 20 faces of a regular icosahedron. One way to count them is based
on the fact that each of 30 squares touch two three-way corners, and it takes three such contacts to make each, so
30 * 2 / 3 gives 20.) How many 5-sided openings are there? (Answer: 12, corresponding to the 12 faces of a regular
dodecahedron, calculated as 30 * 2 / 5.) How many 5-fold rotation axes are there? (Answer: 6. One connects the
centers of each pair of opposite 5-fold openings.)
One possible advanced project is to have students make their own templates using either straightedge and compass
or a computer drawing program. The key in many cases is to start with a regular polygon and find points which divide
the edges in the golden ratio. (This follows from the golden-ratio properties of a five-pointed star.) The cuts where
parts slide into each other should add up to the length of the segment of intersection.
After practice with these melon-sized models, the idea can be applied at a larger scale. Large cardboard versions about
five feet in diameter have been made by students in a college-level architectural design course taught by Prof. Patricia
Muñoz at the University of Buenos Aires.
At the high school or higher level, one can use the constructed models to explore topics in combinatorics, e.g., in
the 30 squares: How many different cycles of five colors are possible around a five-sided opening? (Answer: 24, which
is 5!/5 because there are 5! permutations of the colors, then “equate” groups of five that are cyclic rotations.) How
many different cycles are present in one model? (Answer: 12, one around each of the 12 openings.) So how many
differently colored models are in the classroom? (Ans: 2—If the order of initial cycle of five colors is chosen randomly,
roughly half the class will have one coloring pattern and half will have the other.) What determines which 12 of the
24 possible cyclic orders are found in the same model? (Answer: The “even” permutations of the five colors are in
the same model.)

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 References
Charles Butler described to me the design of the one with triangles and the one with squares. I designed the others
based on an assortment of uniform polyhedra.

A YouTube video "Seven Slide-Together Constructions" illustrating these models is available at

http://youtu.be/Yq0La4rEarc

http://www.georgehart.com includes 3D “virtual reality” models of all seven, which rotate in three dimensions in
one’s web browser with an appropriate “plug-in” viewer. This gives a richer sense of the structure than 2D images,
so may be a better guide for assembly.

Portions of this material appeared in the 2004 Bridges Conference booklet of Teacher Workshop materials.

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Triangle Slide-together Template — make five copies for two models

154
Hexagon Slide-together Template — make five copies for one model

155
Square Slide-together Template — make five copies for one model

156
Decagon Slide-together Template — make six copies for 1.5 model

157
Pentagon Slide-together Template — make six copies for one model

158
Decagram Slide-together Template — make six copies for one model

159
Pentagram Slide-together Template — make six copies for one model
 Rinus Roelofs

Leonardo’s Elevated
Polyhedra Models

Paper Sculptures

11
RINUS ROELOFS was born in 1954. After studying
Applied Mathematics at the Technical University of
Enschede, he took a degree from the Enschede Art
Academy with a specialization in sculpture. His
commissions come largely from municipalities, institutions
and companies in the Netherlands, but his work has been
exhibited further afield, including in Rome as part of the
Escher Centennial celebrations in 1998. Since 2003 he has
been a presenter at the annual Bridges conference, a
conference on connections between art and mathematics.

Publications
Ecken und Kanten – Europaweit, 2014, catalogue exhibition Mathematikum Giessen, Germany.
The Discovery of a New Series of Uniform Polyhedra, 2013, Bridges Proceedings.
Connected Holes, 2008, catalogue exhibition Technical University of Enschede, Netherlands.

Introduction
The main subject of my art is my fascination with mathematics. And to be more precise: my fascination with
mathematical structures. Mathematical structures can be found all around us. We can see them everywhere in our
daily lives. The use of these structures as visual decoration is so common that we don’t even see this as mathematics.
But studying the properties of these structures and especially the relation between the different structures can bring
up questions. Questions that can be the start of interesting artistic explorations.
Artistic explorations of this kind mostly lead to intriguing designs of sculptural objects, which are then made from
all kinds of materials, like paper, wood, metal, acrylic, etc. It all starts with amazement, trying to understand what you
see. Solving those questions often leads to new ideas, new designs.
Since I use the computer as my main sketchbook, these ideas come to reality first as a picture on the screen. From
there I can decide what the next step towards physical realization will be. A rendered picture, an animation or a 3D
physical model made by the use of CNC-milling, laser cutting or rapid prototyping. Most of the time the first physical
model is a paper model, simply cut out, folded and glued together.
However many different techniques can be used nowadays, as well as many different materials. But it is all based
on my fascination with mathematical structures.

In mathematics the field of Polyhedra deserves special attention. It is nice to build real physical models from which
you can learn a lot about the beauty of symmetry and structure. Once you have the first models of the Platonic solids
you are inspired and motivated to come up with ideas about variations on these models. In the book “La Divina
Proportione” by Luca Pacioli and Leonardo da Vinci you will find drawings of the basic polyhedra and also an interesting
variation, called elevation.

Paper models can be made quite easily. For the models described here only three different templates are required,
they can be found in the appendix.

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In their book “La Divina Proportione” [2] Luca Pacioli and Leonardo da Vinci introduced the elevated versions of all
of the Platonic polyhedra as well as of some of the Archimedean polyhedra. The Platonic solids as well as their
elevations as they are drawn by Leonardo da Vinci are shown in Figure 1 and 2.

Figure 1: Leonardo’s drawings of the Platonic solids.

Figure 2: Leonardo’s drawings of the elevations of the Platonic solids.

What exactly is an elevated version of a polyhedron? In “La Divina Proportione” [3],chapter XLIX, paragraph XI.XII,
Pacioli describes the elevated version of the cube as follows: “… it is enclosed by 24 triangular faces. This polyhedron
is built out of 6 four-sided pyramids, together building the outside of the object as you can see it with your eyes. And
there is also a cube inside, on which the pyramids are placed. But this cube can only be seen by imagination, because
it is covered by the pyramids. The 6 square faces are the bottom faces of the 6 pyramids.”
So, in total this object is composed of 24 equilateral triangular faces plus 6 hidden square faces, as can be seen in
the exploded views in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Exploded
views of the elevated
cube and octahedron.

About the “Octocedron Elevatus”, Pacioli writes (Chapter L, paragraph XIX.XX): “And this object is built with 8
three-sided pyramids, that can be seen with your eyes, and an octahedron inside, which you can only see by
imagination.”. This means that the object is composed of 32 equilateral triangular faces of which 8 are hidden.

Pacioli describes the process of elevation as putting pyramids, built with equilateral triangles, on each of the faces
of the polyhedra. The result of this operation is a double layered object which has many similarities with the stellated
version of a polyhedron, a beautiful example of which can be seen in M.C. Escher’s print “Gravity”. The way Escher
opened up the polyhedron shows us both layers very well. Or in Escher’s own words: “This star-dodecahedron is
built with twelve five pointed stars. On each of these platforms lives a monster without a tale and his body is captured
under a five sided pyramid.”. Escher is talking about pyramids placed on platforms, just like Pacioli’s elevations.

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Figure 4: Find M.C. Escher’s –
“Gravity” on the internet. Study the
artwork! The work’s basic shape is
the Stellated dodecahedron.

The way Escher opened up the polyhedron turned out to be the perfect solution for making models of the elevated
polyhedra.

Figure 5: Developing of the basic elements for the elevation models.

We can construct the elements that we need to build the model of an elevated polyhedron as follows: connect the
faces of the “opened” pyramid to the edges of its base. For the elevated Platonic solids we need to do this with the
three, four and five sided pyramids. So we end up with three different building elements (Figure 5, right) of which you
can find the drawings in the appendix.

Figure 6: Building the elevated tetrahedron.

We start with four triangular elements to first build the model of the elevated tetrahedron. The building process can
be described as follows: above each triangular face we have to build a triangular pyramid.

Figure 7: Models of the

elevated tetrahedron and
elevated octahedron.

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And with eight of those elements we can build the model of the elevated octahedron.

Figure 8: Building the elevated icosahedron.

For the third model, the elevated icosahedron, we need to cut out twenty triangular elements.

Figure 9: Models of the

elevated polyhedra with the
triangular element.

So now we have all the stellated Platonic solids which can be built with the triangular element.
For the next model, the elevated cube, we need to cut out six square elements. And now we make square pyramids
above each of the square faces of the cube.

Figure 10: Building the elevated cube

Figure 11: Models of

the elevated cube and
elevated dodecahedron.

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The final model of the set of stellated platonic solids, the stellated dodecahedron, can be made with twelve pentagonal
elements.

Figure 12: Models of the elevated Platonic solids.

Looking at the complete set of models we have built so far, we see that one of those models, the stellated octahedron,
can be seen as a compound of two tetrahedra. Using two different colors makes this visible and there is a nice
resemblance between the paper model and Escher’s “Double Planetoid”. Find M.C. Escher’s “Double Planetoid” on
the internet. Study the artwork!

Figure 13: The elevated octahedron

is a compound of two tetrahedra.

The next step is to look for the possible stellated polyhedra we can get from the Archimedean solids.

Figure 14: The Archimedean

and Platonic solids

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To make a stellation of a polyhedron we have to place a pyramid with equilateral triangular faces on each of the faces
of the polyhedron. As you can see in Figure 15, only three, four and five sided pyramids are possible.

Figure 15: Possible elevations of regular polygons.

Of the total set of the Archimedean solids, only six solids can be used for the stellation process. They are shown in
Figure 16.

Figure 16: The six Archimedean

Solids which can be elevated.

In the book “La Divina Proportione” we find only three: the cuboctahedron, the icosidodecahedron and the
rhombicuboctahedron.

Figure 17: Leonardo’s drawings of three Archimedean solids.

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 Figure 18: Leonardo’s drawings of the elevations of three Archimedean solids.

We can make the paper models of all of them with the three different elements.

Figure 19: Paper models of three of the Archimedean solids.

And besides these three Archimedean elevations we can also build the stellated snubcube, the elevated
snubdodecahedron and the elevated rhombicosidodecahedron. In total we now have eleven elevated polyhedra. There
is a special subset of these eleven polyhedra with interesting properties. In Figure 20 the so called Ring Polyhedra are
shown. These polyhedra can be colored with only two colors in such a way that no two adjacent faces have the same
color. The elevated versions of these polyhedra will therefore be compounds and we can make the models in two
different colors.

Figure 20: The five Ring Polyhedra.

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In Figure 21 the compounds of Leonardo’s elevations are shown.

Figure 21: Four of

Leonardo’s elevated
polyhedra are
compounds.
There are many more polyhedra we can build with our elements. The first group we can study is the group of the
deltahedra. There are eight convex deltahedra and with our elements we can build elevated versions of each of them.

Figure 22: The

eight deltahedra.
In fact from any polyhedron built with triangles, squares and/or pentagons a paper model of the elevated version can
be built with our elements. A nice example is the Tetrahelix.

Figure 23: Tetrahelix

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Especially when you use more than one color this will give you nice models.

Figure 24: Elevated version of the tetrahelix made with the triangular element.

The idea of elevation cannot only be applied on polyhedra but also on flat tilings.

Figure 25: Elevation is also possible with plane patterns.

For example, starting with the tiling 3,3,3,3,3,3 in which all the tiles are equilateral tringles, we can put a triangular
pyramid on each of the tiles. And when we open up the pyramids like Escher did we can make the model with the
triangular elements as is shown in Figure 26.

Figure 26: Model of the elevation of the planar 3,3,3,3,3,3-tiling, built with the triangular element.

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We can apply the same strategy to the tiling with squares. This gives us two regular elevated tilings.

Figure 27: Elevation of triangular and square pattern.

There is one more Archimedean tiling that we can use in this way: tiling 3,3,4,3,4 shown in Figure 28.

Figure 28: Elevation of the Archimedean pattern 3,3,4,3,4.

The paper model of the elevation is shown in Figure 29.

Figure 29: Model built with the triangular and the square elements.

But of course many variations can be made. So with only three different elements we can build a huge collection of
interesting mathematical objects and structures.

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 Ferhan Kiziltepe

Two Exercises on Dimension,

Surface and Volume
in Mathematics

Paper Sculptures

11
 FERHAN KIZILTEPE born, in 1970 in Istanbul.
1989–1993, BA degree in Mathematics from the
Faculty of Science, Anadolu University in Eskişehir
with a dissertation entitled “Writing of Computer
Programme of the Fractal Dimension of Brain Alpha
Waves through the Programming Language C”.
1991–1993, associate degree in Pedagogies at
Anadolu University. 2008–2011, MA degree in Art
and Design Faculty, Yıldız Technical University,
Istanbul with a dissertation on “Reflections of the
Concept of Mathematical Symmetry as a Method in
the Field of Visual and Plastic Arts”. 2010–2011,
worked in the Art Faculty at the University Kassel
in Germany. Since 1993 she has pursued her
postgraduate studies on the relationship between
science and art in various universities including METU, Anadolu University, Hacettepe University, Mimar Sinan
University, as well as working in various universities as a visiting professor. She is currently a visiting professor in the
Faculty of Architecture and Design at Anadolu University. She was named ‘The most Successful Turkish Woman of
the Year 2004’, by the Turkish Women’s League of America in New York, USA; this accolade is just one of the many
honor she has received during her career to date.

Kızıltepe’s studies are in various fields of art, mostly sculpture and multimedia, along with her theoretical studies on
symmetry and related concepts. She has had many national and international exhibitions in which she has showcased
her ceramic/metal sculptures and digital prints; presented varied video studies; performed some of her work and
created compositions blending all the above. Alongside her creative work, Kiziltepe has organised various workshops
introducing basic geometry subjects to children of varying age-groups; seminars and conferences also form part of
her educational mission. In 2006, she gave two seminars and two workshops on “Art in Mathematics” for children at
the TUBITAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) festival in Ankara. In 2009, she attended
the 11th Contemporary Sculptor Association, a group exhibition in Ankara. In 2008, she opened her first solo exhibition
entitled “Pre–ColliSculp” at Ars GEometrica Conference and Festival in Hungary. Since 2006, she has also attended
many “International Mobil MADI Exhibitions” organised by the Mobil MADI group. See images below.

Selected publications:
“A Brief Essay on Jeol- Peter Witkin from Symmetry Perspective”, 15th Generative Art Conference Proceeding GA2012,
Italy, 2012. (http://www.generativeart.com/)
“A Brief Review of Frank O. Gehry and the Nationale-Nederlanden Building”, Bridges Coimbra Conference Proceeding
2011 (ISBN: 97809846064203, ISSN: 1099–6702), USA, 2011, pp. 551–554.
“Analyzing the Plane Symmetry of Ottoman Tiles as an Architectural Element between the 15th & 16th Century”,
Symmetry: Culture and Science (ISSN 0865- 4824), vol. 21, No.4, Hungary/ Budapest, 2010, pp. 413–432.
“Review of a Cinema Film from the Perspective of Symmetry: ‘The Pillow Book” Bridges Pécs Conference Proceeding
2010 (ISBN: 97809846064203, ISSN: 1099- 6702), USA, 2010, pp. 439–442.

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Figures: Ceramic sculpture (previous page left), paper sculpture (previous page center) and metal sculpture (previous
page right), digital prints (top left and right), performance image (bottom left), workshop at the TUBİTAK (bottom
right).

1. Introduction
The two exercises below are designed to provide a period of concrete activity for children at age 11 and beyond.
Exercises are arranged so as to engage analytical, creative and practical thinking skills ensuring that the knowledge,
comprehension and application stage framework of mathematical education is respected. Also, these exercises will
help to connect the basic concepts of mathematics with the plastic and visual arts.

References:
Bacanlı, H.. Geli im ve Öğrenme. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. 2002.
Saban, A.. Çoklu Zekâ Teorisi ve Eğitim. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. 2002.
Alkan, H., M. Altun. Matematik Öğretimi. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. 1998.

2. From 2D to 3D Paper Sculptures

Exercise 1
This exercise is designed to assist the students in understanding concepts such as dimension, surface/ plane, volume/
space. Here, by combining surface (2 dimensions, 2D) pieces (as outlined below) together participants will create a
self-standing object that is a 3 dimensional (3D) object. In other words, while going from 2D to 3D there will be an
object which has volume created from surfaces. Thus the target group will observe that 2D’s geometry can only be
seen, whereas 3D’s geometry can be both seen and touched. Also the plane of 2D and volume of 3D can be equated.
It is important to remember that the dimensions of the paper sheet being used to construct the structure are
unimportant, participants need to focus on its surface, nothing else.

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 The material used in the exercise is paper. It should be at least the weight of copy-paper. If the paper’s weight
reaches 200 gr/m2 (or more), the finished object will be more durable. It is thus advised to undertake trial runs with
lower gram papers. It is also advised to use coloured paper and the dimensions of paper used in the exercise should
be a min. 5x5 cm – max. 20x20 cm (for over 200 gr papers, 30x30 cm is optimal). For younger children, paper should
be pre-cut; older children should be supervised using scissors so as to avoid accidents. In each exercise the two pieces
of paper should be joined at the incisions and glued together, preferably with paper adhesive or another method of
the children’s choosing; at this stage of development it is very important to allow children to use a different method
of folding or connecting. Other pieces of paper can also be added to the mix and if they are, the design will become
increasingly complex. Paper shapes can consist of circles, ellipses, rectangles or polygons; children can use the shape
they want to. If necessary, at the end of the study, the finished sculptures can be tidied up with scissors…
The following images consist of 1) Samples of paper forms 2) Ready-to-use paper-cuts 3) Photographs of completed
paper sculptures.

Exercise: 1-a
Edge Lenghts: 10cm, 15cm

Scale: 1/1

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Exercise:
1-b

Edge Lenghts: 10cm, 15cm Scale: 1/1

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Exercise: 1-c

Diameters: 10cm, 20cm Scale: 1/1

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Exercise: 1-d Diameters: 10cm, 20cm
Scale: 1/1

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Example 1.1 Example 1.2

Example 1.3 Example 1.4

The paper sculptures in the examples, were made with Canson 200gr colorful tracing paper.

3. From New Surfaces to New Volumes

Exercise 2
This exercise which has the same educational goals as the previous one, aims to create new surfaces and new
volumes from basic regular 3-D solids; generating new surfaces from regular dimensions and new volumes from new
surfaces will be explored. This will aid the development of discrete thinking skills and creativity, as the children create
new surfaces and volumes their appreciation of discrete sculpture will increase. Thus, as a result of the exercise, the
participant’s perception of coloured volumes’ paper sculptures will grow.
The main material used in this exercise is paper. In the first part of the task white paper will be used, in the second,
coloured. The paper should be, at the very least, the diameter of copy paper. If the paper’s weight is 200 gr/m2 (or
more), the finished sculpture will be more durable. It is thus advised to undertake trial runs with lower gram papers.
It is also advised to use min. 8x8cm – max. 20x20 cm (for over 200 gr papers, 30x30 cm is ideal). The coloured paper
will need to cover the new surface of the white paper volumes, thus, it is recommended to use at least 60 – 110 gr
coloured paper. For younger children, paper should be pre-cut; older children should be supervised using scissors so
as to avoid accidents.
In the first part of the task polyhedra are formed from white paper; among these are various base, straight or
oblique prisms, pyramids or octahedron (eight faces), dodecahedron (twelve faces), icosahedron (twenty faces), etc.
At least two polyhedra should be used in the exercise. White paper should be cut to the chosen polyhedron and then

184
the edges folded and pasted to each other. Prepared polyhedra should be affixed at their chosen faces or, to create
the impression of one passing through the other, they should be connected at various angles. In this way a new
polyhedron will be formed by combining the existing polyhedra. The task will become more difficult if attempted with
many-faced polyhedra, and this will expose participants to more complex problems. The basic regular polyhedra below
are drawn in their open versions.
The faces of the white polyhedron, once covered with coloured paper will now become a new volume; it is now
a coloured paper sculpture.
The following images are of 1) New polyhedra made with white paper 2) Samples of paper sculptures created by
covering with coloured paper 3) Open versions of basic regular polyhedra .

White 1

White 1White 2. White 1White 3.

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 White 4
White 5
White 6

Coloured 1 Coloured 2, Coloured 3

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Exercise: 2-a

Edge Lengths: 10cm, 20cm Scale: 1/3

187
Exercise: 2-b

Diameters: 20cm, 15cm, 10cm Scale: 1/3

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Exercise: 2-c

Edge Lengths: 17cm Scale: 1/4

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Exercise: 2-d

Edge Lengths: 12cm Scale: 1/4

Diameters: 10cm

Thanks for the contributions of philologist Melike Çakan and industrial designer Ramazan Seyhan.

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Krystyna Burczyk - Wojtek Burczyk

Mathematical Adventures
in Origami

Paper Sculptures
KRYSTYNA BURCZYK and WOJTEK BURCZYK
graduated in pure mathematics from Jagiellonian
University in Krakow, Poland in 1983. Wojtek also holds
a Ph.D. from AGH University of Science and Technology
in Krakow. Krystyna is both a math teacher with more
than 20 years’ experience and an origami artist. Her
mathematical background has led her to develop an
interest in geometric models. The mathematical
structure of origami models and the folding process,
as well as the relationship between origami and
mathematics has held a particular fascination for her since
university. She is also interested in the educational
application of origami, especially teaching mathematics
through origami. Wojtek was a chief financial officer for
a large multinational manufacturing company for more
than 20 years.

Contact details:
Krystyna Burczyk: burczyk@mail.zetosa.com.pl
Wojtek Burczyk: woj.burczyk@gmail.com
Website: www.origami.edu.pl

Our interest in origami

Krystyna and Wojtek’s interest in origami began in 1995 and has now become a large part of their lives. They have
exhibited their work at several conventions and exhibitions in Poland and abroad (Hungary, Italy, UK, USA, Spain,
Sweden, Germany, Romania, Switzerland, France, Holland and Singapore). They were invited to participate in the
large international origami exhibition Masters of Origami in Salzburg (2005) and Hamburg (2007), and Folded Paper:
Infinite Possibilities, an exhibition which opened in Los Angeles in 2012 and will travel around the U.S. until 2016.
Krystyna’s works were also exhibited at the Art Exhibition of Bridges Mathematics, Music, Art, Architecture, Culture
conference in Pécs, Hungary (2010), Coimbra, Portugal (2011) and Enschede, The Netherlands (2013) and Seoul,
Korea (2014). Her work can also be found in Nick Robinson’s The Encyclopedia of Origami.
Krystyna and Wojtek have presented on the theoretical and educational aspects of origami at the Origami Science
Math and Education (OSME) conferences in 2001, 2006, 2011, and 2014, the Didaktik des Papierfalten conferences
from 2006 to 2013 and the Bridges conference in 2011.

1. Origami and mathematics

Origami is about folding along straight lines. Such lines lead us directly into the world of geometry. A simple sheet
of paper can become a powerful math tool and, even better, the math problems generated by origami are real-life
problems, as opposed to most of the problems students face in the conventional classroom.
The following activities are based on simple folding and do not require any previous experience in origami or special
skills. Diagrams are based on the widely used notation, should any problems arise, consult the short explanation of
the symbols at the end of the first activity.
Both activities are original ideas developed by Krystyna, each starts with a detailed description of the folding
process leading to a model. This is followed by a series of questions exploring mathematical problems that naturally
emerge from the folding process; the solutions open up new avenues for exploring different variations and, ultimately,
lead towards art.

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 2 Divide a square into 9 pieces
Start with a square piece of paper. Ordinary copy paper is fine, but paper with sides of different colors gives better results.
Mark the midpoints of all sides of the square. Then connect the midpoints and vertices of the square with four lines
so the square is divided into 9 parts (Sundara Row1 1905).

Construction2

Questions for the curious

• What polygons result from the division of the square?3

• What part of a large square (sheet) is the quadrilateral in the center?
• What is the distance from a vertex of the center quadrilateral to the vertices of the large square?
• Is the resulting pattern the only solution that divides a square into 9 parts according to the conditions specified
in the description of the construction?

1
Row Sundara T., 1966, Geometric Exercises in Paper Folding, Dover Publications, Nowy Jork (reprint of
1905 edition)
2
Observe how the vertices of the square move and analyze their new positions. It is a valuable experience
during assembly
3
You can answer the question concerning the nature of the polygon in the middle of the square, after careful
observation of the types of polygons constructed, their symmetrical arrangement relative to each other
and their interior angles. These properties are easier to observe when you arrange two folded sheets side
by side.

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 3 A Star in a Square
First fold lines on a square sheet of paper as shown below (step 1-10). Observe rotation signs and turn-paper-over
signs (for explanation of the signs see the end of this chapter). Then form a star4 (different lines show different folding
directions).

Dashed line denotes valley fold

Dashed and dotted line denotes mountain fold
See also section Symbols below

If you use paper with two different colors, the

star is a different color to the square around it.

4
194 Model designed by Krystyna Burczyk.
Questions for curious

• What part of the square is the star (what is the area of the star compared to
the square tile)?

• Tuck the points of the star into the pockets behind them. What part of the
tile is the small square inside (the square consists of four quadrilaterals)?

• It is possible to rearrange the flaps of the star in several ways: flap them, flap behind other flap or tuck into a
pocket. What patterns on a tile can you create (without making make any additional fold lines)?

• Make tiles with the following patterns (without making additional fold lines)

11
• Make tiles with the following patterns (without making additional fold lines)

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 4 Dragon Egg
Dragon Egg is a simple model designed by Krystyna Burczyk in 2009.
It is very efficient – a reasonable size of paper results in quite a large
final form.
You need 12 square pieces of paper, standard 80 g/m2 color copy
paper is fine. The best size of paper is 10 to 15 cm.

A module
Questions for curious

1. 2. 3.

Divide the square into 9 squares Fold 4 small diagonals. Fold lines as shown. This is the
(divide each side of the square view from underneath.
paper paper into thirds).

4.

X12

6.
Completed module. Make 12 of them.

Joining modules

5.

Slide a flap of the first module into a pocket

(inside a flap) of the second module. Slide in as far Fold a zigzag with radial lines.
as possible.

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7. 8.

Arrangement of zigzags in a module.

Gray area marks zigzag part of a

module.

9.

Two alternate
arrangements of
three modules.

Assemble modules according to the

cuboctahedron structure (modules
correspond to vertices). There are
four triangles around each square and
three squares around each triangle.

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 • Is division into thirds (step 1) essential for this construction? If not, what conditions guarantee that the folding
sequence works?
• Is the paper’s square shape essential for this construction? If not, what shape can you use and what conditions
on folding guarantee that the folding sequence works?
• Is “slide in as far as possible” in step 5 essential for this construction? If not, what variation can you make?
• Is cuboctahedron the only structure that works for the assembly process? (Hint: examine Platonic and
Archimedean solids!)

5 Symbols

Fold and unfold Valley fold Mountain fold

Turn paper over Rotate Enlarged view

Repeat here

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