Signaling Schemes with Memory

Dr. Ashraf Tahat, Ph.D.
April 7, 2021
Communications Engineering Dept.
Week 6
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Digital
Ph
Communications
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‫ أشرف أكرم طاهات‬.‫د‬
Dr. Ashraf A. Tahat, Ph.D.
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tahat@psut.edu.jo
April 12, 2021 1

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3.3 Signaling Schemes with Memory

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April 12, 2021 2
Princess Sumaya University for

Technology -- Digital Communications
(MSc) 1
Dr. Ashraf Tahat, Ph.D. April 7, 2021
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Ph
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April 12, 2021
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Signaling Schemes with Memory

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 Why introducing “memory" into signals?

 The signal dependence is introduced for the purpose of
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shaping the spectrum of transmitted signal so that it

matches the spectral characteristics of the channel.
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April 12, 2021 4

(MSc) 2
Baseband Modulations with/without

Memory
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 NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) =Binary PAM or binary PSK:
memoryless.
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 NRZI (Non-Return-to-Zero, Inverted) =Differential
encoding : with memory
April 12, 2021

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Baseband Modulations with/without Memory

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 The first signal, called NRZ is the simplest.

 The binary information digit 1 is represented by a rectangular pulse of polarity A,
 The binary digit 0 is represented by a rectangular pulse of polarity−A.
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 The NRZI (non-return-to-zero, inverted) signal is different from the

NRZ signal in that:
 Transitions from one amplitude level to another occur only when a 1 is
transmitted.
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 The amplitude level remains unchanged when a 0 is transmitted.

 This type of signal encoding is called differential encoding.
 The encoding operation is described mathematically by the relation
bk = ak ⊕ bk−1
 where {ak} is the binary information sequence into the encoder (Input
D
bit),
 And {bk} is the output sequence of the encoder (Channel bit),
 And ⊕ denotes addition modulo 2.
April 12, 2021 6

(MSc) 3
Advantage of Differential Encoding

 Why adding differential encoding before BPSK
(DBPSK) ?
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 For PSK modulations, digital information is carried by
absolute phase.
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 Synchronization is often achieved by either adding a
small pilot signal or using some self-synchronization
scheme.
 The demodulator needs to detect the phase, which
may have a phase ambiguity due to noise and other
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constraints.
April 12, 2021

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 The phases or signs of the received waveforms are not

important for detection.
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 What is important is the change in the sign of successive

pulses.
 The sign change can be detected even if the
demodulating carrier has a phase ambiguity.
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April 12, 2021 8

(MSc) 4
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Ph
t,
No need to generate a local carrier at the receiver side
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
(Noncoherent Demodulation).
 Use the received signal itself as a carrier.
April 12, 2021 9
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Continuous-Phase FSK (CPFSK)

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Continuous-Phase FSK (CPFSK)
This is considered as a modulated signal with memory.

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
 Alternative implementation of multidimensional FSK.
 A single carrier whose frequency is changed continuously.
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Motivation:
 Disadvantages of FSK due to Potential obstacles of
multidimensional FSK with multi-oscillators for each desired
frequency.
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 Abrupt switching from one oscillator to another will result in relatively

large spectral side-lobes outside of the main spectral band of the
signal.
April 12, 2021 10

(MSc) 5
FSK (revisited)
Frequency –Shift Keying
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∆ 1≤𝑚≤ 𝑀
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 ;
0≤𝑡≤𝑇
Ph
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e j 2fct j
April 12, 2021

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j j
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is the peak frequency deviation.

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 Example of ideal (Two-Frequency) FSK signals

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April 12, 2021 12

(MSc) 6
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Example of ideal (2-OSC) FSK signals
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
April 12, 2021 13

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Continuous Phase FSK (CPFSK)

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CPFSK
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 In  {±1;±3;±5; …} is the PAM information sequence.

 g(t) is the “phase shaping function".
It is now chosen as a rectangular pulse of height 1/(2T) and
D

duration [0;T) (hence, the area is 1/2.)
 T is the symbol duration.
 fd is the peak frequency deviation.
April 12, 2021 14

(MSc) 7
CPFSK
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April 12, 2021
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CPFSK
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(MSc) 8
Continuous Phase Modulation (CPM)

(Generalization of CPFSK)

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Ph
 Where
t,
April 12, 2021
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Some Commonly Used CPM Pulse

Shapes
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 LREC (Rectangular): LREC with L = 1 is CPFSK:

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LRC (Raised cosine)

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
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April 12, 2021 18

(MSc) 9
Pulse Shapes for CPM
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Ph
 (a) LREC - Full-Response (L=1)  (c) LREC - Partial-Response (L=2)
t,

April 12, 2021

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(b) LRC - Full-Response (L=1)  (d) LRC - Partial-response (L=2)
19
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Some Commonly Used CPM Pulse Shapes

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 GMSK (Gaussian minimum shift keying)

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April 12, 2021 20

(MSc) 10
Pulse Shapes for CPM
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 (e) GMSK
April 12, 2021

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Representations of Continuous-Phase
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 Phase trajectory or phase tree

 Phase trellis
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April 12, 2021 22

(MSc) 11
Phase Trajectory or Phase Tree
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 A phase diagram is a sketch of the set of phase
trajectories φ(t; I) generated by all possible
Ph
values of the information sequence.
 These phase diagrams are called phase trees.
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April 12, 2021
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
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April 12, 2021 24

(MSc) 12
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 We observe that the phase trees for CPFSK are
piecewise linear as a consequence of the fact that the
Ph
pulse g(t) is rectangular.
 Smoother phase trajectories and phase trees are
obtained by using pulses that do not contain
discontinuities.
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April 12, 2021
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 If g(t) is continuous (especially at boundaries), phase

trajectory becomes smooth.
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Example
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April 12, 2021 26

(MSc) 13
Phase Trellis
 The phase trees shown grow with time.
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 However, the phase of the carrier is unique only in the
range from φ = 0 to φ = 2π or, equivalently, from φ = −π to
φ = π.
Ph
 When the phase trajectories are plotted modulo 2π, say,
in the range (−π, π), the phase tree collapses into a
structure called a phase trellis.
 Simpler representations for the phase trajectories can be
t,
obtained by displaying only the terminal values of the
signal phase at the time instants t = nT .
April 12, 2021

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Phase Trellis
 In this case, the modulation index of the CPM signal is
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restricted to be rational.
 It is assumed that h = m/p , where m and p are relatively
prime integers.
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 Then a full-response CPM signal at the time instants t =

nT will have the terminal phase states:
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For m even
For m odd
 When the pulse shape extends over L symbol intervals

(partial-response CPM), the number of phase states may
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increase up to a maximum of St , where ; m even

; m odd
April 12, 2021 28

(MSc) 14
Phase Trellis
 Phase trellis = Phase trajectory is plotted with modulo 2
Example:
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For the binary CPFSK signal (full-response, rectangular pulse) with
h = ½ has St = 4 (terminal) phase states. The phase transitions (one
state to another ) represent phase transitions for the (terminal) states at
Ph
the time instants t = nT .
t,
April 12, 2021
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Minimum shift keying (MSK)

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April 12, 2021 30

(MSc) 15
MSK
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April 12, 2021
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MSK
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 MSK is so named because f2 − f1 = 1/(2T) = the minimum

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(frequency) shift that makes the two frequency

components orthogonal.
 In other words, the minimum frequency separation
between adjacent (passband) signals for orthogonality is
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f = 1/(2T) .
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April 12, 2021 32

(MSc) 16
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

 Consider a QPSK system with the constellation as
shown.
D
 Here, each 2 information bits are mapped into one of the
constellation points.
The first bit in each binary sequence determines the in-
Ph

phase (I ) component of the baseband signal with a
duration 2Tb, and the second bit determines the
quadrature (Q) component of it, again of duration 2Tb.
t,
A possible mapping for QPSK signal.
April 12, 2021
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Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

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 Assume we are interested in transmitting the binary

sequence 11000111.
To do this, we can split this sequence into binary
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
sequences 11, 00, 01, and 11 and transmit the
corresponding points in the constellation.
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April 12, 2021 34

(MSc) 17
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

 Note that changes can occur only at even multiples of
Tb, and there are instances at which both I and Q
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components change simultaneously, resulting in a
change of 180◦ in the phase, for instance, at t = 2Tb as
Ph
shown in the figure.
 The possible phase transitions for QPSK signals, that
can occur only at time instances of the form nTb, where n
is even, are shown in.
t,
April 12, 2021
ha Possible phase transitions in QPSK signaling.
35
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Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

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 A version of QPSK, known as offset QPSK (OQPSK), or staggered

QPSK (SQPSK), is introduced to prevent 180◦ phase changes that
cause abrupt changes in the signal, that result-in large spectral side
lobes.
sh
 In OQPSK, the in-phase and quadrature components of the

standard QPSK are misaligned by Tb.
 Misalignment of the in-phase and quadrature components prevents
both components changing at the same time and thus prevents
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phase transitions of 180◦.

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April 12, 2021 36

(MSc) 18
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)

 This reduces the abrupt jumps in the modulated signal.
The absence of 180◦ phase jump is, however, offset by
D
more frequent ±90◦ phase shifts.
 The OQPSK signal can be written as
Ph
 OQPSK lowpass equivalent of
t,
April 12, 2021
ha Phase transition diagram for OQPSK signaling.
37
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MSK As A Form of OQPSK

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 MSK may also be represented as a form of OQPSK.

 We may express the equivalent lowpass digitally
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modulated MSK signal in the form of OQPSK with
 The corresponding sum of the two quadrature signals is

a constant-amplitude, frequency-modulated signal.
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(a) In-Phase Signal Component

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(c) MSK Signal - sum of (a) and (b).
(b) Quadrature Signal Component 38

April 12, 2021

(MSc) 19
 MSK, OQPSK, and QPSK signals.
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Ph
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April 12, 2021
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3.4 Power Spectrum of Digitally

Modulated Signals
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April 12, 2021 40

(MSc) 20
Power Spectral Density of a Digitally

Modulated Signal
 Here we assume that the bandpass modulated signal is denoted by
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v(t) with a lowpass equivalent signal of the form:
Ph
 Where sl (t; In) ∈ {s1l (t), s2l (t), . . . , sMl(t)} is one of the possible M
lowpass equivalent signals determined by the information sequence
up to time n.
 The information sequence denoted by In = (. . . , In−2, In−1, In).
t,
It is assume that In is stationary process.
 It is desired to first derive the power spectral density of vl (t) .
April 12, 2021

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Modulated Signal
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 We first determine the autocorrelation function of vl(t).

sh
 Since vl(t) is a cyclostationary process; to determine its

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power spectral density, we have to average Rvl (t + τ, t)

over one period T .
 Now define:
 Then we can write:
D
April 12, 2021 42

(MSc) 21

Modulated Signal
 The power spectral density of vl(t), which is the Fourier transform of
Rvl(τ ), is therefore given by:
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Eq. *
Ph
 where Gk( f ) denotes the Fourier transform of gk(τ).
 We can also express Gk( f ) in the following form:
t,
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Eq. #
where Sl( f ; Ik ) and Sl( f ; I0 ) are Fourier transforms of sl (t; Ik) and sl (t;
I 0) , respectively.
April 12, 2021 43

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Power Spectral Density of Linearly

Modulated Signals
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 In linearly modulated signals, which include ASK, PSK,

and QAM, the lowpass equivalent of the modulated
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signal is of the form:
 where {In} is the stationary information sequence and g(t)

is the basic modulation pulse.
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 Now, we have:
 Then, from (Eq. #)
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where RI (k) represents the autocorrelation function of the information

sequence {In}, G( f ) is the Fourier transform of g(t).
April 12, 2021 44

(MSc) 22

Modulated Signals
Substituting in Eq.(*), we have:
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
Ph
Eq. **
 Where:
t,
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 is the power spectral density of the discrete-time random
process {In}.
April 12, 2021 45

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Modulated Signals
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 Note that two factors determine the shape of the power spectral
density as given in Eq. (**).
sh
1) The first is the shape of the basic pulse used for modulation: It has
an important impact on the power spectral density of the modulated
signal. Smoother pulses result in more compact power spectral
densities.
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2) Another factor is the power spectral density of the information

sequence {In} which is determined by the correlation properties of
the information sequence.
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April 12, 2021 46

(MSc) 23

Modulated Signals
 One method to control the power spectral density of the modulated
D
signal is through controlling the correlation properties of the
information sequence by passing it through an invertible linear filter
prior to modulation.
Ph
 This linear filter controls the correlation properties of the modulated
signals. This technique is called spectral shaping by precoding.
 For instance, we can employ a precoding (introduce a memory ) of
the form Jn = In + α In−1,
 By changing the value of α, we can control the power spectral
density of the resulting modulated waveform.
t,
April 12, 2021
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Modulated Signals
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 In general, a memory of length L can be introduced, and

define a precoding of the form:
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 The generated modulated waveform will be expressed

as:
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 Because of linearity of the precoding operation, the

resulting power spectral density is of the form
D
April 12, 2021 48

(MSc) 24
Example 3.4-1
 In a binary communication system In = ±1 with equal probability, and
the In’s are independent. This information stream linearly modulates
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a basic pulse
The power spectral density of the modulated signal will be of the form
Ph
To determine SI ( f ), we need to find RI(k) = E[In+k In∗] . By independence of the {In}
sequence we have
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April 12, 2021
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49
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Example 3.4-1 (cont.)

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sh
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 Choosing α = 1 would result in a power spectral density that has a

null at frequency f = 1/(2T) .
 Note that this spectral null is independent of the shape of the basic
D
pulse g(t).
April 12, 2021 50

(MSc) 25
Example 3.4-1 (cont.)
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Ph
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 Choosing α = 1 and T= 4
April 12, 2021

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Power Spectral Density of CPFSK

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 For CPFSK, a closed-form expression for the power density

spectrum when the pulse shape g(t) is rectangular and zero outside
the interval [0, T ]. In this case, q(t) is linear for 0 ≤ t ≤ T .
 The resulting power spectrum may be expressed as:
sh
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April 12, 2021 52

(MSc) 26
D
Ph
Power spectral density of binary CPFSK.
t,
April 12, 2021
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Power spectral density of quaternary

CPFSK
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April 12, 2021 54

(MSc) 27
Power Spectral Density of CPFSK

 The graphs illustrate that the spectrum of CPFSK is relatively
smooth and well confined for h < 1.
D
 As h approaches unity, the spectra become very peaked, and for
h = 1 when || = 1, we find that impulses occur at M frequencies.
Ph
 When h > 1, the spectrum becomes much broader.
 In communication systems where CPFSK is used, the modulation
index is designed to conserve bandwidth, so that h < 1.
t,
April 12, 2021
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Spectrum of MSK and OQPSK

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 The special case of binary CPFSK with

h = ½ , (or fd = 1/ (4T ) and  = 0, corresponds to MSK.
In this case, the spectrum of the signal is
sh
 In contrast, the spectrum of four-phase offset

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(quadrature) PSK (OQPSK) with a rectangular pulse g(t)

of duration T is:
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April 12, 2021 56

(MSc) 28
Spectrum of MSK and OQPSK

 Normalize the frequency variable by the bit rate or the bit
interval Tb.
D
 MSK is binary FSK, then T = Tb in
 In OQPSK, T = 2Tb so that:
Ph
 Note that the main lobe of MSK is 50 percent wider than that for
OQPSK.
 However, the side lobes in MSK fall off considerably faster.
For example, if we compare the bandwidth W that contains 99
t,

percent of the total power, we find that W = 1.2/Tb for MSK
 and W ≈ 8/Tb for OQPSK.
ha
 Consequently, MSK has a narrower spectral occupancy when
viewed in terms of fractional out-of-band power above f Tb = 1.
April 12, 2021 57

Ta
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sh
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Power spectral density of MSK and OQPSK.
April 12, 2021 58

(MSc) 29
D
Ph
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Fractional out-of-band power (normalized two-sided bandwidth = 2WT).
April 12, 2021

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April 12, 2021 60

(MSc) 30

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Dr. Ashraf Tahat, Ph.D.

April 12, 2021 1

3.3 Signaling Schemes with Memory

April 12, 2021 2

Princess Sumaya University for