16‐08‐2021

Semiconductor Devices
EC21205

Vivek Dixit
Electronics and Electrical communication Engineering
Indian Institute of technology Kharagpur

Semiconductor Devices
Cray‐2     Vs.     ipad 2
2427 kg  0.6 kg https://www.phoronix.com/sc
195K Watt         25 W an.php?page=news_item&px
27 unit sold       millions =MTE4NjU
4 GFLOPS
Cost‐ 15 million ‐ 500$

• Communications
• business operation
• manufacturing
• Agriculture

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Semiconductor Devices: Enabling Technology

Top
Source Gate Drain
INSULATOR

Channel VG VD
Bottom Gate
I
Carbon Nanotubes
Strained Si, SiGe
Bio-inspired computing
Multiple Gates for
superior field control

Organic Molecules Spintronics

Silicon Nanowires

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Transistor to Transistor

Cause

Implication

Bell Labs, 1947

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Learning Outcome

Theory‐ To developing a sound physical and intuitive understanding of 
working of semiconductor devices and be able to explain physical 
processes in these devices.

Practically ‐ Relate the device performance to materials and design 
criteria. Ability to make small key calculations.

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Outline

1) Course information 
2) How current flows ?
3) Atoms to crystals
4) Classification of crystals

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Course information
Reference Books:
Solid State Electronics Devices (Streetman & Banerjee)
Physics of Semiconductor Devices (S M Sze)
Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals (Pierret) 
Semiconductor Device Fundamentals (Pierret)

Coordinator: Vivek dixit (vdixit@ece.iitkgp.ac.in)

Phone: 03222 283532

• Grading info: Continuous assessment and exam

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Course information
Topics Course content
Semiconductor

Topic‐1 Review of Crystals , Quantum Mechanics and Schrodinger Equation 
Topic‐2 Energy Bands, Density of States, Fermi‐Dirac Statistics
Topic‐3 Doping, Equilibrium Statistics, Carrier Conc, Recombination‐
Generation, Bulk and Surface
Topic‐4 Carrier Transport, Semiconductor Equations,  PN and MS Diode 
Electrostatics, I‐V Characteristics, PN Junctions ‐ non‐ideal / AC Resp. / 
Devices

Trans
Topic‐5 Bipolar Transistors, Heterojunctions and HBTs
Topic‐6 MOS Electrostatics, MOSFETS: Ideal and non‐ideal

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How Current flows ?

I • I = q n v A
e h
• Current depends on charge carriers, their 
concentration and velocity (crystal, 
composition, doping, temperature) and 
V physical dimensions etc. 

• n = carrier density: Quantum Mechanics + Equilibrium Statistical Mechanics
⇒ Described by effective masses and occupation probability
• v = velocity: Transport with scattering, non‐equilibrium Statistical Mechanics
⇒ Described by drift‐diffusion equation and generation/recombination

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How Current flows ?

I
• I = q n v A
e h
• How to compute Carrier‐Density and 
V Velocity ?
• Crystals = Atoms + periodic arrangement ‐ Materials, tabulated for “known” 
bulk materials
• At nm‐scale properties change with geometry ⇒ Quantum Mechanics + 
Equilibrium Statistical Mechanics
• Concepts of effective masses and occupation factors
• Transport with scattering, non‐equilibrium Statistical Mechanics ‐ Drift‐
diffusion equation with recombination‐generation
• Understanding transport in concrete devices ‐
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Diodes, BJT/HBT, MOS 10

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Atoms and semiconductors

structure of an atom 

• Elemental semiconductor 
• IV: Si, Ge
• Compound semiconductor 
• IV‐IV: Si‐Ge, Si‐C
• III‐V: InP, GaAs, (InxGa 1‐x)(AsyP 1‐y)
• II‐VI: CdTe

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Hydrogen and Silicon Atom

• Discrete energy
levels

4 Valence 
electrons
?? states

10 Core 
electrons

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Atoms to Solids and Crystals

structure of an atom 
Diamond crystal
Discrete energy levels Band structure

• Crystals = Lattices + Basis
• Band structure  conductors, insulators and semiconductors
• Electrons and holes as charged carriers in a semiconductor

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Classification of Solids

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Bravais Lattice

• Group IV elements: Si, Ge, C

• Compound Semiconductors :
III-V (GaAs, InP, AlAs)
II-VI (ZnSe, CdS)

• Tertiary (InGaAs,AlGaAs) Each atom has the

same environment
• Quaternary (InGaAsP)

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Bravais Lattice

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Wigner-Seitz cell
•Choose a reference atom• Connect to all
its neighbors by straight lines or planed
(3D) at the midpoints of connecting lines
•Smallest area/volume enclosed is the
Wigner-Seitz primitive cell

•Unit cells are not unique

•Unit cells can be Primitive or Non-
primitive

Wigner-Seitz cell is ONE of the definition of a Unit Cell that

always works
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Classification of Crystals
Crystal system Coordinate description
Triclinic a≠b≠c, α≠β≠γ≠90°

Monoclinic a≠b≠c, α=γ= 90°, β≠90°

Orthorhombic a≠b≠c, α=β=γ=90°

Tetragonal a=b≠c, α=β=γ=90°

Trigonal a=b=c, α=β=γ≠90°

Hexagonal a=b≠c, α=β=90°, γ=120°

https://nanohub.org/resources/crystalviewer
Cubic a=b=c, α=β=γ=90°

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Crystal  Coordinate  Crystal  Coordinate description

system description system
Triclinic Monoclinic
a≠b≠c,  a≠b≠c, α=γ= 
α≠β≠γ≠90° 90°, β≠90°

Tetragonal
Trigonal a=b≠c, 
a=b=c,  α=β=γ=90°
α=β=γ≠90°

Cubic
Hexagonal a=b=c, 
a=b≠c,  α=β=γ=90°
α=β=90°, 
γ=120°
Orthorhombic

a≠b≠c, α=β=γ=90°

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Describing the unit cells

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Simple Cubic Structure

Coordination Surfaces are critical

Number (# of in semiconductors:
nearest nbs. = ?)
Vertical stacking of
# of atoms/cell materials
=?  Misalignment
 dangling bonds
Packing fraction = ?  loose electrons
=> Different surface
chemistry

Body Centered Cubic (BCC)

Mo, Ta, W

CN = ?

# atoms/lattice = ?

Packing fraction?

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Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Al,Ag, Au, Pt, Pd, Ni, Cu

CN = ?

#atoms/cell = ?

Packing fraction = ?

ECE 663‐1, Fall ‘08

Diamond Lattice

C, Si, Ge

a=5.43Å for Si

CN = ?

Packing fraction = ?

Two FCC offset

by a/4 in each
direction or

FCC lattice with

2 atoms/site

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Zincblende Structure

III-V semiconductors

GaAs, InP,
InGaAs,
InGaAsP,……..

For GaAs:

Each Ga surrounded
By 4 As, Each As
Surrounded by 4 Ga

Only other type common in ICs

Hexagonal Lattice

Al2O3, Ti, other metals

Hexagonal

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Silicon Crystal:
Diamond lattice

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Diamond Lattice

Two interpenetrating fcc lattices offset by ¼ of the body diagonal

CN = ?

Packing fraction = ?
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Silicon (Diamond Lattice)

Lattice constant: a = 5.4307 Å
Nearest neighbour spacing = sqrt(3) a/4 =
2.35 Å

8 atoms per unit cell.

Atom density, Natoms = 8/a3 = 4.99X1022 cm-3

Atomic mass of Si: 28.0855 amu

1 amu = 1.6605 x 10−27 kg

Density, ρ=8*mass/a3 = 2.3296 gm cm-3

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Quantifying lattices:
Miller Indices for Planes

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Lattice Vectors

• Directions expressed as 
combinations of basis vectors a,b,c

• Body diagonal=[111]
[ ] denotes specific direction

• Equivalent directions use < >
[100],[010],[001]=<100>
These three directions are
Crystallographically equivalent

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Planes in a Crystal

Crystal Planes denoted by Miller Indices h,k,l

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Miller indices of a plane

1. Determine where plane (or // plane)

intersects axes: c b
a intersect is 2 units
b intersect is 2 units
c intersect is infinity (is // to c axis) a

2. Take reciprocals of intersects in order

(1/2, 1/2, 1 / infinity) = (1/2, 1/2, 0)

3. Multiply by smallest number to make all integers

2 * (1/2, 1/2, 0) = " (1, 1, 0) plane"

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Some prominent planes

Equivalent planes denoted by {}

{100}=(100), (010), (001)

For Cubic structures:

[h,k,l]  (h,k,l)
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Direction [hkl] is normal to plane (hkl)

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Angle and spacing between planes

• For cubic crystals, the angle, ϕ between two planes, (h1 k1 l1) and (h2

k2 l2) is given by:

• Cos ϕ = (h1h2+k1k2+l1l2)/√(h12+k12+l12)√(h22+k22+l22)

• For cubic crystals, distance, d between two parallel planes, (h k l) is 
given by:

• 1/d2 = (h2+k2+l2)/a2
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Why bother naming planes?

Fabrication motivations Exercise: KOH etches Si(100) 

surface along (111) plane. Find 
Certain planes cleave easier the angle of etch?
Wafers grown and notched on specific planes
Pattern alignment ANS: 54.7 o

Chemical/Material Motivations

Density of electrons different on planes

Reconstruction causes different environments
Defect densities, chemical bonding depend on orientation

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Miller Indices notation summary

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