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An Examination of Fetal
Learning Before and After
Birth
a
Peter G. Hepper
a
The Queen's University of Belfast , Belfast
Published online: 13 Nov 2012.

To cite this article: Peter G. Hepper (1991) An Examination of Fetal Learning

Before and After Birth, The Irish Journal of Psychology, 12:2, 95-107, DOI:
10.1080/03033910.1991.10557830

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03033910.1991.10557830

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 The Irish Journal of Psychology, 1991, 12, 2, 95-107
.........................................................................................................

An Examination of Fetal Learning

Before and After Birth

Peter G. Hepper

The Queen's University of Belfast

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A series of experiments is reported which examined the effects of prenatal

learning in newborn infants and fetuses, in particular to see if the same
measures can be used to assess learning before and after birth. Experiment 1
indicated that newboms who had been exposed to the theme tune of a popular
TV programme during pregnancy exhibited changes in heartrate, number of
I movements and behavioural state 2-4 days after birth. These effects could be
attributed to prenatal exposure alone and not to postnatal exposure or a
genetic predisposition, and were specific to the tune learned. Evidence of
learning had disappeared by 21 days of age. Experiment 2, using similar
methodology, found fetuses exhibited changes in their movements when
played a tune heard previously during pregnancy. As with Experiment 1 this
was not the result of postnatal or genetic factors and was specific to the tune
learned. Interestingly, fetuses increased their movements on hearing the tune
whilst newboms decreased their movements. These results demonstrate that it
is possible to assess fetal learning before and after birth, and the importance
of this for documenting the ontogenesis of learning is discussed .
.........................................................................................................

The study of fetal learning is of fundamental importance to the understanding

of behavioural ontogenesis, especially with regard to the origins of learning
(Hepper, in press). Advances and innovations in the methodological
techniques used by researchers have transformed our view of the newborn from
previously held ideas that the newborn is either born a tabula rasa, or born into
a 'blooming buzzing confusion', to one of an individual uniquely adapted to
its environment, possessing a sophisticated behavioural and perceptual
repenoire (Hepper, in press). Of particular interest in this respect is the ability
to learn, and a number of studies have demonstrated habituation (Lipsitt,
1990), classical conditioning (Lipsitt, 1990) and imitation (Meltzoff, 1990)
in the newborn infant. Furthermore the ability to maintain infants born
prematurely has enabled the study of learning in these individuals (Gekoski,

Address for correspondence: Or Peter G. Hepper, School of Psychology The Queen's

University of Belfast. Belfast, BT7 INN, Northern Ireland. '
 96 Hepper
.........................................................................................................
Fagan & Pearlman, 1984). The fact that learning abilities are present at birth,
or soon after, suggests that they have their ontogenesis in the period
immediately preceding birth (i.e., the fetal period) rather than that they arise de
novo at birth. Examination of the origins of these behaviours must, therefore,
commence prenatally.
The study of fetal learning is also of clinical significance. The inability to
learn, or evidence of abnormalities in learning performance prior to birth, may
be indicative of the presence of a handicapping condition or a congenital
abnormality (Hepper, 1990). Indeed the study of habituation in
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Down-syndrome fetuses has revealed that their performance on habituation

tasks is' indicative of the presence and severity of their handicap (Heppcr &
Shahidullah, in press).
For the past 60 years there has been scientific interest in the ability of the
fetus to learn, although research in this area has been sporadic and it is only
recently that there has been sustained interest in fetal learning (Hepper, 1989).
Studies of fetal learning may be divided into two types depending on when
evidence of learning has been sought. Studies of habituation (e.g., Hepper &
Shahidullah, in prcss; Leadcr, Martin, Baille & Vermeulcn, 1982) have
examined learning before birth, studying the response of the fetus. Other
studies, for example, those documenting recognition of maternal voice (e.g.,
Fifer & Moon, 1989), have examined the response of individuals after birth to
stimuli experienced before birth. However, despite this evident increased
interest, our knowledge of fetal learning remains limited.
Of special importance is the examination of particular learning tasks both
before and after birth. Whilst elegant techniques, for example, the sucking
paradigm used to assess recognition of mother's voice (e.g., Fifer & Moon,
1989), have been used to reveal evidence of prenatal learning afler birth, these
cannot be applied before birth, and thus the prenatal origins of this learning
cannot be traced. In order to document the origins and development of learning
there is a need for techniques which enable learning of the same task to be
assessed before and after birth. This is one aim of the present study.
The experiments described here examined the ability of the fetus to learn a
stimulus that occurs 'naturally' in its environment - in this case a theme
tune of a popular television programme. A sound stimulus was chosen
because it is known that the fetus responds to sound during pregnancy (e.g.,
Querleu, Renard, Boutteville & Crepin, 1989), perhaps from as early as 12
weeks of gestational age (Hepper, White & ShahiduIIah, 1991). These
experiments examined newborn infant and fetal learning of the sound stimulus
using similar indices to document learning both before and after birth.
This research also examined the duration for which learning is retained after
birth. Certain psychotherapeutic traditions argue that memories of birth or
from the time in the womb, can cause psychological problems in adulth~
 Fetal learning before and after birth 97
.........................................................................................................
(Ridgeway, 1981), implying that learning during the prenatal period is long
lasting. However, inadequate or absent controls, especially regarding postnatal
experience, in the situations from which this has been inferred, cast doubt on
this claim, and the persistence of fetal learning has yet to be experimentally
assessed. Similarly, the gestational age at which individuals first exhibit
learning has not been studied, so this study examined the origins of the
capacity for learning by the fetus. Appropriate controls were implemented to
ensure that learning was specific to the stimuli exposed prenatally rather than a
more generalised alteration of preferences and was the result of prenatal
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learning and not either postnatal exposure - a possibility when considering

learning of mother's voice - or a genetic predisposition - a possibility
when considering learning of maternal heartbeat (Salk, 1960).

Experiment 1. The postnatal examination of retallearning

The series of experiments reported here examined the responses of "newborn

infants to a sound stimulus experienced only prenatally.

EXPERIMENT la
Method
Subjects. Thirty healthy newborn infants, delivered at the Royal Maternity
Hospital, Belfast, were examined in this study. For inclusion in the study all
individuals had to meet the following criteria: an uncomplicated pregnancy and
delivery; an Apgar score (a measure of the physical condition of the newborn
based on heartrate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex irritability and colour;
ranging from 0: poor prognosis to 10: good prognosis) of greater than 7 at 1
min and 5 min after birth; a singleton pregnancy. All individuals in this study
were bottle-fed. The testing procedures were fully explained to the mothers,
who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. The newborns were divided
into two groups: the Learning group and the Control group. The Learning
group were newborns whose mothers regularly watched Neighbours (an
Australian soap opera lasting 20-25 minutes, broadcast on BBC 1 TV, two
times a day), at least once per day and often twice, for the duration of their
pregnancy. It was estimated that this group would have heard the theme tune a
minimum of 360 times during their pregnancy. The Control group comprised
newboms whose mothers did not watch Neighbours during their pregnancy.
Apparatus. The Neighbours theme tune was used as a stimulus; this was
rerecorded to provide 3 min of continuous music and was played to the infant
by means of a Bush BR 5902 B radio cassette recorder. Heartrate was recorded
 98 Hepper
.........................................................................................................
by means of a Corometrics Neonatal Monitor, Model 512, which provided a
paper tracing of the newborn's heartbeat used in the determination of hearttate.
Procedure. The babies were tested 2-4 days after birth, in their cots in a
quiet room off the main ward. At the time of testing no baby had heard the
Neighbours theme tune after their birth. Mothers were invited to watch the
testing if they wished. All testing took place approximately 3 hr after the
newborn's last feed. The infant's clothing was removed and three electrodes
connected to the heartrate recorder were placed on the left and right sides of the
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chest and the right leg. A test trace was produced to ensure heartbeat was
satisfactorily recorded. The infant was then left for a period of 3 min. A 30
sec observation period (the baseline) then followed, during which three scores
were obtained:
(i) Movement. The number of movements exhibited by the infant was
recorded. This score was produced by summing the number of
movements exhibited by the legs, arms and head. Only gross movements
were recorded, fine tremors were not counted.
(ii) Behavioural state. The behavioural state of the newborn was assessed
using a method based on the original observations of Wolff (1966). Five
behavioural states were recognised in this study: (1) Sleep; the newborn
was asleep. This state includes the three sleep states described by Wolff
(1966) - regular sleep, irregular sleep and periodic sleep. At the start of
testing no individual was in this state. (2) Drowsiness; in this state the
infant's eyes open and close every now and then and breathing is irregular
and fast. (3) Alert; the infant is awake and breathing is regular. Very
little movement is observed, the infant's eyes are open and bright, and the
infant actively pays attention to its environment. (4) Active; the infant is
awake, shows frequent bursts of motor activity and breathing is irregular.
Occasional grunts and whimpers are emitted by infant. (5) Crying; the
infant is awake and crying.
The individual was observed for the 30 sec period and the state observed
given a number from 1 (sleep) to 5 (crying). In cases where more than
one state was observed the state in which the newborn spent the greatest
time was recorded.
(iii) Heartrate. The number of heartbeats recorded during the 30 sec period was
counted off the paper trace. This was then multiplied by 2 to produce a
score of heartrate in beats per minute.
After this baseline period the Neighbours theme tune was played for 3 min.
The recorder was situated approximately 3 ftdirectly behind the infant's head at
the same height off the ground as the infant's cot. For the final 30 sec of this
period (the experimental period) the number of movements exhibited, the
behavioural state of the infant and its heartrate were determined according to
the procedures described above.
 Fetal learning before and after birth 99
.........................................................................................................
Results
Heartrate. An independent I-test (Robson. 1973) indicated there was no
significant difference between the Learning and Control groups in their
heartrate during the initial observation period (1=0.657; df=28). The means and
standard errors of all scores reported in this and following results sections can
be found in Table 1. Paired I-tests (Robson, 1973) were used to examine the
effect of listening to the music on heartrate by comparing the newborn's
heartrate in the baseline period with that observed in the experimental period.
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The Learning group exhibited a significant decrease in heartrate after hearing

the music (1=6.80; d/=14; p<.OOOI). There was no significant change in
heartrate in the Control infants (1=0.08; df=14)
Movements. Similar analyses to those reported above were performed on
the number of movements exhibited by the subjects. There was no significant
difference between the Learning and Control group in the number of
movements elicited during the baseline period (1=0.75; dJ=28). The Learning
group exhibited a significant decrease in movements after hearing the music
(t=5.13; d/=14; p<.OOO5) but no significant change was observed in the
number of movements exhibited by the Control group (1=1.10; df=14).
Behavioural state. There was no significant difference between the behav-
ioural state of Learning and Control groups during the baseline period (1=1.06;
df=28). There was, however, a significant change in the behavioural state of
the infants in the Learning group (1=2.57; d/=14; p<.025) but not in the
Control group (1=1.62; d/=14) between the baseline and music conditions.
Newborns in the Learning group tended to adopt state 3, the alert state, on
hearing the music, this was not the case for the Control subjects who
exhibited no change in state.

EXPERIMENT 1b

One of the major problems with studies of fetal learning is that they fail to
demonstrate that the learning or altered responsiveness is specific to the
stimulus experienced in utero. Exposure to a particular stimulus prenatally
may influence behaviour in a more general fashion such that responding occurs
to all other sounds or music. In this experiment newborns were played
unfamiliar music. If the results from Experiment la were due to a generalised
change in response to music stimuli, a similar response should be observed to
the unfamiliar stimuli presented here. If the response was specific to the
Neighbours tune then no change in response should be observed.
 100 Hepper

Table 1. Group means (and standard errors) or heartrate, number or move-

ments and behavIoural state scores or retuses whose mothers did (Learning
group) or did not (Control group) watch Neighbours during pregnancy in the
basellne (no music) and experimental (music) conditions when tested
postnatally (Experiment 1) and prenatallyt (Experiment 2).

Learning group Control group

Baseline Experimental Baseline Experimental

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Variable M SE M SE M SE M SE

Experiment la: Neighbours tune 2-4 days after birth (n=15 per group)
Heartrate 138.9 (2.5) 124.8 (2.8) 136.7 (2.3) 135.1 (2.9)
Movements 5.2 (0.6) 2.9 (0.6) 4.5 (0.7) 4.1 (0.5)
State 3.7 (0.3) 2.9 (0.3) 4.1 (0.3) 3.4 (0.4)
Experiment Ib: Coronation Street tWle 2-4 days after birth (n=lO)
Heartrate 137.2 (2.65) 135.8 (2.24)
Movements 4.1 (0.69) 3.8 (0.71)
State 3.2 (0.39) 3.0 (0.49)
Experiment Ib: Neighbours tune backwards 2-4 days after birth (n=10)
Heartrate 142.2 (2.56) 140.6 (1.16)
Movements 4.0 (0.58) 3.0 (0.53)
State 3.8 (0.33) 3.7 (0.30)
Experiment le: Neighbours tune 21 days after birth (n=8)
Heartrate 119.25 (2.27) 119.75 (1.39)
Movements 5.75 (0.59) 5.00 (0.46)
State 3.38 (0.38) 3.38 (0.42)
Experiment la: Neighbours tune at 36-37 weeks gestation (n=1O per group)
Movements 7.2 (1.06) 11.4 (1.45) 7.3 (0.87) 7.7 (0.90)
Experiment 2b: Neighbours tWle backwards at 36-37 weeks gestation (n=10)
Movements 7.6 (0.75) 7.2 (0.85)
Experiment 2c: Neighbours tune at 29-30 weeks gestation (n=10)
Movements 9.0 (0.76) 8.5 (0.62)

t~i~' ~~~~;;,~~~. :::;;~. ~~~~d~d '~~~;~ii;""''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''

 Fetal learning before and after birth 101
.........................................................................................................
Method
Subjects. Twenty newborns were used in this study; all met the criteria
described in Experiment la for being included in the st~dy. All of these
newborns were born to mothers who regularly watched Neighbours during
their pregnancy. The procedure was identical to that described above except
that different music was played in the test phase of the experiment. Ten
individuals were played three minutes of a theme tune of another popular soap
opera, Coronation Street (a 30 minute British Soap, played 2 times weekly on
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ITV). None of the mothers watched this programme whilst pregnant. This
group was designated the CS group. The second group (n=lO) were played the
same three minutes of the Neighbours tune as used in Experiment la, but this
time the music was played backwards. This group was designated the Nback
group. Measures of heartrate, number ~f movements and behavioural state
were recorded in baseline and experimental periods.
Results
There were no significant differences in the heartrate (HR), number of move-
ments or behavioural state for newboms played the theme tune of Coronation
Street (HR: 1=0.82; Movements: 1=0.76; Behavioural state: t=0.51; d/=9 in
each case). Similarly playing the theme tune of Neighbours backwards
produced no significant effects on heartrate, number of movements or state
(HR: t=0.80; Movements: 1=0.18; Behavioural state: t=0.36; d/=9 in each
case). These results indicate that the learning of the theme tune of Neighbours
is specific to that tune.

EXPERIMENT le

The duration for which learning experiences persist has been a subject of
considerable debate. Exactly how long prenatal experiences last has yet to be
determined; in many experiments some postnatal exposure has often been
present and thus it is impossible to relate the results to prenatal exposure
alone. This experiment used infants 21 days old who had had no postnatal
exposure to the stimulus in question, and thus the effects of prenatal exposure
alone could be examined.
Method
Subjects. Eight individuals were tested at 21 days of age. As with the above
experiments all subjects met the criteria for taking part in the study. All
individuals were born to mothers who regularly watched Neighbours prior to
the birth of their infant. However after birth none of the mothers had watched
Neighbours and thus all the infants tested in this study had no postnatal
exposure to the Neighbours theme tune.
 102 Hepper
.........................................................................................................
Procedure. The procedure was identical to that reported in Experiment la.
Individuals were tested approximately 3 hr after their last feed and no infant
was asleep at the start of testing. Measures of behavioural state, heartrate and
number of movements were recorded in baseline and experimental periods.
Results
No significant differences were found in heartrate (1=0.31; d/=7), the num-
ber of movements exhibited by the infant (t=0.85; d/=7) or the infant's
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behavioural state (t=O.oo; d/=7) after exposure to the Neighbours tune. The
results suggest that the experiences gained though prenatal learning cease to
influence the response of infants three weeks of age.
Discussion (Experiment 1)
The results of Experiment la demonstrate exposure to a stimulus during
gestation significantly alters responsiveness 2-4 days after birth to that
stimulus, that is, the fetus has learned about the stimulus. Newborns only
heard the tune before birth and thus the results reflect the effects of prenatal
exposure alone. Furthermore, as no comparable change in responding was
observed in the Control group, the results cannot be explained by a genetic
predisposition; if this was the case both groups should have exhibited similar
changes in responding. The results of Experiment la could have been due to a
more generalised alteration of preferences arising from exposure to the
Neighbours tune; however, the results of Experiment Ib do not support this.
No evidence of altered responsiveness was observed either to another popular
tune, or to the Neighbours tune played backwards. Thus prenatal expOSure
results in a specific alteration of preference to the stimulus experienced in
utero. Finally, Experimentlc examined the duration of this learning. Infants
at 21 days of age, having had no postnatal experience of the tune, showed no
change in responding. This suggests that the learning observed in Experiment
la had disappeared by 3 weeks after birth, indicating some postnatal experience
may be necessary 10 maintain this preference (cf. Pedersen & Blass, 1982).

Experiment 2. The prenatal examination of fetal learning

Comparison of learning perfonnance before and after birth requires the use of
similar measures which can be used to document altered responsiveness and
can be applied both before and after birth. All measures used in Experiment 1
heartrate, movement and behavioural state can be documented in the fetus. Fo~
the purposes of this experiment it was decided to record the number Of
movements, because this is the easiest of the three measures to observe in the
fetus.
 Fetal learning before and after birth 103
.........................................................................................................
EXPERIMENT 2a

The following study examined the response of the fetus, as indicated by

number of movements, to the Neighbours theme tune, enabling the direct
comparison of learning performance before and after birth" and thus allowing
the continuous assessment of learning across the birth period.
Method
SUbjects. Twenty fetuses between 36-37 weeks of gestational age were
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examined. All were drawn from singleton, uncomplicated pregnancies and

were appropriately grown for gestational age. All mothers were fully informed
about the study and all willingly agreed to participate. All mothers were
non-smokers and non-drinkers. Ten fetuses had mothers who regularly
watched Neighbours (the Learning group) and ten had mothers who did not
watch the programme (the Control group). All subsequently had
uncomplicated births and had Apgar scores of greater than 7 at 1 and 5 minutes
after birth.
Apparatus. Observations were performed using an ATL Ultrarnark 5 Ulua-
sound scanner with 3.5 MHz head. Ultrasound observations were recorded on
videotape for later analysis. The music was played to the mother using the
Bush BR 5902 B radio cassette player connected to a pair of headphones. The
headphones were placed on the mother's abdomen so that both speakers pressed
against the skin. The sound level was 85 db when recorded I cm from the
speaker face.
Procedure. Each fetus was examined approximately 3 hr after the mother's
breakfasL The mother lay in a semi-recumbent position for 5 min before the
start of the observation period and was scanned to determine the best position
for visualising the fetus. After this period a 1 min observation took place (the
baseline period). The arms and legs of the fetus were visualised and the
number of arm and leg movements was recorded and summed to produce a
movement score. Subsequently, the Neighbours theme tune was played to the
fetus for 3 min and during the last 1 min of this the number of movements
was again determined.
Results
There" was no significant difference between the mean number of movements
exhibited by the two groups in the baseline observation period (1=0.07; d/=18).
After playing the theme tune the Learning group exhibited a significant
increase in the number of movements observed (1=5.34; d/=9; p<.OOl), but no
significant change was observed in the number of movements exhibited by the
Control group (1=0.55; df=9).
 104 Hepper
.........................................................................................................
EXPERIMENT2b

As with studies assessing fetal learning after birth, it is important to

demonstrate that the results are specific to the stimulus experienced before
birth and not the result of a general alteration in preference. This experiment
examined the response of fetuses to the theme tune of Neighbours played
backwards.
Method
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Subjects, apparatus & procedure. Ten fetuses, 36-37 weeks of gestat-

ional age, of mothers who listened to Neighbours during pregnancy were used
in this experiment. The apparatus and procedure were identical to those in
Experiment 2a, except that instead of hearing the normal version of the
Neighbours theme tune, the fetuses heard this tune played backwards. The
number of movements exhibited by each fetus in baseline and experimental
periods was recorded.
Results
There was no significant difference in the number of movements before and
after hearing the backwards version of the theme tune (/=0.36; d/=9). This
supports the results from Experiment Ib and demonstrates that the learning is
specific to the tune experienced in utero.

EXPERIMENT 2c

The origins of fetal learning have not been studied. The previous experiment
showed that such learning is evident in fetuses of 36-37 weeks of gestational
age, but it is not known whether it is displayed by younger fetuses. This
experiment attempted to determine if evidence of learning could be found
earlier in pregnancy, at 29-30 weeks of age.
Subjects, apparatus & procedure. Ten fetuses of 29-30 weeks of gest-
ational age were used in this experiment All had mothers who had regularly
watched Neighbours. The procedure followed was identical to that reponed in
Experiment 2a.
Results
The results indicated there was no significant difference in the number of
movements exhibited by the fetus before and after hearing the theme tune of
Neighbours (/=0.60; d/=9). This would suggest that at 29-30 weeks of
gestational age the fetus has not yet 'learned' the Neighbours theme tune.
 Fetal learning before and after birth 105
.........................................................................................................
Discussion (Experiment 2)
The results of Experiment 2a indicate that measures used to assess learning
after birth can be used to document learning before birth. Altered
responsiveness was observed in fetuses at 36-37 weeks of gestational age who
had been exposed to the Neighbours tune throughout pregnancy, but not in
fetuses unfamiliar with the tune. The results can be attributed to experiential
factors rather than genetic ones as the control group exhibited no evidence of
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learning. Postnatal exposure can be discounted as testing was performed

before birth. Experiment 2b demonstrated the effects were specific to the
stimulus experienced and were not the result of more generalised alterations in
preference. Finally, Experiment 2c indicated that even when the fetus had
experienced the tunc for the preceding 30 weeks no evidence of learning was
present at 30 weeks of age.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

These studies demonstrate that the fetus is capable of learning, and the controls
implemented in these experiments ensure that this learning is the result of
prenatal experience and not postnatal exposure or genetic predispositions.
They demonstrate that the fetus will respond to and learn stimuli which occur
naturally in its environment. This supports ideas that fetal learning may play
an important role in future behavioural and neural development (Greenough,
Black & Wallace, 1987; Hepper, in press) rather than being an experimental
artifact. .
Of particular importance is the demonstration that learning can be assessed
before and after birth using similar measures, thus enabling the examination of
learning abilities from their origins throughout life. Interestingly the fetus
and newborn exhibited opposite reactions when the Neighbours theme tune
was played. Before birth the fetus increased its movement when the tune was
played, whereas after birth the newborn decreased its movements in response to
the playing of the tune. The reasons for this difference are unknown. It may
reflect a change in the individual's response to familiar stimuli; a similar
changeover in response to familiarity has been observed in rats (Hepper,
1986). In this study the fetus exhibited an activation of behaviour upon
presentation of the familiar stimulus, but after birth the familiar stimulus
elicited an attention-seeking response, which is accompanied by behavioural
inactivation. This is supported by the observation that on hearing the tune
newborns in the Learning group tended to alter state to adopt the alert state
(state 3), one that is optimal for learning (Wolff, 1966).
The mechanism underlying this learning has yet to be determined. It may
be a consequence of simple exposure to the stimulus. However, many
 106 Hepper
.........................................................................................................
mothers in the study reported relaxing whilst watching the programme during
pregnancy. Such relaxation may be reinforcing for the fetus as it results in
relaxation of the abdominal muscles of the mother. which increases the
amount of space available to the fetus to move. This is consistent with the
observation of that the fetuses increased their movements before birth upon
hearing the Neighbours tune. This is suggestive of a more associative
mechanism of learning.
In summary. it is wortlt remembering the words of Preyer over 100 years
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ago: "Above all, we must be clear on this point, that the fundamental
activities of mind. which are manifested only after birth. do not originate after
birth" (Preyer. 1881. p. xii). and note that technology and techniques are now
available to study the ontogenesis of learning abilities and to follow these
from their origins before birth to adulthood. Perhaps more importantly, it is
essential that we realise that these abilities have their origins before birth and a
true understanding of them can only be complete when their development
before birth is understood.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Fiona Hepper. Sara Shahidullah and Professor Ken Brown for their
comments on this paper. The support of NATO, The Northern Ireland Mother &
Baby Appeal. The Wellcome Trusl, The British Council and The Fertility Research
Trust is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks to the School of Psychology and the
Department of Obstetrics and Gyneacology, Queen's University of Belfast, for
providing facilities.

REFERENCES

Fifer, W. P. & Moon, C. (1989). Psychobiology of newborn auditory preferences.

Seminars in Perinatology, 13, 430-433.
Gekoski, M. J., Fagan. J. W. & Pearlman, M. A. (1984). Early learning and
memory in the preterm infant. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 267-276
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